Il lavoro nel laboratorio degli autori è stato sostenuto dalla Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (http://www.dfg.de; CO 1139/1-1), il Fonds der Chemischen Industrie (http://www.vci.de/fonds) e il Centro di Biologia Molecolare di Gottinga (GZMB). Gli autori vorrebbero riconoscere Jörg Stülke per i commenti utili e la lettura critica del manoscritto.

1. Preparazione di piatti Agar, media culturali, criostock e preculture
<ol><li>Preparare i mezzi di crescita e i reagenti richiesti (vedi tabella dei materiali e dei reagenti).</li>
	<li>Striature i ceppi di B. subtilis (ad es. BP40 (rocG+ gudBCR amyE::PgudB-yfp) e BP52 (rocG+ gudB+ amyE::PgudB-cfp) esprimendo rispettivamente uno e due GDH attivi)2 che saranno utilizzati nell'esperimento di competizione su piastre di agar medie SP per ottenere singole colonie. Incubare le piastre durante la notte a 37 °C.</li>
	<li>Assumere singole colonie e inoculare tubi di coltura sterile contenenti 4 ml di mezzo liquido LB. Far crescere i batteri durante la notte a 28 °C e 220 giri/min.</li>
	<li>Coltivare colture notturne a 28 °C per evitare che le cellule si lecivano o spopolano.</li>
	<li>Misurare la densità ottica delle colture ad una lunghezza d'onda di 600 nm (OD600) utilizzando uno spettrofotometro standard.</li>
	<li>Se le colture hanno raggiunto un OD600 di 2.0, mescolare 0,75 ml delle colture con 0,75 ml di una soluzione sterile di glicerolo al 50% in tubi di reazione da 1,5 ml. L'OD600 finale deve essere 1.0 per ottenere criostock contenenti circa 108 cellule/ml.</li>
	<li>Conservare i tubi a -80 °C.</li>
	<li>Creare tre preculture di ogni ceppo etichettate con i geni cfp e yfp che codificano i geni del fluoroforo. Inoculare le precolture (tubi di coltura sterile contenenti 4 ml di mezzo liquido LB) con 1 μl di cellule da criostock a -80 °C. Incubare le colture durante la notte a 28 °C e 220 giri/min.</li>
</ol>2. Cocultivazione di batteri, raccolta di campioni e stoccaggio dei campioni
<ol><li>Preparare al minimo 100 ml di C-Glc e CE-Glc (vedi tabella dei reagenti e dei materiali) e trasferire 20 ml di ogni mezzo in contenitori sterili da 100 ml di frullato.</li>
	<li>Assumere 0,1 ml delle preculture coltivate durante la notte, diluirle con un mezzo LB da 0,9 ml in una cuvetta da 1,5 ml e determinare l'OD600.</li>
	<li>Per l'esperimento di competizione, prendere quelle preculture dei diversi ceppi che hanno un OD600 simile tra 1.0-1.5.</li>
	<li>Per ottenere popolazioni di cellule miste, diluire le cellule delle precolture che avevano l'OD600 appropriato a un OD600 di 0,05 in 20 ml di C-Glc e ce-Glc minimo mezzo integrato in flaconi di frullato da 100 ml. Per l'esperimento di competizione i due ceppi dovrebbero essere mescolati in un rapporto 1:1.</li>
	<li>Prelevare campioni da 10 ml dai contenitori, trasferirli in tubi di plastica da 15 ml, raccogliere le cellule per centrifugazione per 10 min a 4.000 x g in una centrifuga da tavolo standard e scartare il supernatante.</li>
	<li>Rimorsi le cellule in un mezzo LB fresco da 0,5 ml e trasferire le cellule in una tazza di reazione sterile da 1,5 ml. Aggiungere 0,5 ml di glicerolo sterile al 50%, mescolare la sospensione con un vortice rigoroso e conservare i campioni in un congelatore a -80 °C fino a un ulteriore trattamento.</li>
	<li>Incubare le cellule che vengono lasciate nei contenitori di scuotimento per un massimo di 24 ore a 37 °C e 220 giri/min. Tenere i mastri di scuotimento al buio per evitare lo sbiancamento fotografico dei fluorofori.</li>
	<li>Prelevare ulteriori campioni da 0,1 ml dopo 7 ore e 24 ore di crescita. Misurare e notare l'OD600 di diluizioni 1:10 (in C-Glc o CE-Glc mezzo minimo) dei campioni.</li>
	<li>Prendi la quantità appropriata di cellule da ogni coltura per creare criostock che hanno un OD600 di 1,0. Conservare i campioni a -80 °C fino a un ulteriore trattamento.</li>
</ol>3. Trattamento del campione, placcatura e incubazione per analisi quantitative
<ol><li>Dopo aver raccolto tutti i campioni, scongelare i criostock e diluire le cellule in una soluzione salina allo 0,9% (vedi tabella dei reagenti e dei materiali) fino a10-3.</li>
	<li>Piastra 0,1 ml delle10-3 diluizioni su piastre di agar medie SP e distribuire le celle utilizzando pipette di vetro sterili.</li>
	<li>Incubare le piastre durante la notte a 37 °C al buio fino a quando non sono apparse singole colonie.</li>
</ol>4. Conteggio dei sopravvissuti mediante microscopia a fluorescenza stereo per l'analisi quantitativa
<ol><li>Dividi il fondo della piastra dell'agar con una penna nera in quattro parti per un migliore orientamento mentre conti i sopravvissuti sotto il microscopio a fluorescenza stereo.</li>
	<li>Posizionare la piastra capovolta al microscopio e mettere a fuoco le colonie utilizzando la fonte di luce fredda.</li>
	<li>Una volta che le colonie sono a fuoco, passare al set di filtri appropriato per la PCP per visualizzare le cellule sopravvissute del ceppoetichettato cfp. Conta i sopravvissuti di questo ceppo etichettando le colonie con una penna e annota il numero.</li>
	<li>Rimuovere le etichette con etanolo e passare al filtro YFP impostato per visualizzare le cellule sopravvissute del ceppo etichettato yfp. Conta di nuovo i sopravvissuti etichettando le colonie con una penna e annota il numero.</li>
</ol>5. Trattamento del campione e microscopia per analisi semiquantitative
<ol><li>Per cifre illustrative, individuare 10 μl della diluizione10-4 (circa 100 celle) dal passaggio 3.1 su una piastra di agar SP (vedere figura 3).</li>
	<li>Incubare le piastre durante la notte a 37 °C al buio fino a quando non sono apparse singole colonie.</li>
	<li>Posizionare la piastra di Petri senza coperchio al microscopio e mettere a fuoco il punto utilizzando la fonte di luce fredda.</li>
	<li>Scatta foto dei punti per figure illustrative. Scegli un tempo di esposizione appropriato per scattare le foto delle colonie con la fonte di luce fredda.</li>
	<li>Senza spostare la piastra, passare al set di filtri CFP, regolare il tempo di esposizione e scattare una foto. Fai lo stesso con il set di filtri YFP e salva le immagini per ulteriori analisi.</li>
</ol>6. Analisi dei dati
<ol><li>Utilizzare software come Excel per le analisi quantitative dei dati. In base alle colonie contate, calcola la percentuale di colonie gialle e blu rispetto all'intero numero di colonie, che sono impostate al 100%.</li>
	<li>Utilizzare i numeri calcolati per creare un diagramma a barre in pila (vedere figura 4 e figura 5). Utilizzate un programma di elaborazione delle immagini come Adobe Photoshop per costruire immagini unite delle immagini scattate dai diversi punti. In alternativa, il software liberamente disponibile ImageJ, scaricabile da http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/ <a href="http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/">può</a> essere utilizzato per l'elaborazione delle immagini.</li>
	<li>Aprire le immagini da un punto scattate con il set di filtri CFP e il set di filtri YFP. Ottimizza il contrasto e la luminosità per ridurre la fluorescenza di fondo dal supporto.</li>
	<li>Passare a una delle immagini e selezionare tutte. Copiare l'immagine e incollarla nell'altra immagine.</li>
	<li>Utilizzare la funzione "schivare il colore" per unire le immagini o sovrapporre le immagini fluorescenti utilizzando la scheda canali. Immagini unite delle colonie da diversi media e diversi punti di tempo rappresentano la crescita dei diversi ceppi all'interno della coltura liquida.</li>
</ol>7. Suggerimenti specifici: esperimento di commutazione di colorante e cocultivazione di ceppi isogenici etichettati con cfp e yfp
L'espressione di uno dei due geni codificanti al fluoroforo in B. subtilis potrebbe influenzare la forma fisica e quindi il tasso di crescita dei batteri. Pertanto, si raccomanda di eseguire i seguenti esperimenti al fine di escludere che l'eliminazione di un ceppo concorrente dalla popolazione cellulare durante la coltivazione sia semplicemente dovuta a un effetto negativo del fluoroforo:
<ol><li>Ripetere l'intero esperimento e cocultivare ceppi etichettati inversamente (ad esempio, il ceppo precedente etichettato cfpè ora etichettato con il gene yfp e viceversa). Sebbene inversi, i risultati ottenuti dovrebbero essere paragonabili all'osservazione precedente secondo cui un ceppo ha un vantaggio di crescita selettivo rispetto all'altro ceppo.</li>
	<li>Ripetere l'intero esperimento e cocultivare i ceppi isogenicietichettati con yfp e cfp ( ad esempio BP40 (rocG+ gudBCR amyE::PgudB-yfp) e BP41 (rocG+ gudBCR amyE::PgudB-cfp)). Stimare l'effetto negativo di uno dei due fluorofori sulla forma fisica dei batteri seguendo la composizione della popolazione cellulare nel tempo.</li>
</ol>

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Gli autori dichiarano di non avere interessi finanziari concorrenti.

Diversi metodi sono stati sviluppati per analizzare la forma fisica competitiva deibatteri 16. In molti casi i batteri sono stati etichettati con diverse cassette di resistenza agli antibiotici17. Simile al nostro approccio, l'etichettatura delle cellule con cassette di resistenza agli antibiotici consente la valutazione della forma fisica competitiva dei batteri durante la cocultivazione in condizioni di crescita definite. Inoltre, questo metodo può essere utilizzato per determinare la forma fisic...

I batteri del suolo sono solitamente dotati di reti normative flessibili e ampie capacità metaboliche. Entrambe le caratteristiche consentono alle cellule di regolare i loro percorsi catabolici e anabolizzanti per competere con i loro simili e altri microrganismi per i nutrienti, che sono disponibili in una data nicchia ecologica1. Tuttavia, se i batteri non sono in grado di adattarsi al loro ambiente, altri meccanismi possono causare la sopravvivenza di una specie. Infatti, poiché molti batteri proliferano rapidamente e le popolazioni possono raggiungere sottopopolazioni ad alta densità cellulare possono avere mutazioni benefiche accumulate spontaneamente che forniscono alle cellule un vantaggio di crescita selettivo e quindi aumentano la loro forma fisica. Inoltre, gli hotspot mutazionali e la mutagenesi adattiva indotta dallo stress possono facilitare l'evoluzione di un batteriomaladotto 2,3. Pertanto, l'accumulo di mutazioni e la crescita sotto selezione continua è l'origine dell'enorme diversità microbica, anche all'interno dellostesso genere 4,5. Come in natura, la formatura dei genomi batterici si verifica anche in laboratorio a causa della coltivazione continua in fase di selezione. Ciò è esemplificato dall'addomesticamento del batterio Gram-positivo B. subtilis, che viene utilizzato in tutto il mondo nella ricerca di base e nell'industria. Negli anni '40 B. subtilis è stato trattato con raggi X dannosi per il DNA seguiti da coltivazioni in una specifica condizione di crescita6. Le mutazioni che si sono accumulate nei batteri durante la loro addomesticamento causano la perdita di molte caratteristiche di crescita, cioè il ceppo di laboratorio B. subtilis 168 ha perso la capacità di formare colonie complesse7,8.
Al giorno d'oggi, per i batteri modello meglio studiati Escherichia coli e B. subtilis, è disponibile una varietà di potenti strumenti per manipolare geneticamente i loro genomi al fine di affrontare specifiche questioni scientifiche. A volte l'inattivazione di un gene di interesse causa un grave difetto di crescita, che è quindi chiaramente visibile sul mezzo di crescita standard9. Al contrario, le mutazioni che causano un difetto di crescita debole e quindi influenzano solo leggermente la forma fisica del ceppo vengono spesso ignorate. Tuttavia, in entrambi i casi l'incubazione prolungata e la passatura dei ceppi mutanti per diverse generazioni di solito si traducono nell'accumulo di mutanti soppressori che hanno ripristinato il fenotipo del ceppogenitore 2,9. La caratterizzazione dei mutanti soppressori e l'identificazione delle mutazioni che hanno ripristinato il difetto di crescita del ceppo mutante genitore è un approccio molto utile che consente la spiegazione di processi cellulari importanti e spessonuovi 10,11.
Siamo interessati al controllo dell'omeostasi glutammato in B. subtilis12. Simile a E. coli, B. subtilis risponde alla perturbazione dell'omeostasi del glutammato ( cioè blocco nella degradazione del glutammato2)dall'accumulodi mutanti soppressori. Le alterazioni genomiche in questi mutanti soppressori che sono state acquisite da mutazioni spontanee hanno dimostrato di ripristinare rapidamente l'omeostasi del glutammato9,13. Pertanto, non sorprende che l'adattamento di B. subtilis a una condizione di crescita specifica durante l'addomesticamento del batterio si rispecchi nella sintesi enzimatica e nelle attività enzimatiche evolute, che sono coinvolte nel metabolismo del glutammato12. È stato suggerito che la mancanza di glutammato esogeno nel mezzo di crescita durante il processo di addomesticamento sia stata la forza trainante per l'emergere e la fissazione del gene criptico glutammato deidrogenasi (GDH) gudBCR nel ceppo di laboratorio 1682,14. Questa ipotesi è supportata dalla nostra osservazione che la ridotta quantità di attività GDH nel ceppo di laboratorio fornisce ai batteri un vantaggio di crescita selettivo quando il glutammato esogeno èscarso 2. Inoltre, la coltivazione di un ceppo di B. subtilis, sintetizzando il GDH GudB, in assenza di glutammato esogeno provoca l'accumulo di mutanti soppressori che hanno inattivato il gene gudB 2. Ovviamente, la presenza di un GDH catabolicamente attivo è svantaggiosa per la cellula perché il glutammato prodotto endogenamente che potrebbe altrimenti essere utilizzato per l'anabolismo è degradato all'ammonio e al 2-ossoglutarato (Figura 1). Al contrario, quando il glutammato è fornito dal mezzo, un ceppo B. subtilis dotato di attività GDH di alto livello ha un vantaggio di crescita selettivo rispetto a un ceppo che sintetizza un solo GDH funzionale. È ragionevole supporre che l'attività gdh di alto livello consenta ai batteri di utilizzare il glutammato come seconda fonte di carbonio oltre ad altre fonti di carbonio fornite dalmezzo 2 (vedi figura 1). Pertanto, l'attività GDH influisce fortemente sulla forma fisica dei batteri, a seconda della disponibilità di glutammato esogeno.
Qui presentiamo un metodo molto illustrativo per monitorare e visualizzare la competizione intraspecie tra due ceppi di B. subtilis che differiscono in un singolo locus sul cromosoma (Figura 2). I due ceppi sono stati etichettati con i geni yfp e cfp che codificano i fluorofori YFP e CFP e cocultivati in diverse condizioni nutrizionali. Campionando nel tempo e placcando adeguate diluizioni su piastre di agar, i sopravvissuti in ciascuna delle colture potrebbero essere facilmente monitorati utilizzando un comune microscopio a fluorescenza stereo. La procedura descritta in questo articolo è facile da eseguire e adatta a visualizzare la rapida espansione clonale e l'eliminazione delle mutazioni benefiche e dannose, rispettivamente, in una popolazione cellulare nel tempo.

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			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:363px;">(NH4)2SO4&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
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			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Agar</td>
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		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="61" rowspan="2" style="height:61px;width:363px;">Ammonium ferric citrate (CAF)</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Sigma-Aldrich, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">9714</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:363px;">CaCl2&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">5239</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Applichem, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">A3617</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">4043</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:363px;">K2HPO4 x 3 H2O</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">6878</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Applichem, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">A3582</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:363px;">KH2PO4</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">3904</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">KOH</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">6751</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:363px;">MgSO4 x 7 H2O&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">P027</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:363px;">MnCl2&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">T881</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="61" rowspan="2" style="height:61px;width:363px;">MnSO4 x 4 H2O</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Merck Millipore, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">102786</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">9265</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Nutrient broth</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">X929</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Potassium glutamate</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Applichem, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">A3712</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Tryptone</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">8952</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Tryptophan</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Applichem, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">A3445</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Yeast extract</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Roth, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">2363</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">1.5 ml Reaction tubes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sarstedt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">72,690,001</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">2.0 ml Reaction tubes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sarstedt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">72,691</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">15 ml Plastic tubes with screw cap</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sarstedt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">62,554,001</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Petri dishes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sarstedt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">82.1473</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">1.5 ml Polystyrene cuvettes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Sarstedt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">67,742</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">15 ml Glass culture tubes&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Brand, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">7790 22</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">with aluminium caps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">100 ml Shake flasks with aluminium caps</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Brand, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">928 24</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Sterile 10 ml glass pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Brand, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">278 23</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Incubator (28 and 37 &#176;C)</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">New Brunswick</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">M1282-0012</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="85" rowspan="3" style="height:85px;width:363px;">Standard pipette set (2-20 &#956;l, 10-100 &#956;l, 100-1000 &#956;l)</td>
			<td rowspan="3" style="width:175px;">Eppendorf, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">4910&#160;000.034, 4910 000.042,&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="3" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:111px;">4910 000.042,</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:111px;">4910 000.069&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="80">
			<td height="101" rowspan="2" style="height:101px;width:363px;">Table top centrifuge for 1.5 and 2 ml reaction tubes</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Thermo Scientific, Heraeus Fresco 21, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">75002425</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="81" rowspan="2" style="height:81px;width:363px;">Table top centrifuge for 15 ml plastic tubes</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Heraeus Biofuge Primo R, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">75005440</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
		</tr>
		<tr height="80">
			<td height="101" rowspan="2" style="height:101px;width:363px;">Standard spectrophotometer</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Amersham Biosciences Ultrospec 2100 pro, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">80-2112-21&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:363px;">Stereofluorescence microscope&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Zeiss SteREO Lumar V12, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">495008-0009-000</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Freezer (-20 and -80 &#176;C)</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Fridge (4 &#176;C)</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:363px;">Autoclave</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Zirbus, LTA 2x3x4, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:363px;">pH meter</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">pH-meter 766, Calimatic, Knick, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">766</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="61" rowspan="2" style="height:61px;width:363px;">Vortex</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:175px;">Vortex&#160; 3, IKA, Germany</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:111px;">3340000</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="64" rowspan="3" style="height:64px;width:363px;">Balance</td>
			<td rowspan="3" style="width:175px;">CP2202S, Sartorius, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">replaced by</td>
			<td rowspan="3" style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:111px;">CPA2202S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:111px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Black pen (permanent marker)</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Staedler, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">317-9</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Powerpoint program</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Microsoft, USA</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:363px;">Office Excel program</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Microsoft, USA</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Program for data processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:363px;">Adobe Photoshop CS5</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Adobe, USA</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">replaced by CS6, download</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Computer program for image processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:363px;">Computer</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">PC or Mac</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;">ZEN pro 2011 software for the stereofluorescence microscope</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Zeiss, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">410135 1002 110</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">AxioCam MRc Rev. Obtained through Zeiss</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:22px;width:815px;">Specific solution recipes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">SP medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">8 g Nutrient broth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">0.25 mg MgSO4 x 7 H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">1 g KCl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">if required, add 15 g agar for solid SP medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">1 ml CaCl2 (0.5 M), sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">1 ml MnCl2 (10 mM) sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:22px;width:815px;">2 ml ammonium ferric citrate (CAF, 2.2 mg/ml), sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">LB medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 g Tryptone</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">5 g Yeast extract</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 g NaCl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">if required, add 15 g agar for solid LB medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">C-Glc minimal medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">200 ml 5 x C salts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 ml L-Tryptophan (5 mg/ml), sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 ml ammonium ferric citrate (CAF, 2.2 mg/ml), sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 ml III&#8217; salts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">25 ml Glucose (20%), autoclaved for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with sterile H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">CE-Glc minimal medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">200 ml 5 x C salts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 ml L-Tryptophan (5 mg/ml), sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 ml ammonium ferric citrate (CAF, 2.2 mg/ml), sterilized by filtration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">10 ml III&#8217; salts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">20 ml Glutamate (40%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">25 ml Glucose (20%), autoclaved for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with sterile H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">5 x C salts&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">20 g KH2PO4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">80 g K2HPO4 x 3 H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">16.5 g (NH4)2SO4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with sterile H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">III&#8217; salts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">0.232 g MnSO4 x 4 H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">12.3 g MgSO4 x 7 H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with sterile H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">40% Glutamate solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">200 g L-Glutamic acid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">adjust the pH to 7.0 by adding approximately 80 g KOH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 0.5 l with sterile H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">0.9% Saline (NaCl) solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 1 l with sterile H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">50% Glycerol solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;width:815px;">295 ml Glycerol (87%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:23px;width:815px;">ad 0.5 l with sterile H2O, autoclave for 20 min at 121 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="4" height="22" style="height:22px;width:815px;">Bacteria (All strains are based on the Bacillus subtilis strain 168)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="3" height="21" style="height:21px;width:648px;">Bacillus subtilis BP40 (rocG+ gudBCR amyE::PgudB-yfp)&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="4" style="width:167px;">Laboratory strain collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="3" height="21" style="height:21px;width:648px;">Bacillus subtilis BP41 (rocG+ gudBCR amyE::PgudB-cfp)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="3" height="21" style="height:21px;width:648px;">Bacillus subtilis BP52 (rocG+ gudB+ amyE::PgudB-cfp)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="3" height="21" style="height:21px;width:648px;">Bacillus subtilis BP156 (rocG+ gudB+ amyE::PgudB-yfp)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

monitoring intraspecies competition in a bacterial cell population by cocultivation of fluorescently labelled strains

Molti microrganismi come i batteri proliferano estremamente velocemente e le popolazioni possono raggiungere alte densità cellulari. Piccole frazioni di cellule in una popolazione hanno sempre mutazioni accumulate che sono dannose o benefiche per la cellula. Se l'effetto di forma fisica di una mutazione fornisce alla sottopopolazione un forte vantaggio di crescita selettiva, gli individui di questa sottopopolazione possono rapidamente sovracompetarsi e persino eliminare completamente i loro compagni immediati. Pertanto, piccoli cambiamenti genetici e accumulo di cellule basate sulla selezione che hanno acquisito mutazioni benefiche possono portare a uno spostamento completo del genotipo di una popolazione cellulare. Qui presentiamo una procedura per monitorare la rapida espansione clonale e l'eliminazione delle mutazioni benefiche e dannose, rispettivamente, in una popolazione di cellule batteriche nel tempo per cocultivazione di individui etichettati fluorescentmente del batterio modello Gram-positivo Bacillus subtilis. Il metodo è facile da eseguire e molto illustrativo per mostrare la competizione intraspecie tra gli individui in una popolazione di cellule batteriche.

Il metodo qui descritto è stato applicato con successo per visualizzare la concorrenza intraspecie in una popolazione cellulare costituita da ceppi di B. subtilis etichettati rispettivamente con i geni cfp e yfp che codificano i fluorofori CFP e YFP. Come illustrato nella figura 3, il metodo può essere utilizzato per visualizzare la concorrenza intraspecie in modo molto illustrativo. Individuando i campioni su piccole aree, la composizione clonale della popolazione cellulare ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Intraspecies Competition in a Bacterial Cell Population by Cocultivation of Fluorescently Labelled Strains at JoVE.com

Monitoring Intraspecies Competition in a Bacterial Cell Population by Cocultivation of Fluorescently Labelled Strains

I batteri possono accumulare mutazioni dannose o benefiche durante la loro vita. In una popolazione di cellule individui che hanno accumulato mutazioni benefiche possono rapidamente sovracompetire i loro simili. Qui presentiamo una procedura semplice per visualizzare la competizione intraspecie in una popolazione di cellule batteriche nel tempo utilizzando individui etichettati fluorescentmente.

Monitoraggio della concorrenza intraspecie in una popolazione di cellule batteriche mediante cocultivazione di ceppi marcati fluorescentmente

Many microorganisms such as bacteria proliferate extremely fast and the populations may reach high cell densities. Small fractions of cells in a ...

monitoring-intraspecies-competition-bacterial-cell-population

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

8.4K Views.  Georg-August University. I batteri possono accumulare mutazioni dannose o benefiche durante la loro vita. In una popolazione di cellule individui che hanno accumulato mutazioni benefiche possono rapidamente sovracompetire i loro simili. Qui presentiamo una procedura semplice per visualizzare la competizione intraspecie in una popolazione di cellule batteriche nel tempo utilizzando individui etichettati fluorescentmente.

Video: Monitoring Intraspecies Competition in a Bacterial Cell Population by Cocultivation of Fluorescently Labelled Strains

Title Cell Encapsulation by Droplets

Titolo Incapsulamento cella di goccioline

Ricerca

Biologia

Derivation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells by Immunosurgery

The ability of human embryonic stem cells to self-renew and differentiate into all cell types of 
the body suggests that they hold great promise for both medical applications and as a research 
tool for addressing fundamental questions in development and disease. Here, we provide a 
concise, step-by-step protocol for the derivation of human embryonic stem cells from embryos 
by immunosurgical isolation of the inner cell mass. 


The ability of human embryonic stem cells to self-renew and differentiate into all cell types of 
the body suggests that they hold great promise for both medical applications and as a research 
tool for addressing fundamental questions in development and disease. Here, we provide a 
concise, step-by-step protocol for the derivation of human embryonic stem cells from embryos 
by immunosurgical isolation of the inner cell mass.

Derivazione di cellule staminali embrionali umane da Immunosurgery

The ability of human embryonic stem cells to self-renew and differentiate into all cell types of 
the body suggests that they hold great promise for both ...

Monitoring Dynamic Changes In Mitochondrial Calcium Levels During Apoptosis Using A Genetically Encoded Calcium Sensor

Dynamic changes in intracellular calcium concentration in response to various stimuli regulates many cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis1. During apoptosis, calcium accumulation in mitochondria promotes the release of pro-apoptotic factors from the mitochondria into the cytosol2. It is therefore of interest to directly measure mitochondrial calcium in living cells in situ during apoptosis. High-resolution fluorescent imaging of cells loaded with dual-excitation ratiometric and non-ratiometric synthetic calcium indicator dyes has been proven to be a reliable and versatile tool to study various aspects of intracellular calcium signaling. Measuring cytosolic calcium fluxes using these techniques is relatively straightforward. However, measuring intramitochondrial calcium levels in intact cells using synthetic calcium indicators such as rhod-2 and rhod-FF is more challenging. Synthetic indicators targeted to mitochondria have blunted responses to repetitive increases in mitochondrial calcium, and disrupt mitochondrial morphology3. Additionally, synthetic indicators tend to leak out of mitochondria over several hours which makes them unsuitable for long-term experiments. Thus, genetically encoded calcium indicators based upon green fluorescent protein (GFP)4 or aequorin5 targeted to mitochondria have greatly facilitated measurement of mitochondrial calcium dynamics. Here, we describe a simple method for real-time measurement of mitochondrial calcium fluxes in response to different stimuli. The method is based on fluorescence microscopy of 'ratiometric-pericam' which is selectively targeted to mitochondria. Ratiometric pericam is a calcium indicator based on a fusion of circularly permuted yellow fluorescent protein and calmodulin4. Binding of calcium to ratiometric pericam causes a shift of its excitation peak from 415 nm to 494 nm, while the emission spectrum, which peaks around 515 nm, remains unchanged. Ratiometric pericam binds a single calcium ion with a dissociation constant in vitro of ~1.7 &mu;M4. These properties of ratiometric pericam allow the quantification of rapid and long-term changes in mitochondrial calcium concentration. Furthermore, we describe adaptation of this methodology to a standard wide-field calcium imaging microscope with commonly available filter sets. Using two distinct agonists, the purinergic agonist ATP and apoptosis-inducing drug staurosporine, we demonstrate that this method is appropriate for monitoring changes in mitochondrial calcium concentration with a temporal resolution of seconds to hours. Furthermore, we also demonstrate that ratiometric pericam is also useful for measuring mitochondrial fission/fragmentation during apoptosis. Thus, ratiometric pericam is particularly well suited for continuous long-term measurement of mitochondrial calcium dynamics during apoptosis.

This protocol describes a method for real-time measurement of mitochondrial calcium fluxes by fluorescent imaging. The method takes advantage of a circularly permutated YFP-based dual-excitation ratiometric calcium sensor (ratiometric pericam-mt) selectively expressed in mitochondria.

Monitoraggio Cambiamenti dei livelli di calcio mitocondriale durante l&#39;apoptosi mediante un sensore di calcio geneticamente codificato

Dynamic changes in intracellular calcium concentration in response to various stimuli regulates many cellular processes such as proliferation, ...

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1. Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a wide range of cytotoxic stresses. These insults initiate signaling cascades that ultimately cause the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm2. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a key event that triggers the rapid activation of caspases, the key cellular proteases which ultimately execute cell death3-4.
The pathway of apoptosis is regulated at points upstream and downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria5. In order to study the post-mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation, many investigators have turned to direct cytoplasmic microinjection of holocytochrome c (heme-attached) protein into cells6-9. Cytochrome c is normally localized to the mitochondria where attachment of a heme group is necessary to enable it to activate apoptosis10-11. Therefore, to directly activate caspases, it is necessary to inject the holocytochrome c protein instead of its cDNA, because while the expression of cytochrome c from cDNA constructs will result in mitochondrial targeting and heme attachment, it will be sequestered from cytosolic caspases. Thus, the direct cytosolic microinjection of purified heme-attached cytochrome c protein is a useful tool to mimic mitochondrial cytochrome c release and apoptosis without the use of toxic insults which cause cellular and mitochondrial damage.
In this article, we describe a method for the microinjection of cytochrome c protein into cells, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and primary sympathetic neurons as examples. While this protocol focuses on the injection of cytochrome c for investigations of apoptosis, the techniques shown here can also be easily adapted for microinjection of other proteins of interest.

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

In this protocol, we describe the direct cytoplasmic microinjection of cytochrome c protein into fibroblasts and primary sympathetic neurons. This technique allows for the introduction of cytochrome c protein into the cytoplasm of cells and mimics the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which occurs during apoptosis.

Attivazione di apoptosi da Microiniezione citoplasmatici del Citocromo C</em

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1.  Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a ...

Monitoring Kinase and Phosphatase Activities Through the Cell Cycle by Ratiometric FRET

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such probes typically consist of variants of CFP and YFP, intervened by a phosphorylatable sequence and a phospho-binding domain. Upon phosphorylation, the probe changes conformation, which results in a change of the distance or orientation between CFP and YFP, leading to a change in FRET efficiency (Fig 1). Several probes have been published during the last decade, monitoring the activity balance of multiple kinases and phosphatases, including reporters of PKA2, PKB3, PKC4, PKD5, ERK6, JNK7, Cdk18, Aurora B9 and Plk19. Given the modular design, additional probes are likely to emerge in the near future10. 
Progression through the cell cycle is affected by stress signaling pathways 11. Notably, the cell cycle is regulated differently during unperturbed growth compared to when cells are recovering from stress12.Time-lapse imaging of cells through the cell cycle therefore requires particular caution. This becomes a problem particularly when employing ratiometric imaging, since two images with a high signal to noise ratio are required to correctly interpret the results. Ratiometric FRET imaging of cell cycle dependent changes in kinase and phosphatase activities has predominately been restricted to sub-sections of the cell cycle8,9,13,14.
Here, we discuss a method to monitor FRET-based probes using ratiometric imaging throughout the human cell cycle. The method relies on equipment that is available to many researchers in life sciences and does not require expert knowledge of microscopy or image processing.

FRET-based reporters are increasingly used to monitor kinase and phosphatase activities in live cells. Here we describe a method on how to use FRET-based reporters to assess cell cycle-dependent changes in target phosphorylation.

Monitoraggio Attività chinasi e fosfatasi attraverso il ciclo cellulare da raziometrica FRET

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such ...

Determination of Lipid Raft Partitioning of Fluorescently-tagged Probes in Living Cells by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS)

In the past fifteen years the notion that cell membranes are not homogenous and rely on microdomains to exert their functions has become widely accepted. Lipid rafts are membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids. They play a role in cellular physiological processes such as signalling, and trafficking1,2 but are also thought to be key players in several diseases including viral or bacterial infections and neurodegenerative diseases3.
Yet their existence is still a matter of controversy4,5. Indeed, lipid raft size has been estimated to be around 20 nm6, far under the resolution limit of conventional microscopy (around 200 nm), thus precluding their direct imaging. Up to now, the main techniques used to assess the partition of proteins of interest inside lipid rafts were Detergent Resistant Membranes (DRMs) isolation and co-patching with antibodies. Though widely used because of their rather easy implementation, these techniques were prone to artefacts and thus criticized7,8. Technical improvements were therefore necessary to overcome these artefacts and to be able to probe lipid rafts partition in living cells.
Here we present a method for the sensitive analysis of lipid rafts partition of fluorescently-tagged proteins or lipids in the plasma membrane of living cells. This method, termed Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS), relies on the disparity in diffusion times of fluorescent probes located inside or outside of lipid rafts. In fact, as evidenced in both artificial membranes and cell cultures, probes would diffuse much faster outside than inside dense lipid rafts9,10. To determine diffusion times, minute fluorescence fluctuations are measured as a function of time in a focal volume (approximately 1 femtoliter), located at the plasma membrane of cells with a confocal microscope (Fig. 1). The auto-correlation curves can then be drawn from these fluctuations and fitted with appropriate mathematical diffusion models11.
FCS can be used to determine the lipid raft partitioning of various probes, as long as they are fluorescently tagged. Fluorescent tagging can be achieved by expression of fluorescent fusion proteins or by binding of fluorescent ligands. Moreover, FCS can be used not only in artificial membranes and cell lines but also in primary cultures, as described recently12. It can also be used to follow the dynamics of lipid raft partitioning after drug addition or membrane lipid composition change12.

Determination of Lipid Raft Partitioning of Fluorescently-tagged Probes in Living Cells by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy FCS

A technique to probe the lipid raft partitioning of fluorescent proteins at the plasma membrane of living cells is described. It takes advantage of the disparity in diffusion times of proteins located inside or outside of lipid rafts. Acquisition can be performed dynamically in control conditions or after drug addition.

Determinazione del Raft Lipid partizionamento delle sonde fluorescenti-tag nelle cellule viventi da spettroscopia di fluorescenza di correlazione (FCS)

In the past fifteen years the notion that cell membranes are not homogenous and rely on microdomains to exert their functions has become widely accepted. ...

Long-term Lethal Toxicity Test with the Crustacean Artemia franciscana

Our research activities target the use of biological methods for the evaluation of environmental quality, with particular reference to saltwater/brackish water and sediment. The choice of biological indicators must be based on reliable scientific knowledge and, possibly, on the availability of standardized procedures. In this article, we present a standardized protocol that used the marine crustacean Artemia to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals and/or of marine environmental matrices. Scientists propose that the brine shrimp (Artemia) is a suitable candidate for the development of a standard bioassay for worldwide utilization. A number of papers have been published on the toxic effects of various chemicals and toxicants on brine shrimp (Artemia). The major advantage of this crustacean for toxicity studies is the overall availability of the dry cysts; these can be immediately used in testing and difficult cultivation is not demanded1,2. Cyst-based toxicity assays are cheap, continuously available, simple and reliable and are thus an important answer to routine needs of toxicity screening, for industrial monitoring requirements or for regulatory purposes3. The proposed method involves the mortality as an endpoint. The numbers of survivors were counted and percentage of deaths were calculated. Larvae were considered dead if they did not exhibit any internal or external movement during several seconds of observation4. This procedure was standardized testing a reference substance (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate); some results are reported in this work. This article accompanies a video that describes the performance of procedural toxicity testing, showing all the steps related to the protocol.

Long-term Lethal Toxicity Test with the Crustacean Artemia franciscana

This study concerns the development and standardization of a valuable methodological protocol to determine long-term (14 days) lethal toxicity exerted by chemical substances, industrial wastewater or sewage and liquid environmental samples on the saltwater crustacean, Artemia franciscana.

A lungo termine del test di tossicità letale con il crostaceo Artemia franciscana</em

Our research activities target the use of biological methods for the evaluation of environmental quality, with particular reference to saltwater/brackish ...

Profiling Individual Human Embryonic Stem Cells by Quantitative RT-PCR

Heterogeneity of stem cell population hampers detailed understanding of stem cell biology, such as their differentiation propensity toward different lineages. A single cell transcriptome assay can be a new approach for dissecting individual variation. We have developed the single cell qRT-PCR method, and confirmed that this method works well in several gene expression profiles. In single cell level, each human embryonic stem cell, sorted by OCT4::EGFP positive cells, has high expression in OCT4, but a different level of NANOG expression. Our single cell gene expression assay should be useful to interrogate population heterogeneities.

Single cell gene expression assay is needed for understanding stem cell heterogeneities.

Profiling cellule staminali embrionali umane individuale mediante RT-PCR

Heterogeneity of stem cell population hampers detailed understanding of stem cell biology, such as their differentiation propensity toward different ...

Fecal Glucocorticoid Analysis: Non-invasive Adrenal Monitoring in Equids

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. During a potentially aversive situation, corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) is released from the hypothalamus in the brain. This stimulates the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland. In horses the glucocorticoid corticosterone is responsible for several adaptations needed to support equine flight behaviour and subsequent removal from the aversive situation. Corticosterone metabolites can be detected in the feces of horses and assessment offers a non-invasive option to evaluate long term patterns of adrenal activity. Fecal assessment offers advantages over other techniques that monitor adrenal activity including blood plasma and saliva analysis. The non-invasive nature of the method avoids sampling stress which can confound results. It also allows the opportunity for repeated sampling over time and is ideal for studies in free ranging horses. This protocol describes the enzyme linked immunoassay (EIA) used to assess feces for corticosterone, in addition to the associated biochemical validation.

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. The method offers a non-invasive option to assess long term patterns in both domestic and free ranging horses. This protocol describes the enzyme linked immunoassay involved and the associated biochemical validation.

Fecale Analisi glucocorticoidi: non invasivo di monitoraggio surrenale in equidi

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. During a potentially aversive situation, ...

Using Digital Image Correlation to Characterize Local Strains on Vascular Tissue Specimens

Characterization of the mechanical behavior of biological and engineered soft tissues is a central component of fundamental biomedical research and product development. Stress-strain relationships are typically obtained from mechanical testing data to enable comparative assessment among samples and in some cases identification of constitutive mechanical properties. However, errors may be introduced through the use of average strain measures, as significant heterogeneity in the strain field may result from geometrical non-uniformity of the sample and stress concentrations induced by mounting/gripping of soft tissues within the test system. When strain field heterogeneity is significant, accurate assessment of the sample mechanical response requires measurement of local strains. This study demonstrates a novel biomechanical testing protocol for calculating local surface strains using a mechanical testing device coupled with a high resolution camera and a digital image correlation technique. A series of sample surface images are acquired and then analyzed to quantify the local surface strain of a vascular tissue specimen subjected to ramped uniaxial loading. This approach can improve accuracy in experimental vascular biomechanics and has potential for broader use among other native soft tissues, engineered soft tissues, and soft hydrogel/polymeric materials. In the video, we demonstrate how to set up the system components and perform a complete experiment on native vascular tissue.

We describe the use of digital image correlation to characterize the local surface strain field on vascular tissue samples subjected to uniaxial tensile testing. These measurements facilitate precise quantification of the sample mechanical response and the generation of constitutive stress-strain relations.

Utilizzo di Digital Image Correlation per caratterizzare ceppi locali vascolari campioni di tessuto

Characterization of the mechanical behavior of biological and engineered soft tissues is a central component of fundamental biomedical research and ...