We thank S. Heller, K. Oshima, R. Nusse, and Y. Zeng for fruitful discussions and C. Tang, A. Lee, E. Liaw, and the Stanford Shared FACS Facility staff for technical assistance. This work was supported by Howard Hughes Medical Institute Medical Research Training Fellowship, Stanford University Medical Scholars program (both to T.A.J.), Stanford University Dean's Fellowship (to R.C.), American Otological Society, Triological Society, Percy Memorial Award, the Akiko Yamazaki and Jerry Yang Faculty Scholar Fund, and NIDCD/NIH K08 DC011043 (all to A.G.C.).

1. Microdissection of the cochlea
<ol>
	<li>Prepare dissection microscope under hood by wiping surfaces with 70% ethanol and setting out ice blocks.</li>
	<li>Prepare 10-15 35 mm Petri dishes under sterile condition and fill half-way (~2 ml) with sterile Hank's Balanced Salt Solution with Calcium (HBSS).</li>
	<li>Prepare two 35 mm Petri dishes under sterile condition and fill half-way (~2 ml) with sterile 1x phosphate buffered solution (PBS).</li>
	<li>Sterilize micro-forceps in 50 ml conical Falcon tube with 70% etha...

<ol>
	<li>Li, H., Liu, H., Heller, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pluripotent+stem+cells+from+the+adult+mouse+inner+ear.">Pluripotent stem cells from the adult mouse inner ear.</a> Nat. Med.. 9, 1293-1299 (2003).</li><li>Oshima, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+distribution+of+stem+cells+in+the+auditory+and+vestibular+organs+of+the+inner+ear.">Differential distribution of stem cells in the auditory and vestibular organs of the inner ear.</a> J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol. 8, 18-31 (2007).</li><li>Barker, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+stem+cells+in+small+intestine+and+colon+by+marker+gene+Lgr5.">Identification of stem cells in small intestine and colon by marker gene Lgr5.</a> Nature. 449, 1003-1007 (2007).</li><li>Jaks, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lgr5+marks+cycling,+yet+long-lived,+hair+follicle+stem+cells.">Lgr5 marks cycling, yet long-lived, hair follicle stem cells.</a> Nat. Genet. 40, 1291-1299 (2008).</li><li>Kalani, M. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wnt-mediated+self-renewal+of+neural+stem/progenitor+cells.">Wnt-mediated self-renewal of neural stem/progenitor cells.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 16970-16975 (2008).</li><li>Willert, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wnt+proteins+are+lipid-modified+and+can+act+as+stem+cell+growth+factors.">Wnt proteins are lipid-modified and can act as stem cell growth factors.</a> Nature. 423, 448-452 (2003).</li><li>Zeng, Y. A., Nusse, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wnt+proteins+are+self-renewal+factors+for+mammary+stem+cells+and+promote+their+long-term+expansion+in+culture.">Wnt proteins are self-renewal factors for mammary stem cells and promote their long-term expansion in culture.</a> Cell Stem Cell. 6, 568-577 .</li><li>Chai, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+Expression+of+Lgr5,+a+Wnt+Target+Gene,+in+the+Developing+and+Mature+Mouse+Cochlea.">Dynamic Expression of Lgr5, a Wnt Target Gene, in the Developing and Mature Mouse Cochlea.</a> J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol. , .</li><li>Lustig, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Negative+feedback+loop+of+Wnt+signaling+through+upregulation+of+conductin/axin2+in+colorectal+and+liver+tumors.">Negative feedback loop of Wnt signaling through upregulation of conductin/axin2 in colorectal and liver tumors.</a> Mol. Cell Biol. 22, 1184-1193 (2002).</li><li>Diensthuber, M., Oshima, K., Heller, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stem/progenitor+cells+derived+from+the+cochlear+sensory+epithelium+give+rise+to+spheres+with+distinct+morphologies+and+features.">Stem/progenitor cells derived from the cochlear sensory epithelium give rise to spheres with distinct morphologies and features.</a> J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol. 10, 173-190 (2009).</li><li>Savary, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cochlear+stem/progenitor+cells+from+a+postnatal+cochlea+respond+to+Jagged1+and+demonstrate+that+notch+signaling+promotes+sphere+formation+and+sensory+potential.">Cochlear stem/progenitor cells from a postnatal cochlea respond to Jagged1 and demonstrate that notch signaling promotes sphere formation and sensory potential.</a> Mech. Dev. 125, 674-686 (2008).</li><li>White, P. M., Doetzlhofer, A., Lee, Y. S., Groves, A. K., Segil, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mammalian+cochlear+supporting+cells+can+divide+and+trans-differentiate+into+hair+cells.">Mammalian cochlear supporting cells can divide and trans-differentiate into hair cells.</a> Nature. 441, 984-987 (2006).</li><li>Zhang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation,+growth+and+differentiation+of+hair+cell+progenitors+from+the+newborn+rat+cochlear+greater+epithelial+ridge.">Isolation, growth and differentiation of hair cell progenitors from the newborn rat cochlear greater epithelial ridge.</a> J. Neurosci. Methods. 164, 271-279 (2007).</li></ol>

Independent research studies have characterized limited regenerative capacity within the neonatal cochleae2,10,12,13. Using a GFP-reporter mice and flow cytometry, White and colleagues isolated specific cochlear supporting cells and found them to have progenitor cell characteristics12.
The canonical Wnt pathway has been demonstrated to mark stem/progenitor cell populations in multiple organ systems including the brain, mammary gland, hematopoietic system, skin, and gastro...

<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>Name of the reagent></td>
<td>Company</td>
<td>Catalog number</td>
<td>Comments </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Petri dish, polystyrene, sterile Geriner Bio-one 35 x 10 mm </td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>82050-540 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BD Falcon Cell Strainers, Sterile, BD Biosciences, blue, 40 &micro;m </td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>21008-949 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hanks&rsquo; Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS).&nbsp; Solution with Calcium, Magnesium, and without Phenol Red, Sterile </td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>45000-456 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cellstar centrifuge tubes, polypropylene, sterile, greiner bio-one, 50 ml </td>
<td>VWR </td>
<td>82050-346 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cellstar centrifuge tubes, polypropylene, sterile, greiner bio-one, 15 ml </td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>82050-278 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>B-27 Serum-Free Supplement (50x), liquid </td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>17504-044 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>N-2 Supplement (100x), liquid </td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>17502-048 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>bFGF, fibroblast growth factor-basic human </td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>F0291 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor-1 from mouse </td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>I8779</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>EGF, epidermal growth factor human </td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>E9644 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dulbecco&rsquo;s Modified Eagle&rsquo;s Medium/Ham&rsquo;s F-12 50/50 Mix: 1X, with L-Glutamine&nbsp; and 15 mM HEPES</td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>45000-350</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BD Falcon Round-Bottom Tubes, Disposable, Polystyrene, 12x75</td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>60819-295</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Trypsin, 0.25% (1X) with EDTA 4Na, liquid</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>25200-056</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ep Dualfilter TIPS 300uL, 960 TIPS</td>
<td>Eppendorf</td>
<td>22491245</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Trypsin Inhibitor, Soybean, Purified</td>
<td>Worthington Biochem</td>
<td>LS003570</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BD Falcon 40um Cell Strainers</td>
<td>&nbsp;BD Biosciences</td>
<td>21008-949</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Multiwell Plates, Polystyrene, Greiner Bio-One, Nontreated Plates, 6 wells</td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>82050-846</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Marker Gene FACS Blue LacZ beta-Galactosidase Detection Kit</td>
<td>Marker Gene Technologies</td>
<td>M0255</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
</table>

isolating lacz-expressing cells from mouse inner ear tissues using flow cytometry

Isolation of specific cell types allows one to analyze rare cell populations such as stem/progenitor cells. Such an approach to studying inner ear tissues presents a unique challenge because of the paucity of cells of interest and few transgenic reporter mouse models. Here, we describe a protocol using fluorescence-conjugated probes to selectively label LacZ-positive cells from the neonatal cochleae.
The most common underlying pathology of sensorineural hearing loss is the irreversible damage and loss of cochlear sensory hair cells, which are required to transduce sound waves to neural impulses. Recent evidence suggests that the murine auditory and vestibular organs harbor stem/progenitor cells that may have regenerative potential1,2. These findings warrant further investigation, including identifying specific cell types with stem/progenitor cell characteristics. The Wnt signaling pathway has been demonstrated to play a critical role in maintaining stem/progenitor cell populations in several organ systems3-7. We have recently identified Wnt-responsive Axin2-expressing cells in the neonatal cochlea, but their function is largely unknown8.
To better understand the behavior of these Wnt-responsive cells in vitro, we have developed a method of isolating Axin2-expressing cells from cochleae of Axin2-LacZ reporter mice9. Using flow cytometry to isolate Axin2-LacZ positive cells from the neonatal cochleae, we could in turn execute a variety of experiments on live cells to interrogate their behavior as stem/progenitor cells. Here, we describe in detail the steps for the microdissection of neonatal cochlea, dissociation of these tissues, labeling of the LacZ-positive cells using a fluorogenic substrate, and cell sorting. Techniques for dissociating cochleae into single cells and isolating cochlear cells via flow cytometry have been described2,10-12. We have made modifications to these techniques to establish a novel protocol to isolate LacZ-expressing cells from the neonatal cochlea.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolating LacZ-expressing Cells from Mouse Inner Ear Tissues using Flow Cytometry at JoVE.com

Isolating LacZ-expressing Cells from Mouse Inner Ear Tissues using Flow Cytometry

Flow cytometry is a powerful tool allowing for the isolation and study of specific cell populations. This protocol describes steps for isolating LacZ-expressing cells from cochlear tissues from neonatal transgenic mice. Dissociated cochlear cells were labeled using fluorescent-conjugated substrates of &#946;-galactosidase prior to separation via flow cytometry.

Isolation of specific cell types allows one to analyze rare cell populations such as stem/progenitor cells. Such an approach to studying inner ear tissues ...

isolating-lacz-expressing-cells-from-mouse-inner-ear-tissues-using

Research

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Neuroscience

11.1K ビュー.  Stanford University School of Medicine. Flow cytometry is a powerful tool allowing for the isolation and study of specific cell populations. This protocol describes steps for isolating LacZ-expressing cells from cochlear tissues from neonatal transgenic mice. Dissociated cochlear cells were labeled using fluorescent-conjugated substrates of β-galactosidase prior to separation via flow cytometry.

ビデオ: Isolating LacZ-expressing Cells from Mouse Inner Ear Tissues using Flow Cytometry

Flow cytometry is a powerful tool allowing for the isolation and study of specific cell populations. This protocol describes steps for isolating LacZ-expressing cells from cochlear tissues from neonatal transgenic mice. Dissociated cochlear cells were labeled using fluorescent-conjugated substrates of &#946;-galactosidase prior to separation via flow...

neonatal murine cochlear explant technique as an in vitro screening tool in hearing research

Neonatal Murine Cochlear Explant Technique as an In Vitro Screening Tool in Hearing Research

The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate the preparation, culture, treatment, and immunostaining of neonatal murine cochlear explants. The technique can be utilized as an in vitro screening tool in hearing...

Neonatal Murine Cochlear Explant Technique as an In Vitro Screening Tool in Hearing Research

isolating vestibular ganglion neurons from a mouse inner ear

This video showcases a method for isolating vestibular neurons from a mouse pup&#39;s inner ear. It meticulously outlines the steps involved in dissecting the inner ear, harvesting the vestibular ganglion, and subsequently dissociating the ganglion into single cells. These cells are then cultured on glass-bottom dishes to establish a vestibular neuron...

Isolating Vestibular Ganglion Neurons From a Mouse Inner Ear

Remove the excess tissue from the back of the head and neck, to make the dissection area and otic capsule, cleaner and easier to access. Transfer the tissue to a second Petri dish with fresh L-15 solution. Then, locate the otic capsule and the auditory, superior vestibular, and inferior vestibular nerves. Separate the superior and inferior ganglia using small spring scissors, and cut away the auditory...

patch clamp recordings in inner ear hair cells isolated from zebrafish

Patch Clamp Recordings in Inner Ear Hair Cells Isolated from Zebrafish

The purpose of this video is to demonstrate procedures for obtaining healthy, intact hair cells from the inner ear organs of adult zebrafish and then using them for patch clamp studies aimed at characterizing the biophysical properties of their voltage-gated...

isolating and analyzing cells of the pancreas mesenchyme by flow cytometry

Isolating and Analyzing Cells of the Pancreas Mesenchyme by Flow Cytometry

Here, we describe a method for the isolation of cells in the pancreas microenvironment from embryonic, neonatal and adult mouse tissue, focusing on the isolation of mesenchymal cells. This method allows profiling of cell gene expression and protein secretion in order to elucidate the extrinsic signals that regulate pancreas development, function, and...

isolating stem cells from soft musculoskeletal tissues

Isolating Stem Cells from Soft Musculoskeletal Tissues

Isolating adult stem cells from musculoskeletal soft tissues based on the cell's adherence speed to...

generating primary fibroblast cultures from mouse ear and tail tissues

Generating Primary Fibroblast Cultures from Mouse Ear and Tail Tissues

We describe a simple and quick experimental procedure for generating primary fibroblasts from the ears and tails of mice. The procedure does not require special animal training and can be used for the generation of fibroblast cultures from ears stored at RT for up to 10...

gene transfer to the developing mouse inner ear by in vivo electroporation

Gene Transfer to the Developing Mouse Inner Ear by In Vivo Electroporation

The mouse inner ear is a placode-derived sensory organ whose developmental program is elaborated during gestation. We define an in utero gene transfer technique consisting of three steps: mouse ventral laparotomy, transuterine microinjection, and in vivo electroporation. We use digital video microscopy to demonstrate the critical experimental embryological...

Gene Transfer to the Developing Mouse Inner Ear by In Vivo Electroporation

a protocol for decellularizing mouse cochleae for inner ear tissue engineering

A Protocol for Decellularizing Mouse Cochleae for Inner Ear Tissue Engineering

The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate an effective method to decellularize and decalcify mouse cochleae for utilization as scaffolds for tissue engineering...

mouse inner ear extraction and stria vascularis dissection

Mouse Inner Ear Extraction and Stria Vascularis Dissection  

analysis of cell suspensions isolated from solid tissues by spectral flow cytometry

Analysis of Cell Suspensions Isolated from Solid Tissues by Spectral Flow Cytometry

This article describes spectral cytometry, a new approach in flow cytometry that uses the shapes of emission spectra to distinguish fluorochromes. An algorithm replaces compensations and can treat auto-fluorescence as an independent parameter. This new approach allows for the proper analysis of cells isolated from solid...

flow cytometry purification of mouse meiotic cells

Flow Cytometry Purification of Mouse Meiotic Cells

An efficient method to obtain highly purified viable meiotic fractions from mouse testis is described, which combines a refined cell dissociation protocol with fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). This method takes advantage of differences in the DNA content and nuclear density of discrete meiotic...

posterior semicircular canal approach for inner ear gene delivery in neonatal mouse

Posterior Semicircular Canal Approach for Inner Ear Gene Delivery in Neonatal Mouse

In this study, we describe the posterior semicircular canal approach as a reliable method for inner ear gene delivery in neonatal mice. We show that gene delivery through the posterior semicircular canal is able to perfuse the entire inner...

isolating immune cells from mouse choroid plexuses

This video demonstrates the procedure of isolating immune cells from mouse choroid plexuses. This procedure is used in neuroimmunology research to understand how immune cells in the choroid plexuses impact brain health and various neurological...

Isolating Immune Cells from Mouse Choroid Plexuses

canalostomy for local drug delivery into the inner ear of an adult mouse

This video showcases canalostomy, a procedure that allows local drug delivery into the inner ear of a mouse through the semicircular canal with minimal damage to hearing and vestibular function. This method enables the inoculation of viral vectors, pharmaceuticals, and small molecules into the mouse&#39;s inner...

Canalostomy for Local Drug Delivery into the Inner Ear of an Adult Mouse

isolating immune cells from mouse brain and skull

Author Spotlight: Investigating the Complex Immune Response Following Brain Ischemia

To investigate the immune response to brain disorders, one common approach is to analyze changes in immune cells. Here, two simple and effective protocols are provided for isolating immune cells from murine brain tissue and skull bone...

Isolating Immune Cells from Mouse Brain and Skull

analysis of immune cells in single sciatic nerves and dorsal root ganglion from a single mouse using flow cytometry

Analysis of Immune Cells in Single Sciatic Nerves and Dorsal Root Ganglion from a Single Mouse Using Flow Cytometry

Quantitative analysis of cell content within the murine sciatic nerve is difficult due to the scarcity of the tissue. This protocol describes a method for tissue digestion and preparation that provides sufficient cells for flow cytometry analysis of immune cell populations from nerves of individual...

isolation of microglial cells from the mouse hypothalamus using magnetically activated cell sorting for flow cytometry analysis

Isolation of Microglial Cells from the Mouse Hypothalamus Using Magnetically Activated Cell Sorting for Flow Cytometry Analysis

Isolating Nasal Olfactory Stem Cells from Rodents or Humans

The olfactory mucosa, located in the nasal cavity, is in charge of detecting odours. It is also the only nervous tissue that is exposed to the external environment and easily accessible in every living individual. As a result, this tissue is unique for anyone aiming to identify molecular anomalies in the pathological brain or isolate adult stem cells for cell therapy. 
Molecular abnormalities in brain diseases are often studied using nervous tissue samples collected post-mortem. However, this material has numerous limitations. In contrast, the olfactory mucosa is readily accessible and can be biopsied safely without any loss of sense of smell1. Accordingly, the olfactory mucosa provides an "open window" in the adult human through which one can study developmental (e.g. autism, schizophrenia)2-4 or neurodegenerative (e.g. Parkinson, Alzheimer) diseases4,5. Olfactory mucosa can be used for either comparative molecular studies4,6 or in vitro experiments on neurogenesis3,7.
The olfactory epithelium is also a nervous tissue that produces new neurons every day to replace those that are damaged by pollution, bacterial of viral infections. This permanent neurogenesis is sustained by progenitors but also stem cells residing within both compartments of the mucosa, namely the neuroepithelium and the underlying lamina propria8-10. We recently developed a method to purify the adult stem cells located in the lamina propria and, after having demonstrated that they are closely related to bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSC), we named them olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells (OE-MSC)11.
Interestingly, when compared to BM-MSCs, OE-MSCs display a high proliferation rate, an elevated clonogenicity and an inclination to differentiate into neural cells. We took advantage of these characteristics to perform studies dedicated to unveil new candidate genes in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease4. We and others have also shown that OE-MSCs are promising candidates for cell therapy, after a spinal cord trauma12,13, a cochlear damage14 or in an animal models of Parkinson's disease15 or amnesia16.
In this study, we present methods to biopsy olfactory mucosa in rats and humans. After collection, the lamina propria is enzymatically separated from the epithelium and stem cells are purified using an enzymatic or a non-enzymatic method. Purified olfactory stem cells can then be either grown in large numbers and banked in liquid nitrogen or induced to form spheres or differentiated into neural cells. These stem cells can also be used for comparative omics (genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic, proteomic) studies.

We describe here a method for biopsying olfactory mucosa from rat and human nasal cavities. These biopsies can be used for either identifying molecular anomalies in brain diseases or isolating multipotent adult stem cells that can be utilized for cell transplantation in animal models of brain trauma/disease.

The olfactory mucosa, located in the nasal cavity, is in charge of detecting odours. It is also the only nervous tissue that is exposed to the external ...

The mammalian inner ear has 6 distinct sensory epithelia: 3 cristae in the ampullae of the semicircular canals; maculae in the utricle and saccule; and the organ of Corti in the coiled cochlea. The cristae and maculae contain vestibular hair cells that transduce mechanical stimuli to subserve the special sense of balance, while auditory hair cells in the organ of Corti are the primary transducers for hearing 1. Cell fate specification in these sensory epithelia and morphogenesis of the semicircular canals and cochlea take place during the second week of gestation in the mouse and are largely completed before birth 2,3. Developmental studies of the mouse inner ear are routinely conducted by harvesting transgenic embryos at different embryonic or postnatal stages to gain insight into the molecular basis of cellular and/or morphological phenotypes 4,5. We hypothesize that gene transfer to the developing mouse inner ear in utero in the context of gain- and loss-of-function studies represents a complimentary approach to traditional mouse transgenesis for the interrogation of the genetic mechanisms underlying mammalian inner ear development6.
The experimental paradigm to conduct gene misexpression studies in the developing mouse inner ear demonstrated here resolves into three general steps: 1) ventral laparotomy; 2) transuterine microinjection; and 3) in vivo electroporation. Ventral laparotomy is a mouse survival surgical technique that permits externalization of the uterus to gain experimental access to the implanted embryos7. Transuterine microinjection is the use of beveled, glass capillary micropipettes to introduce expression plasmid into the lumen of the otic vesicle or otocyst. In vivo electroporation is the application of square wave, direct current pulses to drive expression plasmid into progenitor cells8-10. 
We previously described this electroporation-based gene transfer technique and included detailed notes on each step of the protocol11. Mouse experimental embryological techniques can be difficult to learn from prose and still images alone. In the present work, we demonstrate the 3 steps in the gene transfer procedure. Most critically, we deploy digital video microscopy to show precisely how to: 1) identify embryo orientation in utero; 2) reorient embryos for targeting injections to the otocyst; 3) microinject DNA mixed with tracer dye solution into the otocyst at embryonic days 11.5 and 12.5; 4) electroporate the injected otocyst; and 5) label electroporated embryos for postnatal selection at birth. We provide representative examples of successfully transfected inner ears; a pictorial guide to the most common causes of otocyst mistargeting; discuss how to avoid common methodological errors; and present guidelines for writing an in utero gene transfer animal care protocol.

The mouse inner ear is a placode-derived sensory organ whose developmental program is elaborated during gestation. We define an in utero gene transfer technique consisting of three steps: mouse ventral laparotomy, transuterine microinjection, and in vivo electroporation. We use digital video microscopy to demonstrate the critical experimental embryological techniques.

The mammalian inner ear has 6 distinct sensory epithelia: 3 cristae in the ampullae of the semicircular canals; maculae in the utricle and saccule; and ...

The Neuroblast Assay: An Assay for the Generation and Enrichment of Neuronal Progenitor Cells from Differentiating Neural Stem Cell Progeny Using Flow Cytometry

Neural stem cells (NSCs) can be isolated and expanded in large-scale, using the neurosphere assay and differentiated into the three major cell types of the central nervous system (CNS); namely, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and neurons. These characteristics make neural stem and progenitor cells an invaluable renewable source of cells for in vitro studies such as drug screening, neurotoxicology and electrophysiology and also for cell replacement therapy in many neurological diseases. In practice, however, heterogeneity of NSC progeny, low production of neurons and oligodendrocytes, and predominance of astrocytes following differentiation limit their clinical applications. Here, we describe a novel methodology for the generation and subsequent purification of immature neurons from murine NSC progeny using fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) technology. Using this methodology, a highly enriched neuronal progenitor cell population can be achieved without any noticeable astrocyte and bona fide NSC contamination. The procedure includes differentiation of NSC progeny isolated and expanded from E14 mouse ganglionic eminences using the neurosphere assay, followed by isolation and enrichment of immature neuronal cells based on their physical (size and internal complexity) and fluorescent properties using flow cytometry technology. Overall, it takes 5-7 days to generate neurospheres and 6-8 days to differentiate NSC progeny and isolate highly purified immature neuronal cells.

This video protocol demonstrates a novel method for the generation and subsequent purification of neuronal progenitor cells from a renewable source of neural stem cells (NSCs) based on their physical (size and internal granularity) and fluorescent properties using flow cytometry technology.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) can be isolated and expanded in large-scale, using the neurosphere assay and differentiated into the three major cell types of ...

Patch clamp analyses of the voltage-gated channels in sensory hair cells isolated from a variety of species have been described previously1-4 but this video represents the first application of those techniques to hair cells from zebrafish. Here we demonstrate a method to isolate healthy, intact hair cells from all of the inner ear end-organs: saccule, lagena, utricle and semicircular canals. Further, we demonstrate the diversity in hair cell size and morphology and give an example of the kinds of patch clamp recordings that can be obtained. The advantage of the use of this zebrafish model system over others stems from the availability of zebrafish mutants that affect both hearing and balance. In combination with the use of transgenic lines and other techniques that utilize genetic analysis and manipulation, the cell isolation and electrophysiological methods introduced here should facilitate greater insight into the roles hair cells play in mediating these sensory modalities.

The purpose of this video is to demonstrate procedures for obtaining healthy, intact hair cells from the inner ear organs of adult zebrafish and then using them for patch clamp studies aimed at characterizing the biophysical properties of their voltage-gated channels.

Patch  clamp analyses of the voltage-gated channels in sensory hair cells isolated  from a variety of species have been described previously1-4 but this  ...

Surgical Method for Virally Mediated Gene Delivery to the Mouse Inner Ear through the Round Window Membrane

Gene therapy, used to achieve functional recovery from sensorineural deafness, promises to grant better understanding of the underlying molecular and genetic mechanisms that contribute to hearing loss. Introduction of vectors into the inner ear must be done in a way that widely distributes the agent throughout the cochlea while minimizing injury to the existing structures. This manuscript describes a post-auricular surgical approach that can be used for mouse cochlear therapy using molecular, pharmacologic, and viral delivery to mice postnatal day 10 and older via the round window membrane (RWM). This surgical approach enables rapid and direct delivery into the scala tympani while minimizing blood loss and avoiding animal mortality. This technique involves negligible or no damage to essential structures of the inner and middle ear as well as neck muscles while wholly preserving hearing. To demonstrate the efficacy of this surgical technique, the vesicular glutamate transporter 3 knockout (VGLUT3 KO) mice will be used as an example of a mouse model of congenital deafness that recovers hearing after delivery of VGLUT3 to the inner ear using an adeno-associated virus (AAV-1).

The described post-auricular surgical approach allows rapid and direct delivery into the mouse cochlear scala tympani while minimizing blood loss and animal mortality. This method can be used for cochlear therapy using molecular, pharmacologic and viral delivery to postnatal mice through the round window membrane.

Gene therapy, used to achieve functional recovery from sensorineural deafness, promises to grant better understanding of the underlying molecular and ...

Nerve-resident immune cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are essential to maintaining neuronal integrity in a healthy nerve. The immune cells of the PNS are affected by injury and disease, affecting the nerve function and the capacity for regeneration. Neuronal immune cells are commonly analyzed by immunofluorescence (IF). While IF is essential for determining the location of the immune cells in the nerve, IF is only semi-quantitative and the method is limited to the number of markers that can be analyzed simultaneously and the degree of surface expression. In this study, flow cytometry was used for quantitative analysis of leukocyte infiltration into sciatic nerves or dorsal root ganglions (DRGs) of individual mice. Single cell analysis was performed using DAPI and several proteins were analyzed simultaneously for either surface or intracellular expression. Both sciatic nerves from one mouse that were treated according to this protocol generated &#8805; 30,000 single nucleated events. The proportion of leukocytes in the sciatic nerves, determined by expression of CD45, was approximately 5% of total cell content in the sciatic nerve and approximately 5-10% in the DRG. Although this protocol focuses primarily on the immune cell population within the PNS, the flexibility of flow cytometry to measure a number of markers simultaneously means that the other cells populations present within the nerve, such as Schwann cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells, can also be analyzed using this method. This method therefore provides a new means for studying systemic effects on the PNS, such as neurotoxicology and genetic models of neuropathy or in chronic diseases, such as diabetes.

Quantitative analysis of cell content within the murine sciatic nerve is difficult due to the scarcity of the tissue. This protocol describes a method for tissue digestion and preparation that provides sufficient cells for flow cytometry analysis of immune cell populations from nerves of individual mice.

Nerve-resident immune cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are essential to maintaining neuronal integrity in a healthy nerve. The immune cells of ...

Quantification of Reactive Oxygen Species Using 2&#8242;,7&#8242;-Dichlorofluorescein Diacetate Probe and Flow-Cytometry in M&#252;ller Glial Cells

The redox balance has an important role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. The increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) promotes the modification of proteins, lipids, and DNA, which finally may lead to alteration in cellular function and cell death. Therefore, it is beneficial for cells to increase their antioxidant defense in response to detrimental insults, either by activating an antioxidant pathway like Keap1/Nrf2 or by improving redox scavengers (vitamins A, C, and E, &#946;-carotene, and polyphenols, among others). Inflammation and oxidative stress are involved in the pathogenesis and progression of retinopathies, such as diabetic retinopathy (DR) and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Since M&#252;ller glial cells (MGCs) play a key role in the homeostasis of neural retinal tissue, they are considered an ideal model to study these cellular protective mechanisms. In this sense, quantifying ROS levels with a reproducible and simple method is essential to assess the contribution of pathways or molecules that participate in the antioxidant cell defense mechanism. In this article, we provide a complete description of the procedures required for the measurement of ROS with DCFH-DA probe and flow cytometry in MGCs. Key steps for flow cytometry data processing with the software are provided here, so the readers will be able to measure ROS levels (geometric means of FITC) and analyze fluorescence histograms. These tools are highly helpful to evaluate not only the increase in ROS after a cellular insult but also to study the antioxidant effect of certain molecules that can provide a protective effect on the cells.

Quantification of Reactive Oxygen Species Using 2&amp;#8242;,7&amp;#8242;-Dichlorofluorescein Diacetate Probe and Flow-Cytometry in M&amp;#252;ller Glial Cells

Here, we propose a systematized, accessible, and reproducible protocol to detect cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) using 2&#8242;,7&#8242;-dichlorofluorescein diacetate probe (DCFH-DA) in M&#252;ller glial cells (MGCs). This method quantifies total cellular ROS levels with a flow cytometer. This protocol is very easy to use, suitable, and reproducible.

The redox balance has an important role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. The increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) promotes the ...

Cell-Type Specific Protein Purification and Identification from Complex Tissues Using a Mutant Methionine tRNA Synthetase Mouse Line

Understanding protein homeostasis in vivo is key to knowing how the cells work in both physiological and disease conditions. The present protocol describes in vivo labeling and subsequent purification of newly synthesized proteins using an engineered mouse line to direct protein labeling to specific cellular populations. It is an inducible line by Cre recombinase expression of L274G-Methionine tRNA synthetase (MetRS*), enabling azidonorleucine (ANL) incorporation to the proteins, which otherwise will not occur. Using the method described here, it is possible to purify cell-type-specific proteomes labeled in vivo and detect subtle changes in protein content due to sample complexity reduction.

This protocol describes how to perform cell-type-specific protein labeling with azidonorleucine (ANL) using a mouse line expressing a mutant L274G-Methionine tRNA synthetase (MetRS*) and the necessary steps for labeled cell-type-specific proteins isolation. We outline two possible ANL administration routes in live mice by (1) drinking water and (2) intraperitoneal injections.

Understanding protein homeostasis in vivo is key to knowing how the cells work in both physiological and disease conditions. The present protocol ...

Mouse Brain Histone Modification Quantification Using Flow Cytometry

Quantification of Global Histone Post Translational Modifications Using Intranuclear Flow Cytometry in Isolated Mouse Brain Microglia

Gene expression control occurs partially by modifications in chromatin structure, including the addition and removal of posttranslational modifications to histone tails. Histone post-translational modifications (HPTMs) can either facilitate gene expression or repression. For example, acetylation of histone tail lysine residues neutralizes the positive charge and reduces interactions between the tail and negatively charged DNA. The decrease in histone tail-DNA interactions results in increased accessibility of the underlying DNA, allowing for increased transcription factor access. The acetylation mark also serves as a recognition site for bromodomain-containing transcriptional activators, together resulting in enhanced gene expression. Histone marks can be dynamically regulated during cell differentiation and in response to different cellular environments and stimuli. While next-generation sequencing approaches have begun to characterize genomic locations for individual histone modifications, only one modification can be examined concurrently. Given that there are hundreds of different HPTMs, we have developed a high throughput, quantitative measure of global HPTMs that can be used to screen histone modifications prior to conducting more extensive genome sequencing approaches. This protocol describes a flow cytometry-based method to detect global HPTMs and can be conducted using cells in culture or isolated cells from in vivo tissues. We present example data from isolated mouse brain microglia to demonstrate the sensitivity of the assay to detect global shifts in HPTMs in response to a bacteria-derived immune stimulus (lipopolysaccharide). This protocol allows for the rapid and quantitative assessment of HPTMs and can be applied to any transcriptional or epigenetic regulator that can be detected by an antibody.

Author Spotlight: Enhancements in Gene Expression Regulation Research

This work describes a protocol for the quantification of global histone modifications using intranuclear flow cytometry in isolated brain microglia. The work also contains the microglia isolation protocol that was used for data collection.

Gene expression control occurs partially by modifications in chromatin structure, including the addition and removal of posttranslational modifications to ...

Flow Cytometry-Based Assays for Microglial Engulfment of Synaptic Materials

Quantification of Microglial Engulfment of Synaptic Material Using Flow Cytometry

Microglia play a pivotal role in synaptic refinement in the brain. Analysis of microglial engulfment of synapses is essential for comprehending this process; however, currently available methods for identifying microglial engulfment of synapses, such as immunohistochemistry (IHC) and imaging, are laborious and time-intensive. To address this challenge, herein we present in vitro and in vivo* assays that allow fast and high-throughput quantification of microglial engulfment of synapses using flow cytometry.
In the in vivo* approach, we performed intracellular vGLUT1 staining following fresh cell isolation from adult mouse brains to quantify engulfment of vGLUT1+ synapses by microglia. In the in vitro synaptosome engulfment assay, we used freshly isolated cells from the adult mouse brain to quantify the engulfment of pHrodo&#160;Red-labeled synaptosomes by microglia. These protocols together provide a time-efficient approach to quantifying microglial engulfment of synapses and represent promising alternatives to labor-intensive image analysis-based methods. By streamlining the analysis, these assays can contribute to a better understanding of the role of microglia in synaptic refinement in different disease models.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Understanding Through Technological Innovations in Psychoneuroimmunology

Here we present two protocols to quantify microglial engulfment of vGLUT1-positive synapses and pHRodo&#160;Red-labeled crude synaptosomes using flow cytometry.

Microglia play a pivotal role in synaptic refinement in the brain. Analysis of microglial engulfment of synapses is essential for comprehending this ...