This work was funded by a Spinal Cord Injury/Disease Research Program Grant from the Missouri Spinal Cord Injury/Disease Research Program (NLN and WDA).

All procedures were approved and conducted in compliance with the guidelines established by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the University of Missouri. Experiments were performed on adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, aged 11 to 15 weeks. These rats were housed in pairs and kept under a 12:12 light-dark cycle, with access to standard commercial pelleted food and HCl-treated water available at all times.
1. Animal preparation and anesthesia delivery
<ol>
	<li>Wear suitable personal protection equipment while handling rats.</li>
	<li>Administer inhalation anesthetic with 3-5% isoflurane, ensuring proper induction. Once the rat is adequately anesthetized, place it in a supine position and maintain the anesthesia with 1-3% inhaled isoflurane. Check the sufficiency of the anesthesia depth by gently applying pressure to the hindlimb footpad using forceps to ensure there is no withdrawal response. 
	NOTE: Based on the rat&#39;s size and weight, monitor the depth of anesthesia, and adjust the isoflurane concentration accordingly.</li>
	<li>Maintain the temperature of 37 &#176;C using a thermostatic warming plate to prevent variations in temperature that can impact CMAP amplitude and latency.</li>
	<li>Apply a veterinary petroleum-based ointment to the eyes to prevent dryness. Monitor the depth of anesthesia by observing the respiration rate and checking for withdrawal responses upon applying pressure to the footpad with forceps.</li>
	<li>Remove hair from the lower third of the chest and neck to be studied using clippers. Monitor the respiration of the rat during the entire experiment. 
	NOTE: Following the CMAP and MUNE recordings and discontinuation of anesthesia, do not leave the rat unattended until it has regained sufficient consciousness. Do not return the animal to the home cage until fully recovered.</li>
</ol>
2. Electrode placement and setup
<ol>
	<li>Place a pair of 28 G monopolar needle electrodes to record the CMAP, SMUP, and MUNE as depicted in Figure 1.
	<ol>
		<li>Place the active (E1) needle electrode subcutaneously over the mid clavicular line inferior to the last rib border, and the reference (E2) needle electrode subcutaneously in the angle between the xyphoid process and last sternocostal cartilage. 
		NOTE: The needle electrodes should not be inserted into the diaphragm muscle; instead, they should be positioned in the subcutaneous area.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For stimulation of the phrenic nerve at the carotid sheet, use a pair of 28 G monopolar needle electrodes as the cathode and anode for nerve stimulation and placed subcutaneously over the lateral neck between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, separated by approximately 1 cm. Ensure that the placement of the stimulating needles is at the level below the fourth cervical vertebrae (C4). 
	NOTE: Avoid inserting the stimulating electrodes too deep to avoid injury of the phrenic nerve or other structure. Figure 1 illustrates electrode placement.</li>
	<li>For the ground electrode, place a disposable surface electrode on the tail.</li>
</ol>
3. Data acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Phrenic CMAP
	<ol>
		<li>Record phrenic CMAP responses by applying monophasic cathodic square-wave pulses with a duration of 0.1 ms and intensity ranging from 60 to 100 mA to stimulate the phrenic nerve.</li>
		<li>Obtain CMAP responses while progressively increasing the stimulus intensity until the amplitude of the response ceases to show any further increase. To ensure supramaximal stimulation, raise the stimulus intensity to approximately 120% of the level used to elicit a maximal response, and record an additional response. If the CMAP size no longer increases, consider this response as the maximum CMAP. 
		NOTE: Delivering stimulation during exhalation is preferable to minimize concurrent muscle activity noise during CMAP recording.</li>
		<li>Measure and document the peak-to-peak amplitudes of the CMAP in millivolts (mV) (Figure 2). 
		NOTE: CMAP amplitude can be assessed base-to-peak and peak-to-peak. Clinical electrodiagnostic systems are often defaulted to assess base-to-peak which is calculated from the isoelectric baseline to the initial negative peak.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Average single motor unit potential (SMUP) size and MUNE calculation
	<ol>
		<li>Calculate the average SMUP size using an incremental stimulation technique.
		<ol>
			<li>To elicit incremental responses, administer submaximal stimulation with a duration of 0.1 ms at 1 Hz frequency, gradually increasing the intensity in 0.03 mA increments until a minimal all-or-none response is achieved. Acquire the initial response with a stimulus intensity ranging between 2 mA and 10 mA.</li>
			<li>If the initial response does not occur with a stimulus intensity between 2 mA and 10 mA, modify the position of the stimulating cathode, either bringing it closer or moving it farther from the phrenic nerve in the neck, to decrease or increase the necessary stimulus intensity, respectively.</li>
			<li>If the first incremental response is achieved with a stimulus intensity ranging from 2 mA to 10 mA, save the first response and acquire additional increments with progressively higher stimulus intensities, adjusting in increments of 0.03 mA, to achieve a total of 9 additional increments that fulfill the following criteria in step 3.2.2. 
			NOTE: Each SMUP is quantified by subtracting each increment from the preceding increment.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>While measuring the incremental responses, make sure that each increment meets the following criteria:
		<ol>
			<li>Make sure that the initial negative peak of the incremental responses aligns temporally with the negative peak of the maximal CMAP response. 
			NOTE: The slight movements observed due to background noise from respiratory cycles are inherent to the nature of the experiment. However, the consistent presence of SMUPs during live observation confirms their identity for that specific CMAP.</li>
			<li>As the diaphragm is a dynamic muscle involved in respiration, each breathing cycle may induce baseline movement. Thus, verify the stability and absence of fractionation in each incremental response by confirming consistency across three duplicate responses. 
			NOTE: To distinguish low-amplitude evoked potentials, especially the first SMUP, from background noise due to respiratory activity, it is important to remain vigilant and observe for 3-4 respiratory cycles. Also ensure the alignment of peaks with those of the CMAP for accuracy.</li>
			<li>Ensure that each increment is distinct and larger than the previous one. Therefore, visually distinguish incremental responses in real time, observing them as they overlay on the previously recorded increments. 
			NOTE: Multiple replicates of the stimulus at each amplitude might be conducted to ensure consistency in the increments and compliance with the predefined criteria.</li>
			<li>After visually verifying each increment with the aforementioned criteria, confirm that the increment amplitude is at least 25 &#181;V. If the increment is below 25 &#181;V, discard the measurement and re-assess the response.</li>
			<li>Following the recording of 10 incremental responses, verify that the amplitude of each increment response is not greater than one-third of the combined amplitude of all 10 increments, representing the total amplitude of the final response. If this criterion is not satisfied, repeat the measurement of the 10 incremental responses. 
			NOTE: The threshold of one-third is based on the assumption that each incremental response represents the activation of a single motor unit. If the amplitude of any incremental response exceeds one-third of the combined amplitude of all ten increments, it suggests that the response may not be solely attributable to the activation of a single motor unit. Instead, it could be influenced by the recruitment of additional motor units or the presence of non-specific activity, such as electrical noise or artifacts22,26.</li>
			<li>To estimate the average amplitude of the SMUPs, average the values of the 10 increments. Another method to measure average SMUP amplitude is to divide the entire amplitude of the final incremental response by the total number of increments11.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Determine MUNE by dividing the maximum CMAP amplitude (peak-to-peak) by the average SMUP amplitude (peak-to-peak). In certain electrophysiological systems, SMUPs are recorded in microvolts (&#181;V), while CMAP is usually expressed in millivolts (mV). If required, convert CMAP and SMUP measurements to the same units before calculating MUNE. 
		NOTE: Peak-to-peak CMAP, average SMUP, and MUNE are typically automatically calculated by clinic electromyography systems): 
		<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/66568/66568eq01v2.jpg" style="margin: auto;" /> 
		CMAP = Compound Muscle Action Potential 
		SMUP = Single Motor Unit Potential 
		MUNE = Motor Unit Number Estimation</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Quantifying Phrenic Motor Unit Function in Rodent Models of Neurodegeneration

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WDA has received research funding from NMD Pharma, Avidity Biosciences, and consulting fees from NMD Pharma, Avidity Biosciences, Dyne Therapeutics, Novartis, Design Therapeutics, Catalyst Pharmaceuticals, and Novartis.

In MN degenerative diseases, such as ALS, it is crucial to assess the MUs involved in ventilation28. Despite the occurrence of respiratory MN degeneration in ALS patients, the specific onset and progression of MN death remain incompletely understood29,30,31. Recognizing the significance of this aspect, various models, both genetic-based (e.g., SOD12,32<...

Phrenic motor neurons (MNs), extending from C3 to C6 myotome levels, form the final link from the central nervous system (CNS) to the diaphragm muscle1. Phrenic motor units (MUs) are comprised of a single spinal MN and its innervated diaphragm muscle fibers forming the smallest functional unit of the respiratory neuromuscular system. The ventilatory function requires adequate contraction of the diaphragm muscle achieved through coordinated activation of the phrenic MU pool2,3. Many neurological diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), result in severe ventilatory impairment, ultimately contributing to the cause of death4.
Several electrophysiological approaches can be employed to evaluate and monitor the integrity of the motor unit (MU) pool in vivo. Compound muscle action potential (CMAP) reflects the summated depolarization of all muscle fibers in a specific muscle or muscle group after peripheral nerve stimulation and is sensitive to a range of neuromuscular conditions, including ALS5,6 and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)7,8,9. A limitation of CMAP assessment is that collateral sprouting can lead to maintained CMAP amplitude and area even in the presence of MU loss10. To overcome this limitation, modifications have been made to the CMAP technique to evaluate both motor unit number and size11. Additionally, an in vivo study investigating the functional assessment of diaphragm CMAP by an electrophysiological system suggested that it may also be feasible to utilize the described diaphragm CMAP recording technique for motor unit number estimation12.
The incremental motor unit number estimation (MUNE) technique was initially introduced in the early 1970s by McComas et al. for the extensor digitorum brevis muscle in humans13. The incremental MUNE approach was a modification of the traditional CMAP recording technique during which a gradually increasing stimulation was delivered to record quantal, all-or-none submaximal increments as indices of single motor unit responses. The summed and averaged increments were used to calculate an estimate for the size of a single motor unit potential (SMUP). This calculated size was then divided into the CMAP amplitude to estimate the number of MUs innervating the muscle under examination11. MUNE demonstrates high sensitivity in detecting and monitoring motor unit loss, allowing for the identification of motor unit dysfunction before observable changes in measures such as CMAP amplitude or area14,15. In ALS patients, MUNE has proven to be exceptionally sensitive, serving as a prominent biomarker for disease onset, progression, and prognosis16,17.
Numerous adaptations of MUNE have been developed and widely used to assess MU function in conditions such as neurodegeneration, neural injury, and the natural aging process18,19,20,21. Since the initial description, various adaptations utilizing both electrophysiological responses and incremental force (mechanical) measurements have been employed in both human studies and animal models22. MUNE provides a non-invasive functional assessment of motor neuron connectivity with the muscle. Longitudinally applying MUNE enables the understanding of disease or induced phenotype progression and the evaluation of protective or regenerative effects of therapeutic interventions, both in clinical and preclinical settings. Regardless of the effectiveness of MUNE measures reproducibility and the clinical relevance of the technique for MU pools throughout most of the human body, efforts have largely focused on limb muscles in rodent muscles10,23,24,25.
Therefore, the objectives of this study were to describe an approach to obtaining compound muscle action potential (CMAP), SMUP, and phrenic motor unit number (MUNE) as in vivo assessments that can be used longitudinally in preclinical rodent studies to quantify the MUNE, motor unit size (represented as SMUP), and CMAP. Furthermore, we present representative data that highlights the loss of diaphragm MU number following intrapleural administration of a phrenic MN degenerative agent, cholera toxin B fragment conjugated to saporin (CTB-SAP).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2 mL Glass Syringe</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td>
			<td>SOMNO-2ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL, Model 705 RN syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton Company</td>
			<td>7637-01</td>
			<td>Utilized to conduct intrapleural injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5008 - Formulab Diet</td>
			<td>LabDiet</td>
			<td>0001325</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoclavable 26 G needles (26S RN 9.52 mm 40&#176;)</td>
			<td>Hamilton Company</td>
			<td>7804-04</td>
			<td>Utilized to conduct intrapleural injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cholera toxin B-subunit (CTB)</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>C9903</td>
			<td>Utilized for intrapleural injection to label surviving motor neurons</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cholera toxin B-subunit conjugated to saporin (CTB-SAP)</td>
			<td>Advanced Targeting Systems</td>
			<td>IT-14</td>
			<td>Utilized for intrapleural injection to cause motor neuron death</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Detachable Cable</td>
			<td>Technomed</td>
			<td>202845-0000</td>
			<td>to connect the recorder electrode to the electrodiagnostic machine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable 2&#34; x 2&#34; disc electrode with leads</td>
			<td>Cadwell</td>
			<td>302290-000</td>
			<td>ground electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>disposable monopolar needles 28 G</td>
			<td>Technomed</td>
			<td>202270-000</td>
			<td>cathode and anode stimulating electrodes- recording electrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMG needle cable (Amp/stim switch box)</td>
			<td>Cadwell</td>
			<td>190266-200</td>
			<td>to connect monopolar electrodes to electrodiagnostic stimulator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Helping Hands alligator clip with iron base</td>
			<td>Radio Shack</td>
			<td>64-079</td>
			<td>Maintaining recording electrode placement&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane (250 mL bottle)</td>
			<td>Piramal Healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>monoject curved tip irrigating syringe</td>
			<td>Covidien</td>
			<td>81412012</td>
			<td>utilized for application of electrode gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PhysioSuite Physiological Monitoring System with RightTemp Homeothermic Warming</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td>
			<td>PS-RT</td>
			<td>Includes infrared warming pad, rectal probe, and pad temperature probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pro trimmer Pet Grooming Kit</td>
			<td>Oster</td>
			<td>078577-010-003</td>
			<td>clippers for hair removal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Saporin (SAP)</td>
			<td>Advanced Targeting Systems</td>
			<td>PR-01</td>
			<td>Utilized for intrapleural injection (control agent when injected by itself)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sierra Summit EMG system</td>
			<td>Cadwell Industries, Inc., Kennewick, WA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>portable electrodiagnostic system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SomnoSuite Low-Flow Digital Anesthesia System</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td>
			<td>SOMNO</td>
			<td>Includes anti-spill, anti-vapor bottle top adapter; Y adapter tubing; charcoal scavenging filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sprague-Dawley rat</td>
			<td>Envigo colony 208a, Indianapolis, IN</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Veterinarian petroleum-based ophthalmic ointment&#160;</td>
			<td>Puralube</td>
			<td>26870</td>
			<td>applied during anesthesia to avoid corneal injury</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessing rat diaphragm motor unit connectivity outcome measures as quantitative biomarkers of phrenic motor neuron degeneration and compensation

Loss of ventilatory muscle function is a consequence of motor neuron injury and neurodegeneration (e.g., cervical spinal cord injury and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, respectively). Phrenic motor neurons are the final link between the central nervous system and muscle, and their respective motor units (groups of muscle fibers innervated by a single motor neuron) represent the smallest functional unit of the neuromuscular ventilatory system. Compound muscle action potential (CMAP), single motor unit potential (SMUP), and motor unit number estimation (MUNE) are established electrophysiological approaches that enable the longitudinal assessment of motor unit integrity in animal models over time but have mostly been applied to limb muscles. Therefore, the objectives of this study are to describe an approach in preclinical rodent studies that can be used longitudinally to quantify the phrenic MUNE, motor unit size (represented as SMUP), and CMAP, and then to demonstrate the utility of these approaches in a motor neuron loss model. Sensitive, objective, and translationally relevant biomarkers for neuronal injury, degeneration, and regeneration in motor neuron injury and diseases can significantly aid and accelerate experimental research discoveries to clinical testing.

Author Spotlight: Studying Neuromuscular Responses and Motor Neuron Plasticity in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Assessing Rat Diaphragm Motor Unit Connectivity Outcome Measures as Quantitative Biomarkers of Phrenic Motor Neuron Degeneration and Compensation

We're interested in understanding normal and maladaptive responses of the neuromuscular system in the context of health, aging, and disease. Specifically, we are aiming to investigate how the respiratory motor system responds to motor neuron losses through compensatory mechanisms such as collateral sprouting. Currently, various laboring techniques, such as retrograde tracers, adenoviruses, and immunohistochemistry have been utilized to quantify the number of innervating motor neurons in rodent degenerative models.Labeling techniques, though valuable for motor neuron evaluations, have limitations in assessing the functionality of motor units and are not suitable for longitudinal assessments. The MUNE technique is a non-invasive approach in preclinical rodent studies that can be used longitudinally to quantify the phrenic motor units. Implementing the MUNE protocol has the potential to significantly aid and accelerate experimental research discoveries toward clinical testing, particularly in non-invasively and longitudinally assessing neuromuscular impairment of the phrenic nerve and diaphragm muscle.Our eclectic lab group focuses on investigating neuromuscular function in health and preclinical models of neurodegenerative disease. We are striving to utilize translational techniques to better understand whether underlying mechanisms of plasticity can be harnessed and adapted to preserve respiration to improve the quality of life in patients with neurodegenerative disease.

The CMAP, SMUP, and MUNE techniques outlined in this report enable the recording of neuromuscular function in the diaphragm muscle employing minimally invasive electrode placement (Figure 1). The parameters of amplitude and area can be employed to characterize the supramaximal CMAP size, providing an overall measure of muscle group output (Figure 2). However, in our current methods, we rely on amplitude to quantify both CMAP and SMUP sizes. CMAP, SMUP, and MUNE ...

Read this Scientific Article Protocol about Assessing Rat Diaphragm Motor Unit Connectivity Outcome Measures as Quantitative Biomarkers of Phrenic Motor Neuron Degeneration and Compensation at JoVE.co

In this study, we present an in vivo method for estimating motor unit number and size to quantify rat diaphragm motor unit connectivity. A step-by-step approach to these techniques is described.

Loss of ventilatory muscle function is a consequence of motor neuron injury and neurodegeneration (e.g., cervical spinal cord injury and amyotrophic ...

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Electrode Placement to Record Neuromuscular Function in Rat Diaphragm Muscle

To begin, position the anesthetized and prepared rat for compound muscle action potential recording. Place the active needle electrode subcutaneously over the midclavicular line, inferior to the last rib border. Then, position the reference needle electrode subcutaneously at the angle between the xiphoid process and the last sternocostal cartilage.Next, use a pair of 28-gauge monopolar needle electrodes for phrenic nerve stimulation at the carotid sheath. Place the electrode subcutaneously on the lateral neck between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, with a separation of about one centimeter. Confirm that the placement of the stimulating needles is at the level below the fourth cervical vertebrae.Then, place a disposable surface electrode on the tail for the ground electrode.

Quantifying Rat Diaphragm Motor Unit Connectivity Using Electrophysiology

To begin, prepare and position the anesthetized rat for electrophysiology. Apply monophasic cathartic square wave pulses to stimulate the phrenic nerve for recording CMAP responses. Increase the stimulus intensity progressively until the amplitude of the response ceases to increase.Then, raise the stimulus intensity to approximately 120%of the level required for a maximal response to ensure super maximal stimulation and record an additional response. Measure and document the peak-to-peak amplitudes of the CMAP in millivolts. Administer submaximal stimulation with a duration of 0.1 milliseconds at a frequency of 1 hertz.Gradually increase the intensity in 0.03 milliampere increments to elicit incremental responses until a minimal all or none response is achieved. Then, acquire the initial response with a stimulus intensity ranging between 2 and 10 milliamperes. After saving the first incremental response, acquire additional increments with progressively higher stimulus intensities in increments of 0.03 milliamperes.Ensure that the initial negative peak of the incremental responses aligns temporally with the negative peak of the maximal CMAP response. Given the diaphragm's involvement in respiration, check for stability and absence of fractionation in each incremental response to confirm consistency across three duplicate responses. Observe incremental responses in real time and overlay them on previous recordings for visual distinction.Then, confirm that the increment amplitude is at least 25 microvolts. After recording 10 incremental responses, verify that the amplitude of each increment does not exceed 1/3rd of the total amplitude of the final response. To estimate the average amplitude of the SMUP, average the values of 10 increments.Next, divide the maximum CMAP amplitude by the average SMUP amplitude to determine the MUNE. Seven days after intrapleural CTB-SAP injection, MUNE decreased to 60 functional motor units in adult rats compared to 74 in control rats. CMAP amplitude remained relatively stable, suggesting collateral sprouting as a possible compensatory mechanism.Diaphragm CMAP, SMUP and MUNE were measured over 28 days post-injection. CMAP showed no notable change. The average increase in SMUP for CTB-SAP rats was approximately 50 to 60%The changes were significant over time and attributed to CTB-SAP.MUNE was reduced by approximately 40%in CTB-SAP rats, indicating significant effects of time in CTB-SAP treatment.

Paired Patch Clamp Recordings from Motor-neuron and Target Skeletal Muscle in Zebrafish

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target muscle. This is a direct consequence of the accessibility to both cell types and ability to visually distinguish the single segmental CaP motor-neuron on the basis of morphology and location. This video demonstrates the microscopic methods used to identify a CaP motor-neuron and target muscle cells as well as the methodologies for recording from each cell type. Identification of the CaP motor-neuron type is confirmed by either dye filling or by the biophysical features such as action potential waveform and cell input resistance. Motor-neuron recordings routinely last for one hour permitting long-term recordings from multiple different target muscle cells. Control over the motor-neuron firing pattern enables measurements of the frequency-dependence of synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Owing to a large quantal size and the low noise provided by whole cell voltage clamp, all of the unitary events can be resolved in muscle. This feature permits study of basic synaptic properties such as release properties, vesicle recycling, as well as synaptic depression and facilitation. The advantages offered by this in vivo preparation eclipse previous neuromuscular model systems studied wherein the motor-neurons are usually stimulated by extracellular electrodes and the muscles are too large for whole cell patch clamp. The zebrafish preparation is amenable to combining electrophysiological analysis with a wide range of approaches including transgenic lines, morpholino knockdown, pharmacological intervention and in vivo imaging. These approaches, coupled with the growing number of neuromuscular disease models provided by mutant lines of zebrafish, open the door for new understanding of human neuromuscular disorders.

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target skeletal muscle. This video demonstrates the microscopic methods used to identify a segmental CaP motor-neuron and target muscle cells as well as the methodologies for recording from each cell type.

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target muscle.  ...

A Functional Motor Unit in the Culture Dish: Co-culture of Spinal Cord Explants and Muscle Cells

Human primary muscle cells cultured aneurally in monolayer rarely contract spontaneously because, in the absence of a nerve component, cell differentiation is limited and motor neuron stimulation is missing1. These limitations hamper the in vitro study of many neuromuscular diseases in cultured muscle cells. Importantly, the experimental constraints of monolayered, cultured muscle cells can be overcome by functional innervation of myofibers with spinal cord explants in co-cultures.
Here, we show the different steps required to achieve an efficient, proper innervation of human primary muscle cells, leading to complete differentiation and fiber contraction according to the method developed by Askanas2. To do so, muscle cells are co-cultured with spinal cord explants of rat embryos at ED 13.5, with the dorsal root ganglia still attached to the spinal cord slices. After a few days, the muscle fibers start to contract and eventually become cross-striated through innervation by functional neurites projecting from the spinal cord explants that connecting to the muscle cells. This structure can be maintained for many months, simply by regular exchange of the culture medium.
The applications of this invaluable tool are numerous, as it represents a functional model for multidisciplinary analyses of human muscle development and innervation. In fact, a complete de novo neuromuscular junction installation occurs in a culture dish, allowing an easy measurement of many parameters at each step, in a fundamental and physiological context.
Just to cite a few examples, genomic and/or proteomic studies can be performed directly on the co-cultures. Furthermore, pre- and post-synaptic effects can be specifically and separately assessed at the neuromuscular junction, because both components come from different species, rat and human, respectively. The nerve-muscle co-culture can also be performed with human muscle cells isolated from patients suffering from muscle or neuromuscular diseases3, and thus can be used as a screening tool for candidate drugs. Finally, no special equipment but a regular BSL2 facility is needed to reproduce a functional motor unit in a culture dish. This method thus is valuable for both the muscle as well as the neuromuscular research communities for physiological and mechanistic studies of neuromuscular function, in a normal and disease context.

Cultured muscle cells are an inadequate model to recapitulate innervated muscle in vivo. A functional motor unit can be reproduced in vitro by innervation of differentiated human primary muscle cells using rat embryo spinal cord explants. This article describes how co-cultures of spinal cord explants and muscle cells are established.

Human primary muscle cells cultured  aneurally in monolayer rarely contract spontaneously because, in the absence of  a nerve component, cell ...

The Neuromuscular Junction: Measuring Synapse Size, Fragmentation and Changes in Synaptic Protein Density Using Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the large, cholinergic relay synapse through which mammalian motor neurons control voluntary muscle contraction. Structural changes at the NMJ can result in neurotransmission failure, resulting in weakness, atrophy and even death of the muscle fiber. Many studies have investigated how genetic modifications or disease can alter the structure of the mouse NMJ. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to directly compare findings from these studies because they often employed different parameters and analytical methods. Three protocols are described here. The first uses maximum intensity projection confocal images to measure the area of acetylcholine receptor (AChR)-rich postsynaptic membrane domains at the endplate and the area of synaptic vesicle staining in the overlying presynaptic nerve terminal. The second protocol compares the relative intensities of immunostaining for synaptic proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. The third protocol uses Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) to detect changes in the packing of postsynaptic AChRs at the endplate. The protocols have been developed and refined over a series of studies. Factors that influence the quality and consistency of results are discussed and normative data are provided for NMJs in healthy young adult mice.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is altered in a variety of conditions that can sometimes culminate in synaptic failure. This report describes fluorescence microscope-based methods to quantify such structural changes.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the large, cholinergic relay synapse through which mammalian motor neurons control voluntary muscle contraction. ...

Functional and Morphological Assessment of Diaphragm Innervation by Phrenic Motor Neurons

This protocol specifically focuses on tools for assessing phrenic motor neuron (PhMN) innervation of the diaphragm at both the electrophysiological and morphological levels. Compound muscle action potential (CMAP) recording following phrenic nerve stimulation can be used to quantitatively assess functional diaphragm innervation by PhMNs of the cervical spinal cord in vivo in anesthetized rats and mice. Because CMAPs represent simultaneous recording of all myofibers of the whole hemi-diaphragm, it is useful to also examine the phenotypes of individual motor axons and myofibers at the diaphragm NMJ in order to track disease- and therapy-relevant morphological changes such as partial and complete denervation, regenerative sprouting and reinnervation. This can be accomplished via whole-mount immunohistochemistry (IHC) of the diaphragm, followed by detailed morphological assessment of individual NMJs throughout the muscle. Combining CMAPs and NMJ analysis provides a powerful approach for quantitatively studying diaphragmatic innervation in rodent models of CNS and PNS disease.

Compound muscle action potential recording quantitatively assesses functional diaphragm innervation by phrenic motor neurons. Whole-mount diaphragm immunohistochemistry assesses morphological innervation at individual neuromuscular junctions. The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate how these two powerful methodologies can be used in various rodent models of spinal cord disease.

This protocol specifically focuses on tools for assessing phrenic motor neuron (PhMN) innervation of the diaphragm at both the electrophysiological and ...

A Simple Neuronal Mechanical Injury Methodology to Study Drosophila Motor Neuron Degeneration

The degeneration of neurons occurs during normal development and in response to injury, stress, and disease. The cellular hallmarks of neuronal degeneration are remarkably similar in humans and invertebrates as are the molecular mechanisms that drive these processes. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, provides a powerful yet simple genetic model organism to study the cellular complexities of neurodegenerative diseases. In fact, approximately 70% of disease-associated human genes have a Drosophila homolog and a plethora of tools and assays have been described using flies to study human neurodegenerative diseases. More specifically the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in Drosophila has proven to be an effective system to study neuromuscular diseases because of the ability to analyze the structural connections between the neuron and the muscle. Here, we report on an in vivo motor neuron injury assay in Drosophila, which reproducibly induces neurodegeneration at the NMJ by 24 h. Using this methodology, we have described a temporal sequence of cellular events resulting in motor neuron degeneration. The injury method has diverse applications and has also been utilized to identify specific genes required for neurodegeneration and to dissect transcriptional responses to neuronal injury.

A Simple Neuronal Mechanical Injury Methodology to Study Drosophila Motor Neuron Degeneration

Here we describe a simple and widely accessible method to injure segmental nerves in Drosophila larvae to visualize and quantify neurodegeneration of motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of third instar larvae.

The degeneration of neurons occurs during normal development and in response to injury, stress, and disease. The cellular hallmarks of neuronal ...

Retrograde Neuroanatomical Tracing of Phrenic Motor Neurons in Mice

Phrenic motor neurons are cervical motor neurons originating from C3 to C6 levels in most mammalian species. Axonal projections converge into phrenic nerves innervating the respiratory diaphragm. In spinal cord slices, phrenic motor neurons cannot be identified from other motor neurons on morphological or biochemical criteria. We provide the description of procedures for visualizing phrenic motor neuron cell bodies in mice, following intrapleural injections of cholera toxin subunit beta (CTB) conjugated to a fluorophore. This fluorescent neuroanatomical tracer has the ability to be caught up at the diaphragm neuromuscular junction, be carried retrogradely along the phrenic axons and reach the phrenic cell bodies. Two methodological approaches of intrapleural CTB delivery are compared: transdiaphragmatic versus transthoracic injections. Both approaches are successful and result in similar number of CTB-labeled phrenic motor neurons. In conclusion, these techniques can be applied to visualize or quantify the phrenic motor neurons in various experimental studies such as those focused on the diaphragm-phrenic circuitry.

Here, we describe a protocol for identifying phrenic motor neurons in mice after intrapleural delivery of fluorophore conjugated cholera toxin subunit beta. Two techniques are compared to inject the pleural cavity: transdiaphragmatic versus transthoracic approaches.

Phrenic motor neurons are cervical motor neurons originating from C3 to C6 levels in most mammalian species. Axonal projections converge into phrenic ...

CMAP Scan MUNE (MScan) - A Novel Motor Unit Number Estimation (MUNE) Method

Like other methods for motor unit number estimation (MUNE), compound muscle action potential (CMAP) scan MUNE (MScan) is a non-invasive electrophysiologic method to estimate the number of functioning motor units in a muscle. MUNE is an important tool for the assessment of neuropathies and neuronopathies. Unlike most MUNE methods in use, MScan assesses all the motor units in a muscle, by fitting a model to a detailed stimulus-response curve, or CMAP scan. It thereby avoids the bias inherent in all MUNE methods based on extrapolating from a small sample of units. Like &#39;Bayesian MUNE,&#39;&#160;MScan analysis works by fitting a model, made up of motor units with different amplitudes, thresholds, and threshold variabilities, but the fitting method is quite different, and completed within five minutes, rather than several hours. The MScan off-line analysis works in two stages: first, a preliminary model is generated based on the slope and variance of the points in the scan, and second, this model is then refined by adjusting all the parameters to improve the fit between the original scan and scans generated by the model.
This new method has been tested for reproducibility and recording time on 22 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients and 20 healthy controls, with each test repeated twice by two blinded physicians. MScan showed excellent intra- and inter-rater reproducibility with ICC values of &#62;0.98 and a coefficient of variation averaging 12.3 &#177; 1.6%. There was no difference in the intra-rater reproducibility between the two observers. Average recording time was 6.27 &#177; 0.27 min.
This protocol describes how to record a CMAP scan and how to use the MScan software to derive an estimate of the number and sizes of the functioning motor units. MScan is a fast, convenient, and reproducible method, which may be helpful in diagnoses and monitoring disease progression in neuromuscular disorders.

CMAP Scan MUNE MScan - A Novel Motor Unit Number Estimation MUNE Method

This protocol describes a new method to estimate the number of functioning motor units in a muscle, by fitting a model to a detailed stimulus-response curve of the compound muscle action potential. It is quick and easy to perform and analyze and has excellent reproducibility.

Like other methods for motor unit number estimation (MUNE), compound muscle action potential (CMAP) scan MUNE (MScan) is a non-invasive electrophysiologic ...

188 Views.  University of Missouri.  In this study, we present an in vivo method for estimating motor unit number and size to quantify rat diaphragm motor unit connectivity. A step-by-step approach to these techniques is described. 

Quantifying Phrenic Motor Unit Function in Rodent Models of Neurodegeneration

Summary