Ringraziamo D. Braendle, CL Kurz e F. Montañana-Sanchis per i loro contributi. Questo progetto è stato sostenuto anche da finanziamenti della ANR e il Conseil Régional PACA e finanziamenti istituzionali da INSERM e il CNRS.

<ol>
	<li>Timmons, L., Fire, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+interference+by+ingested+dsRNA.">Specific interference by ingested dsRNA.</a> Nature. 395, 854-854 (1998).</li><li>Kamath, R. S., Ahringer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+RNAi+screening+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Genome-wide RNAi screening in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Methods. 30, 313-321 (2003).</li><li>Rual, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toward+improving+Caenorhabditis+elegans+phenome+mapping+with+an+ORFeome-based+RNAi+library.">Toward improving Caenorhabditis elegans phenome mapping with an ORFeome-based RNAi library.</a> Genome Res. 14, 2162-2168 (2004).</li><li>Lee, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+systematic+RNAi+screen+identifies+a+critical+role+for+mitochondria+in+C.+elegans+longevity.">A systematic RNAi screen identifies a critical role for mitochondria in C. elegans longevity.</a> Nat. Genet. 33, 40-48 (2003).</li><li>Hamilton, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+systematic+RNAi+screen+for+longevity+genes+in+C.+elegans.">A systematic RNAi screen for longevity genes in C. elegans.</a> Genes Dev. 19, 1544-1555 (2005).</li><li>Frand, A. R., Russel, S., Ruvkun, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+genomic+analysis+of+C.+elegans+molting.">Functional genomic analysis of C. elegans molting.</a> PLoS Biol. 3, e312-e312 (2005).</li><li>Parry, D. H., Xu, J., Ruvkun, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+whole-genome+RNAi+Screen+for+C.+elegans+miRNA+pathway+genes.">A whole-genome RNAi Screen for C. elegans miRNA pathway genes.</a> Curr. Biol. 17, 2013-2022 (2007).</li><li>O'Rourke, E. J., Conery, A. L., Moy, T. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole-animal+high-throughput+screens:+the+C+elegans+model.">Whole-animal high-throughput screens: the C elegans model.</a> Methods Mol. Biol. 486, 57-75 (2009).</li><li>Pujol, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+innate+immune+responses+to+infection+and+wounding+in+the+C.+elegans+epidermis.">Distinct innate immune responses to infection and wounding in the C. elegans epidermis.</a> Curr. Biol. 18, 481-489 (2008).</li><li>Stiernagle, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintenance+of+C.+elegans.">Maintenance of C. elegans.</a> WormBook. , 1551-8507 (2006).</li><li>Powell, J. R., Ausubel, F. M., Ewbank, J., Vivier, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Models+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans+Infection+by+Bacterial+and+Fungal+Pathogens.">Models of Caenorhabditis elegans Infection by Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 415, 403-427 (2008).</li><li>Cardoso, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=XNP-1/ATR-X+acts+with+RB,+HP1+and+the+NuRD+complex+during+larval+development+in+C.+elegans.">XNP-1/ATR-X acts with RB, HP1 and the NuRD complex during larval development in C. elegans.</a> Dev. Biol. 278, 49-59 (2005).</li><li>Pujol, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anti-fungal+innate+immunity+in+C.+elegans+is+enhanced+by+evolutionary+diversification+of+antimicrobial+peptides.">Anti-fungal innate immunity in C. elegans is enhanced by evolutionary diversification of antimicrobial peptides.</a> PLoS Pathog. 4, e1000105-e1000105 (2008).</li><li>Simmer, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-Wide+RNAi+of+C.+elegans+Using+the+Hypersensitive+rrf-3+Strain+Reveals+Novel+Gene+Functions.">Genome-Wide RNAi of C. elegans Using the Hypersensitive rrf-3 Strain Reveals Novel Gene Functions.</a> PLoS Biol. 1, e12-e12 (2003).</li><li>Couillault, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TLR-independent+control+of+innate+immunity+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans+by+the+TIR+domain+adaptor+protein+TIR-1,+an+ortholog+of+human+SARM.">TLR-independent control of innate immunity in Caenorhabditis elegans by the TIR domain adaptor protein TIR-1, an ortholog of human SARM.</a> Nat Immunol. 5, 488-494 (2004).</li><li>Morton, E., Lamitina, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+suite+of+MATLAB-based+computational+tools+for+automated+analysis+of+COPAS+Biosort+data.">A suite of MATLAB-based computational tools for automated analysis of COPAS Biosort data.</a> Biotechniques. 48, xxv-xxx (2010).</li><li>Rohlfing, A. K., Miteva, Y., Hannenhalli, S., Lamitina, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+and+physiological+activation+of+osmosensitive+gene+expression+mimics+transcriptional+signatures+of+pathogen+infection+in+C.+elegans.">Genetic and physiological activation of osmosensitive gene expression mimics transcriptional signatures of pathogen infection in C. elegans.</a> PLoS One. 5, e9010-e9010 (2010).</li><li>Lee, K. Z., Kniazeva, M., Han, M., Pujol, N., Ewbank, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+fatty+acid+synthase+fasn-1+acts+upstream+of+WNK+and+Ste20&#47;GCK-VI+kinases+to+modulate+antimicrobial+peptide+expression+in+C.+elegans+epidermis.">The fatty acid synthase fasn-1 acts upstream of WNK and Ste20&#47;GCK-VI kinases to modulate antimicrobial peptide expression in C. elegans epidermis.</a> Virulence. 1, 113-122 (2010).</li><li>Duverger, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+semi-automated+high-throughput+approach+to+the+generation+of+transposon+insertion+mutants+in+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">A semi-automated high-throughput approach to the generation of transposon insertion mutants in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 35, e11-e11 (2007).</li><li>Pierce-Shimomura, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+analysis+of+crawling+and+swimming+locomotory+patterns+in+C.+elegans.">Genetic analysis of crawling and swimming locomotory patterns in C. elegans.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 20982-20987 (2008).</li><li>Ruzanov, P., Riddle, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deep+SAGE+analysis+of+the+Caenorhabditis+elegans+transcriptome.">Deep SAGE analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans transcriptome.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 38, 3252-3262 (2010).</li><li>Kurz, C. L., Ewbank, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infection+in+a+dish:+high-throughput+analyses+of+bacterial+pathogenesis.">Infection in a dish: high-throughput analyses of bacterial pathogenesis.</a> Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 10, 10-16 (2007).</li><li>Okoli, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+antifungal+compounds+active+against+Candida+albicans+using+an+improved+high-throughput+Caenorhabditis+elegans+assay.">Identification of antifungal compounds active against Candida albicans using an improved high-throughput Caenorhabditis elegans assay.</a> PLoS One. 4, e7025-e7025 (2009).</li><li>Moy, T. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+novel+antimicrobials+using+a+live-animal+infection+model.">Identification of novel antimicrobials using a live-animal infection model.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 103, 10414-10419 (2006).</li><li>Ballestriero, F., Thomas, T., Burke, C., Egan, S., Kjelleberg, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+compounds+with+bioactivity+against+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans+by+a+screen+based+on+the+functional+genomics+of+the+marine+bacterium+Pseudoalteromonas+tunicata+D2.">Identification of compounds with bioactivity against the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans by a screen based on the functional genomics of the marine bacterium Pseudoalteromonas tunicata D2.</a> Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76, 5710-5717 (2010).</li></ol>

Il laboratorio collabora con l&#39;Unione Ewbank Biometrica e Modul-Bio.

<p class="jove_content"&gt; L&#39;attuale protocollo consente su larga scala di screening RNAi in<em&gt; C. elegans</em&gt; Su supporti solidi, utilizzando il livello di espressione di un gene reporter fluorescente come lettura-out. È stato ottimizzato con strumenti automatizzati per facilitare high-throughput saggi, permettendo maneggevolezza e veloce di un gran numero di campioni, in modo efficiente, affidabile e riproducibile. Altri metodi sono stati descritti, che non si basano così pesantemente sulla gestione automatizzata del campione di liquido<sup&gt; 8</sup&gt;.</p&gt;<p class="jove_content"&gt; Un aspetto fondamentale organizzativo al protocollo è stato lo sviluppo di un metodo affidabile di monitoraggio campione adattando il software commerciale MBioLIMS alla procedura schermo RNAi in collaborazione con la ModulBio azienda. In ogni fase della procedura, le piastre sono ora identificati da codici a barre generati all&#39;interno del LIMS. Come LIMS registra anche l&#39;identità dei cloni in ogni pozzetto su ciascuna piastra, andando da pozzetto a gene putativo è semplice. E di là di questo, i collegamenti LIMS per la WormBase banca dati comunitaria, consentendo l&#39;accesso diretto ai dati molecolari e funzionali in merito a qualsiasi dato gene. Il LIMS facilita anche le analisi da effettuare sul piatto o addirittura a livello dei cromosomi e intero genoma. Per queste analisi, i dati vengono memorizzati in un modo che è perfettamente compatibile con utensili precedentemente descritti come COPAmulti<sup&gt; 16</sup&gt;.</p&gt;<p class="jove_content"&gt; Un punto critico nel metodo sperimentale è la regolazione della quantità di cibo in relazione al numero di vermi. Per molti saggi, è essenziale che i vermi non fame alla fine dell&#39;esperimento, ma è anche importante non avere troppo cibo all&#39;inizio. Abbiamo osservato che un&#39;alta densità di cibo riduce induzione fluorescenza nel protocollo utilizzando vermi trasportano il p<em&gt; Nlp-29</em&gt; :: Reporter GFP. Questo può riflettere una diminuita efficienza infezione quando i vermi vengono coltivate nei batteri troppo (BS, risultati non pubblicati). Allo stesso tempo, le condizioni di coltura del batterio RNAi è anche importante, poiché questo determina se dsRNA viene prodotta ad un livello ottimale. Alcuni protocolli per la grande RNAi richiedono cultura di cloni RNAi su piastre di agar prima di semina colture liquide<sup&gt; 8</sup&gt;. Abbiamo ottenuto il silenziamento genico robusta omissione di questo passaggio. Abbiamo optato per la coltivazione di un eccesso di ogni cultura per garantire risultati omogenei. Il protocollo descritto, infatti, fornisce materiale sufficiente per condurre 2 o 3 schermi in parallelo. Nell&#39;interesse di ottenere i risultati più robusti, siamo favorevoli, però, conducendo schermi in duplicato utilizzando culture indipendenti di vermi, batteri e spore fungine RNAi.</p&gt;<p class="jove_content"&gt; Un altro passo fondamentale è legato all&#39;utilizzo di mezzo che non è né troppo umido né troppo secco. Se le piastre non sono asciutti a sufficienza, i batteri RNAi non asciugare bene e vermi nuotare durante il saggio. Ciò può causare problemi. Ad esempio, i worm non sono efficacemente infettati da<em&gt; D. coniospora</em&gt; In un liquido (C. Couillault, risultati non pubblicati). D&#39;altra parte, in lastre secche, l&#39;osmolarità del aumenti medi di coltura. Ciò ha effetti diretti sulla fisiologia a vite senza fine<sup&gt; 17</sup&gt;, Compresa l&#39;induzione di alcuni geni peptidi antimicrobici, come ad esempio<em&gt; Nlp 29</em&gt;<sup&gt; 18</sup&gt;. Il volume utilizzato per erogare i vermi e spore è fondamentale per l&#39;essiccazione efficaci e rapidi. Se più di 10 pl di liquido viene aggiunta alle piastre fresche, i pozzetti può richiedere molte ore per asciugare. Ciò può significare che è difficile da usare metodi robotici per aggiungere vermi alle piastre. Ad esempio, ogni vite senza fine viene erogato dalla Biosort in circa 1 ml di liquido. Al momento distribuire i vermi manualmente che ci permette anche di superare la tendenza di vermi in soluzione a sedimentare.</p&gt;<p class="jove_content"&gt; Abbiamo già segnalato un adeguamento del Biosort che ha permesso uno piastra a 96 pozzetti da analizzare in 36 minuti<sup&gt; 19</sup&gt;. La macchina fabbricante UBI offre una modifica del Biosort per ridurre ulteriormente il tempo di analisi. Con il &quot;FastReFlex&quot;, i campioni vengono indirizzate direttamente attraverso la cella di flusso per l&#39;analisi, bypassando la bolla-trappola filtro. Ciò comporta una riduzione significativa del tempo di acquisizione dati; una piastra intero può essere analizzata in 22 min consentendo circa 20 piastre da trattare al giorno. Se i pannelli non sono state congelate, tuttavia, ci sarebbe un intervallo 8 ore tra i primi e gli ultimi. Data la durata relativamente breve dell&#39;esperimento, con l&#39;infezione dura solo 18 ore, ciò introduce una variabile inaccettabile in piastre. Non solo piastre di congelamento prima dell&#39;analisi risolvere questo problema, ma è anche essenziale nel contesto di high-throughput di analisi che, con l&#39;attuale protocollo e il liquido standard di gestione dei robot, 2 le persone possono facilmente elaborare fino a 50 piastre una settimana. Attualmente, abbiamo regolarmente schermo 30 piastre una settimana, che permette uno schermo intero genomada effettuare una volta in meno di 2 mesi.</p&gt;<p class="jove_content"&gt; Una caratteristica interessante di questo protocollo è il fatto che essa utilizza agar solido, permettendo dosaggi che non possono essere eseguite in coltura liquida. Come fisiologia verme differisce a seconda delle condizioni di coltura<sup&gt; 20,21</sup&gt;, Essendo in grado di eseguire saggi su supporto solido può anche integrare usuali base liquida schermi. Per alcuni fenotipi movimento (ad esempio), l&#39;analisi può essere effettuata direttamente con 96-well solidi piastre di terreno. Per la schermata corrente, tuttavia, come il Biosort non può campionare da piastre di terreno solido, i vermi vengono prima trasferiti a liquido prima del congelamento. D&#39;altra parte, il Biosort COPAS consente un&#39;analisi multiparametrica quantitativa compatibile con la misurazione di molti diversi fenotipi. È probabile che per ogni dato schermo non tutti i parametri misurati sarà la lettura primaria out. Tuttavia, queste misurazioni possono essere utili per varie ragioni. Essi permettono di determinare se il saggio eseguito correttamente. Ad esempio, si può controllare il numero e la dimensione dei vermi in ciascun pozzetto. Solo quando un clone RNAi dovrebbe bloccare la crescita o la riproduzione dovrebbe esserci uno scostamento dai valori attesi. Wells con meno di 20 vermi o / e degli animali del 30% più piccoli (TOF) rispetto ad una standarddard di controllo con nessun effetto sulla crescita (<em&gt; Ad esempio, GFP (RNAi</em&gt;)) Può essere escluso dal analisi successive. La funzione di questi cloni possono essere identificati utilizzando un protocollo alternativo in cui i vermi sono esposti ai batteri RNAi dopo il loro sviluppo è in fase avanzata<sup&gt; 15</sup&gt;. I vari parametri possono anche essere utilizzati per perfezionare gene candidato (hit) selezione, per esempio, limitando riscontro solo a quelle che influiscono fluorescenza verde, ma non rosso. Il metodo preciso prescelte per la selezione riscontro dipenderà dal tipo di schermo e la sua esatta lettura-out. Data la complessità dei dati generati da un punto di genome-wide screen, la collaborazione con un esperto di statistica può essere richiesta.</p&gt;<p class="jove_content"&gt; Il protocollo che descriviamo può essere facilmente adattato ad altri tipi di saggi. Ad esempio, al passo infezione<em&gt; D. coniospora</em&gt; Potrebbe essere sostituita da qualsiasi altro agente patogeno in grado di infettare su supporti solidi. Questo è potenzialmente utile che abbiamo trovato che molti dei fattori di virulenza importanti per l&#39;infezione da Serratia marcescens in coltura liquida non svolgono un ruolo durante l&#39;infezione su terreno solido (E. Pradel, comunicazione personale). Il protocollo è inoltre pienamente compatibile con i test di composti chimici<sup&gt; 22-24</sup&gt;, O per identificare composti con attività biologica utilizzando diverse librerie di batteri<sup&gt; 25</sup&gt;, Quindi dovrebbe trovare un programma di utilità generale nel<em&gt; C. elegans</em&gt; Comunità di ricerca.</p

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> Nome del reattivo </td><td> Azienda </td><td> Numero di catalogo </td><td> Comments </td></tr><tr><td> BactoAgar </td><td> BD Diagnostic Systems </td><td> 214010 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Ampicillin </td><td> Sigma-Aldrich </td><td> A9518 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> BactoPeptone </td><td> BD Diagnostic Systems </td><td> 211677 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> CaCl 2 </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Pellicola adesiva AeraSeal </td><td> Dutscher </td><td> 760214 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Isopropil β-D-tiogalattopiranoside (IPTG) </td><td> Thermo Scientific </td><td> AB-0481 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> K 2 HPO 4 </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> KH 2 PO 4 </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> MgSO 4 </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> NaCl </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Na 2 HPO 4 </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> NaOH </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Piastra da 96 pozzi profondi </td><td> Thermo Scientific </td><td> AB-0932 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Piastra a 96 pozzetti piatta </td><td> FALCON </td><td> 353072 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Piastra a 96 pozzetti rotonda </td><td> FALCON </td><td> 353077 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Tetracycline </td><td> Sigma-Aldrich </td><td> T8032 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Triton X-100 </td><td> Ogni fornitore </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> TECAN robot </td><td> TECAN </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Liquidator96 TM </td><td> RAININ </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> COPAS Biosort </td><td> Union Biometrica </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> LIMS </td><td> Modul-Bio </td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

quantitative and automated high-throughput genome-wide rnai screens in c. elegans

RNA interferenza è un potente metodo per capire la funzione dei geni, soprattutto se condotta in un intero genoma scala e in un contesto quantitativo. In C. elegans, la funzione del gene può essere abbattuto modo semplice ed efficiente da mangiare vermi con i batteri che esprimono un dsRNA corrispondente a un gene specifico 1. Mentre la creazione di librerie di cloni RNAi che copre la maggior parte del C. elegans genoma 2,3 aperto la strada a veri e propri studi di genomica funzionale (vedi per esempio 4-7), la maggior parte dei metodi stabiliti sono laboriosi. Moy e colleghi hanno sviluppato protocolli semi-automatici che facilitano la genome-wide schermi 8. L&#39;approccio si basa su immagini microscopiche e analisi delle immagini. Qui si descrive un protocollo alternativo per un alto throughput genoma schermo, sulla base del manipolatore batterica cloni RNAi, analisi quantitativa utilizzando la Biosort COPAS (Union Biometrica (UBI)), e unosoftware integrato: il MBioLIMS (Laboratory Information System della Direzione di Modul-Bio), una tecnologia che offre un throughput maggiore per la gestione dei dati e tracciabilità del campione. Il metodo consente di schermi essere realizzato su piastre di terreno solido. Ciò è particolarmente importante per alcuni studi, come quelli riguardanti le interazioni ospite-patogeno in C. elegans, dal momento che alcuni microbi non si infettano in modo efficiente i vermi in coltura liquida. Si mostrano come il metodo può essere utilizzato per quantificare l&#39;importanza di geni anti-fungini immunità innata in C. elegans. In questo caso, l&#39;approccio si basa sull&#39;utilizzo di un ceppo transgenica che trasporta un epidermica un&#39;infezione-inducibile gene fluorescente reporter, con GFP sotto il controllo del promotore del gene NLP peptide antimicrobico 29 e un reporter fluorescente rossa che si esprime costitutivamente nella epidermide. Quest&#39;ultimo fornisce un controllo interno per l&#39;integrità funzionale dell&#39;epidermidetransgene e aspecifica tacere 9. Quando i vermi di controllo sono infettate dal fungo che fluorescenza verde. Abbattere da RNAi un gene necessario per nlp 29 risultati di espressione a fluorescenza diminuita dopo l&#39;infezione. Attualmente, questo protocollo permette di oltre 3.000 cloni RNAi per essere testato e analizzato a settimana, aprendo la possibilità di screening dell&#39;intero genoma in meno di 2 mesi.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantitative and Automated High-throughput Genome-wide RNAi Screens in C. elegans at JoVE.com

Quantitative and Automated High-throughput Genome-wide RNAi Screens in C. elegans

Descriviamo un protocollo usando<em&gt; C. elegans</em&gt; E librerie di alimentazione RNAi che permette la misurazione automatica dei molteplici parametri come la fluorescenza, le dimensioni e l&#39;opacità dei vermi individuali in una popolazione. Diamo un esempio di uno schermo per identificare i geni coinvolti in anti-fungine immunità innata<em&gt; C. elegans</em&gt;.

Quantitative e automatica High-throughput Genome-wide Schermi RNAi in C. elegans</em

RNA interference is a powerful method to understand gene function, especially when conducted at a whole-genome scale and in a quantitative context. In C. ...

quantitative-automated-high-throughput-genome-wide-rnai-screens-c

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Quantitative and Automated High-throughput Genome-wide RNAi Screens in C. elegans

17.5K Views.  Université de la Méditerranée. Descriviamo un protocollo usando C. elegans E librerie di alimentazione RNAi che permette la misurazione automatica dei molteplici parametri come la fluorescenza, le dimensioni e l'opacità dei vermi individuali in una popolazione. Diamo un esempio di uno schermo per identificare i geni coinvolti in anti-fungine immunità innata C. elegans.

Video: Quantitative and Automated High-throughput Genome-wide RNAi Screens in C. elegans

Development of automated imaging and analysis for zebrafish chemical screens.

We demonstrate the application of image-based high-content screening (HCS) methodology to identify small molecules that can modulate the FGF/RAS/MAPK pathway in zebrafish embryos. The zebrafish embryo is an ideal system for in vivo high-content chemical screens. The 1-day old embryo is approximately 1mm in diameter and can be easily arrayed into 96-well plates, a standard format for high throughput screening. During the first day of development, embryos are transparent with most of the major organs present, thus enabling visualization of tissue formation during embryogenesis. The complete automation of zebrafish chemical screens is still a challenge, however, particularly in the development of automated image acquisition and analysis. We previously generated a transgenic reporter line that expresses green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of FGF activity and demonstrated their utility in chemical screens 1. To establish methodology for high throughput whole organism screens, we developed a system for automated imaging and analysis of zebrafish embryos at 24-48 hours post fertilization (hpf) in 96-well plates 2. In this video we highlight the procedures for arraying transgenic embryos into multiwell plates at 24hpf and the addition of a small molecule (BCI) that hyperactivates FGF signaling 3. The plates are incubated for 6 hours followed by the addition of tricaine to anesthetize larvae prior to automated imaging on a Molecular Devices ImageXpress Ultra laser scanning confocal HCS reader. Images are processed by Definiens Developer software using a Cognition Network Technology algorithm that we developed to detect and quantify expression of GFP in the heads of transgenic embryos. In this example we highlight the ability of the algorithm to measure dose-dependent effects of BCI on GFP reporter gene expression in treated embryos.

We report the development of a system for automated imaging and analysis of zebrafish transgenic embryos in multiwell plates. This demonstrates the ability to measure dose dependent effects of a small molecule, BCI, on Fibroblast Growth Factor reporter gene expression and provide technology for establishing high-throughput zebrafish chemical screens.

Sviluppo di imaging automatizzati e analisi chimiche per gli schermi zebrafish.

We demonstrate the application of image-based high-content screening (HCS) methodology to identify small molecules that can modulate the FGF/RAS/MAPK ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Genome-wide Analysis using ChIP to Identify Isoform-specific Gene Targets

Recruitment of transcriptional and epigenetic factors to their targets is a key step in their regulation. Prominently featured in recruitment are the protein domains that bind to specific histone modifications. One such domain is the plant homeodomain (PHD), found in several chromatin-binding proteins. The epigenetic factor RBP2 has multiple PHD domains, however, they have different functions (Figure 4). In particular, the C-terminal PHD domain, found in a RBP2 oncogenic fusion in human leukemia, binds to trimethylated lysine 4 in histone H3 (H3K4me3)1. The transcript corresponding to the RBP2 isoform containing the C-terminal PHD accumulates during differentiation of promonocytic, lymphoma-derived, U937 cells into monocytes2. Consistent with both sets of data, genome-wide analysis showed that in differentiated U937 cells, the RBP2 protein gets localized to genomic regions highly enriched for H3K4me33. Localization of RBP2 to its targets correlates with a decrease in H3K4me3 due to RBP2 histone demethylase activity and a decrease in transcriptional activity. In contrast, two other PHDs of RBP2 are unable to bind H3K4me3. Notably, the C-terminal domain PHD of RBP2 is absent in the smaller RBP2 isoform4. It is conceivable that the small isoform of RBP2, which lacks interaction with H3K4me3, differs from the larger isoform in genomic location. The difference in genomic location of RBP2 isoforms may account for the observed diversity in RBP2 function. Specifically, RBP2 is a critical player in cellular differentiation mediated by the retinoblastoma protein (pRB). Consistent with these data, previous genome-wide analysis, without distinction between isoforms, identified two distinct groups of RBP2 target genes: 1) genes bound by RBP2 in a manner that is independent of differentiation; 2) genes bound by RBP2 in a differentiation-dependent manner.
To identify differences in localization between the isoforms we performed genome-wide location analysis by ChIP-Seq. Using antibodies that detect both RBP2 isoforms we have located all RBP2 targets. Additionally we have antibodies that only bind large, and not small RBP2 isoform (Figure 4). After identifying the large isoform targets, one can then subtract them from all RBP2 targets to reveal the targets of small isoform. These data show the contribution of chromatin-interacting domain in protein recruitment to its binding sites in the genome.

Here we are presenting a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) procedure for genome-wide location analysis of protein isoforms that differ in a histone-binding domain. We are applying it to ChIP-Seq analysis to identify the targets of the KDM5A/JARID1A/RBP2 histone demethylase.

Genoma Analisi mediante ChIP per identificare Isoform obiettivi specifici per Gene

Recruitment of transcriptional and epigenetic factors to their targets is a key step in their regulation. Prominently featured in recruitment are the ...

High-throughput Screening and Biosensing with Fluorescent C. elegans Strains

High-throughput screening (HTS) is a powerful approach for identifying chemical modulators of biological processes. However, many compounds identified in screens using cell culture models are often found to be toxic or pharmacologically inactive in vivo1-2. Screening in whole animal models can help avoid these pitfalls and streamline the path to drug development.
C. elegans is a multicellular model organism well suited for HTS. It is small (&lt;1 mm) and can be economically cultured and dispensed in liquids. C. elegans is also one of the most experimentally tractable animal models permitting rapid and detailed identification of drug mode-of-action3.
We describe a protocol for culturing and dispensing fluorescent strains of C. elegans for high-throughput screening of chemical libraries or detection of environmental contaminants that alter the expression of a specific gene. Large numbers of developmentally synchronized worms are grown in liquid culture, harvested, washed, and suspended at a defined density. Worms are then added to black, flat-bottomed 384-well plates using a peristaltic liquid dispenser. Small molecules from a chemical library or test samples (e.g., water, food, or soil) can be added to wells with worms. In vivo, real-time fluorescence intensity is measured with a fluorescence microplate reader. This method can be adapted to any inducible gene in C. elegans for which a suitable reporter is available. Many inducible stress and developmental transcriptional pathways are well defined in C. elegans and GFP transgenic reporter strains already exist for many of them4. When combined with the appropriate transgenic reporters, our method can be used to screen for pathway modulators or to develop robust biosensor assays for environmental contaminants. 
We demonstrate our C. elegans culture and dispensing protocol with an HTS assay we developed to monitor the C. elegans cap &#x2018;n&#x2019; collar transcription factor SKN-1. SKN-1 and its mammalian homologue Nrf2 activate cytoprotective genes during oxidative and xenobiotic stress5-10. Nrf2 protects mammals from numerous age-related disorders such as cancer, neurodegeneration, and chronic inflammation and has become a major chemotherapeutic target11-13.Our assay is based on a GFP transgenic reporter for the SKN-1 target gene gst-414, which encodes a glutathione-s transferase6. The gst-4 reporter is also a biosensor for xenobiotic and oxidative chemicals that activate SKN-1 and can be used to detect low levels of contaminants such as acrylamide and methyl-mercury15-16.

High-throughput Screening and Biosensing with Fluorescent C. elegans Strains

A procedure for liquid-based culturing and dispensing of C. elegans strains expressing fluorescent reporter proteins is described that does not require expensive sorting equipment. This approach can be applied to numerous inducible C. elegans genes for drug discovery or biosensing of contaminants.

High-throughput screening e biopercezione con fluorescente C. elegans Ceppi

High-throughput screening (HTS) is a powerful approach for identifying chemical modulators of biological processes.  However, many compounds identified in ...

RNAi Screening to Identify Postembryonic Phenotypes in C. elegans

C. elegans has proven to be a valuable model system for the discovery and functional characterization of many genes and gene pathways1. More sophisticated tools and resources for studies in this system are facilitating continued discovery of genes with more subtle phenotypes or roles. 
Here we present a generalized protocol we adapted for identifying C. elegans genes with postembryonic phenotypes of interest using RNAi2. This procedure is easily modified to assay the phenotype of choice, whether by light or fluorescence optics on a dissecting or compound microscope. This screening protocol capitalizes on the physical assets of the organism and molecular tools the C. elegans research community has produced. As an example, we demonstrate the use of an integrated transgene that expresses a fluorescent product in an RNAi screen to identify genes required for the normal localization of this product in late stage larvae and adults. First, we used a commercially available genomic RNAi library with full-length cDNA inserts. This library facilitates the rapid identification of multiple candidates by RNAi reduction of the candidate gene product. Second, we generated an integrated transgene that expresses our fluorecently tagged protein of interest in an RNAi-sensitive background. Third, by exposing hatched animals to RNAi, this screen permits identification of gene products that have a vital embryonic role that would otherwise mask a post-embryonic role in regulating the protein of interest. Lastly, this screen uses a compound microscope equipped for single cell resolution.

RNAi Screening to Identify Postembryonic Phenotypes in C. elegans

We describe a sensitized method to identify postembryonic regulators of protein expression and localization in C. elegans using an RNAi-based genomic screen and an integrated transgene that expresses a functional, fluorescently tagged protein.

RNAi di screening per identificare fenotipi postembrionale in C. elegans</em

C. elegans has proven to be a valuable model system for the discovery and functional characterization of many genes and gene pathways1. More sophisticated ...

High-throughput Physical Mapping of Chromosomes using Automated in situ Hybridization

Projects to obtain whole-genome sequences for 10,000 vertebrate species1 and for 5,000 insect and related arthropod species2 are expected to take place over the next 5 years. For example, the sequencing of the genomes for 15 malaria mosquitospecies is currently being done using an Illumina platform3,4. This Anopheles species cluster includes both vectors and non-vectors of malaria. When the genome assemblies become available, researchers will have the unique opportunity to perform comparative analysis for inferring evolutionary changes relevant to vector ability. However, it has proven difficult to use next-generation sequencing reads to generate high-quality de novo genome assemblies5. Moreover, the existing genome assemblies for Anopheles gambiae, although obtained using the Sanger method, are gapped or fragmented4,6.
Success of comparative genomic analyses will be limited if researchers deal with numerous sequencing contigs, rather than with chromosome-based genome assemblies. Fragmented, unmapped sequences create problems for genomic analyses because: (i) unidentified gaps cause incorrect or incomplete annotation of genomic sequences; (ii) unmapped sequences lead to confusion between paralogous genes and genes from different haplotypes; and (iii) the lack of chromosome assignment and orientation of the sequencing contigs does not allow for reconstructing rearrangement phylogeny and studying chromosome evolution. Developing high-resolution physical maps for species with newly sequenced genomes is a timely and cost-effective investment that will facilitate genome annotation, evolutionary analysis, and re-sequencing of individual genomes from natural populations7,8.
Here, we present innovative approaches to chromosome preparation, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and imaging that facilitate rapid development of physical maps. Using An. gambiae as an example, we demonstrate that the development of physical chromosome maps can potentially improve genome assemblies and, thus, the quality of genomic analyses. First, we use a high-pressure method to prepare polytene chromosome spreads. This method, originally developed for Drosophila9, allows the user to visualize more details on chromosomes than the regular squashing technique10. Second, a fully automated, front-end system for FISH is used for high-throughput physical genome mapping. The automated slide staining system runs multiple assays simultaneously and dramatically reduces hands-on time11. Third, an automatic fluorescent imaging system, which includes a motorized slide stage, automatically scans and photographs labeled chromosomes after FISH12. This system is especially useful for identifying and visualizing multiple chromosomal plates on the same slide. In addition, the scanning process captures a more uniform FISH result. Overall, the automated high-throughput physical mapping protocol is more efficient than a standard manual protocol.

High-throughput Physical Mapping of Chromosomes using Automated in situ Hybridization

Genome assemblies based on massively parallel DNA sequencing technologies are usually highly fragmented. The development of physical chromosome maps can potentially improve genome assemblies. Here, we demonstrate innovative approaches to chromosome preparation, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and imaging that significantly increase throughput of the physical map development.

High-throughput mappatura fisica dei cromosomi con modalità automatizzate<em&gt; In situ</em&gt; Ibridazione

Projects to obtain whole-genome sequences for 10,000 vertebrate species1 and for 5,000 insect and related arthropod species2 are expected to take place ...

Genome-wide Gene Deletions in Streptococcus sanguinis by High Throughput PCR

Transposon mutagenesis and single-gene deletion are two methods applied in genome-wide gene knockout in bacteria 1,2. Although transposon mutagenesis is less time consuming, less costly, and does not require completed genome information, there are two weaknesses in this method: (1) the possibility of a disparate mutants in the mixed mutant library that counter-selects mutants with decreased competition; and (2) the possibility of partial gene inactivation whereby genes do not entirely lose their function following the insertion of a transposon. Single-gene deletion analysis may compensate for the drawbacks associated with transposon mutagenesis. To improve the efficiency of genome-wide single gene deletion, we attempt to establish a high-throughput technique for genome-wide single gene deletion using Streptococcus sanguinis as a model organism. Each gene deletion construct in S. sanguinis genome is designed to comprise 1-kb upstream of the targeted gene, the aphA-3 gene, encoding kanamycin resistance protein, and 1-kb downstream of the targeted gene. Three sets of primers F1/R1, F2/R2, and F3/R3, respectively, are designed and synthesized in a 96-well plate format for PCR-amplifications of those three components of each deletion construct. Primers R1 and F3 contain 25-bp sequences that are complementary to regions of the aphA-3 gene at their 5' end. A large scale PCR amplification of the aphA-3 gene is performed once for creating all single-gene deletion constructs. The promoter of aphA-3 gene is initially excluded to minimize the potential polar effect of kanamycin cassette. To create the gene deletion constructs, high-throughput PCR amplification and purification are performed in a 96-well plate format. A linear recombinant PCR amplicon for each gene deletion will be made up through four PCR reactions using high-fidelity DNA polymerase. The initial exponential growth phase of S. sanguinis cultured in Todd Hewitt broth supplemented with 2.5% inactivated horse serum is used to increase competence for the transformation of PCR-recombinant constructs. Under this condition, up to 20% of S. sanguinis cells can be transformed using ~50 ng of DNA. Based on this approach, 2,048 mutants with single-gene deletion were ultimately obtained from the 2,270 genes in S. sanguinis excluding four gene ORFs contained entirely within other ORFs in S. sanguinis SK36 and 218 potential essential genes. The technique on creating gene deletion constructs is high throughput and could be easy to use in genome-wide single gene deletions for any transformable bacteria.

Genome-wide Gene Deletions in Streptococcus sanguinis by High Throughput PCR

An efficient genome-wide single gene mutation method has been established using Streptococcus sanguinis as a model organism. This method has achieved via high throughput recombinant PCRs and transformations.

Genome-wide gene delezioni in<em&gt; Streptococcus sanguinis</em&gt; Da Throughput PCR ad alta

Transposon  mutagenesis and single-gene deletion are two methods applied in genome-wide  gene knockout in bacteria 1,2. Although transposon mutagenesis is ...

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates. Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis behavior.
 The premise behind testing the response of the worms to an odorant is to place them in an area and observe the movement evoked in response to an odorant. Even with the many available assays, optimizing worm starting location relative to both the control and test areas, while minimizing the interaction of worms with each other, while maintaining a significant sample size remains a work in progress 1-10. The method described here aims to address these issues by modifying the assay developed by Bargmann et al.1. A Petri dish is divided into four quadrants, two opposite quadrants marked "Test" and two are designated "Control". Anesthetic is placed in all test and control sites. The worms are placed in the center of the plate with a circle marked around the origin to ensure that non-motile worms will be ignored. Utilizing a four-quadrant system rather than one 2 or two 1 eliminates bias in the movement of the worms, as they are equidistant from test and control samples, regardless of which side of the origin they began. This circumvents the problem of worms being forced to travel through a cluster of other worms to respond to an odorant, which can delay worms or force them to take a more circuitous route, yielding an incorrect interpretation of their intended path. This method also shows practical advantages by having a larger sample size and allowing the researcher to run the assay unattended and score the worms once the allotted time has expired.

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

A method of quantitatively evaluating the chemotactic response of Caenorhabditis elegans is described. A chemotactic index (CI) was employed as a way to precisely evaluate the response of worms to certain targets, and serve as a platform of comparison between strains and compounds of interest.

C. elegans Chemiotassi Assay

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates.  Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis ...

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as it relates to human obesity and its associated pathologies. Several previous methodologies developed for the visualization of C. elegans triglyceride-rich fat stores have proven to be erroneous, highlighting cellular compartments other than lipid droplets. Other methods require specialized equipment, are time-consuming, or yield inconsistent results. We introduce a rapid, reproducible, fixative-based Nile red staining method for the accurate and rapid detection of neutral lipid droplets in C. elegans. A short fixation step in 40% isopropanol makes animals completely permeable to Nile red, which is then used to stain animals. Spectral properties of this lipophilic dye allow it to strongly and selectively fluoresce in the yellow-green spectrum only when in a lipid-rich environment, but not in more polar environments. Thus, lipid droplets can be visualized on a fluorescent microscope equipped with simple GFP imaging capability after only a brief Nile red staining step in isopropanol. The speed, affordability, and reproducibility of this protocol make it ideally suited for high throughput screens. We also demonstrate a paired method for the biochemical determination of triglycerides and phospholipids using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. This more rigorous protocol should be used as confirmation of results obtained from the Nile red microscopic lipid determination. We anticipate that these techniques will become new standards in the field of C. elegans metabolic research.

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

We present robust biochemical and microscopic methods for studying Caenorhabditis elegans lipid stores. A rapid, simple, fixing-staining procedure for fluorescent lipid droplet imaging leverages the spectral properties of the lipophilic dye Nile red. We then present biochemical measurement of triglycerides and phospholipids using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Biochimica e High Throughput valutazione microscopica di massa grassa in<em&gt; Caenorhabditis Elegans</em

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important  model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as  it relates to human ...

High-throughput Screening for Chemical Modulators of Post-transcriptionally Regulated Genes

Both transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation have a profound impact on genes expression. However, commonly adopted cell-based screening assays focus on transcriptional regulation, being essentially aimed at the identification of promoter-targeting molecules. As a result, post-transcriptional mechanisms are largely uncovered by gene expression targeted drug development. Here we describe a cell-based assay aimed at investigating the role of the 3&#39; untranslated region (3&#8217; UTR) in the modulation of the fate of its mRNA, and at identifying compounds able to modify it. The assay is based on the use of a luciferase reporter construct containing the 3&#8217; UTR of a gene of interest stably integrated into a disease-relevant cell line. The protocol is divided into two parts, with the initial focus on the primary screening aimed at the identification of molecules affecting luciferase activity after 24 hr of treatment. The second part of the protocol describes the counter-screening necessary to discriminate compounds modulating luciferase activity specifically through the 3&#8217; UTR. In addition to the detailed protocol and representative results, we provide important considerations about the assay development and the validation of the hit(s) on the endogenous target. The described cell-based reporter gene assay will allow scientists to identify molecules modulating protein levels via post-transcriptional mechanisms dependent on a 3&#8217; UTR.

Here we describe a cell-based reporter gene assay as a valuable tool to screen chemical libraries for compounds modulating post-transcriptional control mechanisms exerted through 3&#8217; UTR.

Screening ad alto rendimento per i modulatori chimici di Genes post-trascrizionale regolamentati

Both transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation have a profound impact on genes expression. However, commonly adopted cell-based screening assays ...

DamID-seq: Genome-wide Mapping of Protein-DNA Interactions by High Throughput Sequencing of Adenine-methylated DNA Fragments

The DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) assay is a powerful method to detect protein-DNA interactions both locally and genome-wide. It is an alternative approach to chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). An expressed fusion protein consisting of the protein of interest and the E. coli DNA adenine methyltransferase can methylate the adenine base in GATC motifs near the sites of protein-DNA interactions. Adenine-methylated DNA fragments can then be specifically amplified and detected. The original DamID assay detects the genomic locations of methylated DNA fragments by hybridization to DNA microarrays, which is limited by the availability of microarrays and the density of predetermined probes. In this paper, we report the detailed protocol of integrating high throughput DNA sequencing into DamID (DamID-seq). The large number of short reads generated from DamID-seq enables detecting and localizing protein-DNA interactions genome-wide with high precision and sensitivity. We have used the DamID-seq assay to study genome-nuclear lamina (NL) interactions in mammalian cells, and have noticed that DamID-seq provides a high resolution and a wide dynamic range in detecting genome-NL interactions. The DamID-seq approach enables probing NL associations within gene structures and allows comparing genome-NL interaction maps with other functional genomic data, such as ChIP-seq and RNA-seq.

We describe herein an assay by coupling DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) to high throughput sequencing (DamID-seq). This improved method provides a higher resolution and a wider dynamic range, and allows analyzing DamID-seq data in conjunction with other high throughput sequencing data such as ChIP-seq, RNA-seq, etc.

DamID-seq: Genome-wide Mappatura delle interazioni proteina-DNA da High Throughput Sequencing di Adenina-metilato frammenti di DNA

The DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) assay is a powerful method to detect protein-DNA interactions both locally and genome-wide. It is ...