The authors would like to thank Dr. Hong Yi at the Emory University Integrated Microscopy Core for electron microscopy imaging. This work was sponsored by NIH grants (PN2EY018244, R01 CA108468, U54CA119338, and 1K99CA154006-01).

The following synthesis procedures involve standard air-free techniques and the use of a vacuum/inert gas manifold; detailed methodology can be found in references 10 and 11. MSDS for all potentially toxic and flammable substances should be consulted before use and all flammable and/or air-labile compounds should be aliquoted into septum-sealed vials in a glove box or glove bag.
1. Synthesis of Mercury Cadmium Selenide (HgxCd1-xSe) Quantum Dot Cores
<ol>
 <li>Prepare a ...

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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bright+and+compact+alloyed+quantum+dots+with+broadly+tunable+near-infrared+absorption+and+fluorescence+spectra+through+mercury+cation+exchange.">Bright and compact alloyed quantum dots with broadly tunable near-infrared absorption and fluorescence spectra through mercury cation exchange.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 24-26 (2011).</li><li>Shriver, D. F., Drezdzon, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Manipulation of Air-Sensitive Compounds. , (1986).</li><li>Errington, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Advanced Practical Inorganic and Metalorganic Chemistry. , (1997).</li><li>Jasieniak, J., Smith, L., van Embden, J., Mulvaney, P., Califano, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Re-examination+of+the+size-dependent+absorption+properties+of+CdSe+quantum+dots.">Re-examination of the size-dependent absorption properties of CdSe quantum dots.</a> J. Phys. Chem. C. 113, 19468-19474 (2009).</li><li>Leatherdale, C. A., Woo, W. K., Mikulec, F. V., Bawendi, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+absorption+cross+section+of+CdSe+nanocrystal+quantum+dots.">On the absorption cross section of CdSe nanocrystal quantum dots.</a> J. Phys. Chem. B. 106, 7619-7622 (2002).</li><li>Smith, A. M., Mohs, A. M., Nie, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tuning+the+optical+and+electronic+properties+of+colloidal+nanocrystals+by+lattice+strain.">Tuning the optical and electronic properties of colloidal nanocrystals by lattice strain.</a> Nature Nanotech. 4, 56-63 (2009).</li><li>Demas, J. N., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+measurement+of+photoluminescence+quantum+yields.+A+review.">The measurement of photoluminescence quantum yields. A review.</a> J. Phys. Chem. 75, 991-1024 (1971).</li><li>Van Embden, J., Jasieniak, J., Mulvaney, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+the+optical+properties+of+CdSe/CdS+heterostructure+nanocrystals:+the+effects+of+core+size+and+shell+thickness.">Mapping the optical properties of CdSe/CdS heterostructure nanocrystals: the effects of core size and shell thickness.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 14299-14309 (2009).</li><li>Smith, A. M., Duan, H. W., Rhyner, M. N., Ruan, G., Nie, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+systematic+examination+of+surface+coatings+on+the+optical+and+chemical+properties+of+semiconductor+quantum+dots.">A systematic examination of surface coatings on the optical and chemical properties of semiconductor quantum dots.</a> Phys. Chem. Chem. 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Compared to conventional CdSe quantum dots, ternary alloy HgxCd1-xSe nanocrystals can be tuned in size and fluorescence wavelength independently. The size is first selected during the synthesis of CdSe nanocrystal cores, and the fluorescence wavelength is chosen in a secondary mercury cation exchange step, which does not substantially alter the nanocrystal size 9. It is important to allow the purified HgxCd1-xSe nanocrystals to incubate at room temperature fo...

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments (optional)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Selenium</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>229865</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tri-n-octylphosphine</td>
 <td>Strem</td>
 <td>15-6655</td>
 <td>97% pure, unstable in air</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cadmium oxide</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>202894</td>
 <td>Highly toxic: use caution </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tetradecylphosphonic acid</td>
 <td>PCI Synthesis</td>
 <td>4671-75-4</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Octadecene</td>
 <td>Alfa Aesar</td>
 <td>L11004</td>
 <td>Technical grade</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Hexadecylamine</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>H7408</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Diphenylphosphine</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>252964</td>
 <td>Pyrophoric</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Mercury acetate</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>456012</td>
 <td>Highly toxic: use caution</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1-Octanethiol</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>471836</td>
 <td>Strong odor</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Oleic acid</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>W281506</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Zinc acetate </td>
 <td>Alfa Aesar</td>
 <td>35792</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cadmium acetate hydrate</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>229490</td>
 <td>Highly toxic: use caution</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Oleylamine</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>AC12954</td>
 <td>Unstable in air</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sulfur</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>344621</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Trioctylphosphine oxide</td>
 <td>Strem</td>
 <td>15-6661</td>
 <td>99%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pyridine</td>
 <td>VWR</td>
 <td>EM-PX2012-6</td>
 <td>Anhydrous</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Thioglycerol</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>M1753</td>
 <td>Strong odor</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Triethylamine</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>471283</td>
 <td>Anhydrous</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dialysis tubing</td>
 <td>Spectrum Labs</td>
 <td>131342</td>
 <td>20 kDa cutoff</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Centrifugal filter</td>
 <td>Millipore</td>
 <td>UFC801024</td>
 <td>10 kDa cutoff</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Monoamino-PEG</td>
 <td>Rapp Polymere</td>
 <td>12 750-2</td>
 <td>750 Da</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>DMTMM, 4-(4,6-Dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-4-methylmorpholinium chloride hydrate</td>
 <td>Alfa Aesar</td>
 <td>H26333</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>AKTAprime Plus Chromatography System</td>
 <td>GE HealthCare</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Superose 6 10/300 GL chromatography column</td>
 <td>GE HealthCare</td>
 <td>17-5172-01</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Agarose, OmniPur</td>
 <td>VWR</td>
 <td>EM-2120</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Appendix
Synthesis of mercury octanethiolate: Slowly add a methanol solution of mercury acetate (1 eq.) to a stirring solution of 1-octanethiol (3 eq.) and potassium hydroxide (3 eq.) in methanol at room temperature. Isolate the mercury(II) octanethiolate precipitate via filtration, wash two times with methanol and once with ether, and then dry under vacuum.
Synthesis of multidentate polymer: Dissolve polyacrylic acid (1 g, 1,773 Da) in 25 ml dimethylformamide (DMF) in a 150 ml three-necked flask and bubble with argon for 30 min. Add an anhydrous solution of cysteamine (374 mg, 4.87 mmol) in 10 ml DMF. At room temperature with vigorous stirring, slowly add anhydrous diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC, 736 mg, 5.83 mmol) over 30 min, followed by triethylamine (170 &mu;l, 1.22 mmol), and allow the reaction to proceed for 72 hr at 60 &deg;C. Add mercaptoethanol (501 mg, 6.41 mmol) to quench the reaction, and stir for 2 hr at room temperature. Remove DMF via rotary evaporation and isolate the polymer with the addition of a 2:1 mixture of ice-cold acetone:chloroform, followed by centrifugation. Dissolve the polymer in ~5 ml anhydrous DMF, filter, precipitate again with diethyl ether, and repeat. Dry the product under vacuum and store under argon.
Determination of CdSe core diameter: From the UV-Vis absorption spectrum determine the wavelength of the first exciton peak (&lambda;, in nm), which is the longest-wavelength peak (e.g. roughly 498 nm for CdSe in Figure 2a), and use the sizing curve of Mulvaney and coworkers 12:
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/4236/4236eq1.jpg" alt="Equation 1" />
Determination of CdSe nanocrystal concentration: From a background-subtracted UV-Vis spectrum of an optically clear solution of CdSe nanocrystals, determine the absorption at 350 nm wavelength. Serial dilutions can be used to determine if the optical absorption is within the linear range of Beer's Law. The nanocrystal concentration (QD, in M) can be determined by plugging in the nanocrystal diameter (D, in nm), the optical absorption value (A3sa), and the cuvette path length (l, in cm) into the following equation from the empirical correlation of Bawendi and coworkers 13:
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/4236/4236eq2.jpg" alt="Equation 2" /></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

compact quantum dots for single-molecule imaging

Single-molecule imaging is an important tool for understanding the mechanisms of biomolecular function and for visualizing the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of molecular behaviors that underlie cellular biology 1-4. To image an individual molecule of interest, it is typically conjugated to a fluorescent tag (dye, protein, bead, or quantum dot) and observed with epifluorescence or total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. While dyes and fluorescent proteins have been the mainstay of fluorescence imaging for decades, their fluorescence is unstable under high photon fluxes necessary to observe individual molecules, yielding only a few seconds of observation before complete loss of signal. Latex beads and dye-labeled beads provide improved signal stability but at the expense of drastically larger hydrodynamic size, which can deleteriously alter the diffusion and behavior of the molecule under study.
Quantum dots (QDs) offer a balance between these two problematic regimes. These nanoparticles are composed of semiconductor materials and can be engineered with a hydrodynamically compact size with exceptional resistance to photodegradation 5. Thus in recent years QDs have been instrumental in enabling long-term observation of complex macromolecular behavior on the single molecule level. However these particles have still been found to exhibit impaired diffusion in crowded molecular environments such as the cellular cytoplasm and the neuronal synaptic cleft, where their sizes are still too large 4,6,7.
Recently we have engineered the cores and surface coatings of QDs for minimized hydrodynamic size, while balancing offsets to colloidal stability, photostability, brightness, and nonspecific binding that have hindered the utility of compact QDs in the past 8,9. The goal of this article is to demonstrate the synthesis, modification, and characterization of these optimized nanocrystals, composed of an alloyed HgxCd1-xSe core coated with an insulating CdyZn1-yS shell, further coated with a multidentate polymer ligand modified with short polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains (Figure 1). Compared with conventional CdSe nanocrystals, HgxCd1-xSe alloys offer greater quantum yields of fluorescence, fluorescence at red and near-infrared wavelengths for enhanced signal-to-noise in cells, and excitation at non-cytotoxic visible wavelengths. Multidentate polymer coatings bind to the nanocrystal surface in a closed and flat conformation to minimize hydrodynamic size, and PEG neutralizes the surface charge to minimize nonspecific binding to cells and biomolecules. The end result is a brightly fluorescent nanocrystal with emission between 550-800 nm and a total hydrodynamic size near 12 nm. This is in the same size range as many soluble globular proteins in cells, and substantially smaller than conventional PEGylated QDs (25-35 nm).

Figure 2 depicts representative absorption and fluorescence spectra for CdSe nanocrystals, HgxCd1-xSe nanocrystals after cation exchange, and HgxCd1-xSe/CdyZn1-yS nanocrystals after shell growth. The core CdSe nanocrystals have a quantum yield of fluorescence near 15% (including long-wavelength deep-trap emission) but this efficiency drops to less than 1% after mercury exchange, likely due to charge carrier traps introduced through surface...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging at JoVE.com

Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging

We describe the preparation of colloidal quantum dots with minimized hydrodynamic size for single-molecule fluorescence imaging. Compared to conventional quantum dots, these nanoparticles are similar in size to globular proteins and are optimized for single-molecule brightness, stability against photodegradation, and resistance to nonspecific binding to proteins and cells.

Single-molecule imaging is an important tool for  understanding the mechanisms of biomolecular function and for visualizing the  spatial and temporal ...

compact-quantum-dots-for-single-molecule-imaging

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17.9K ビュー.  Emory University. 我々は、単一分子蛍光イメージングのための最小限に流体力学的サイズを有するコロイド量子ドットの調製を記載している。従来の量子ドットに比べ、これらのナノ粒子はサイズが球状タンパク質と類似しており、単一分子の明るさ、光分解に対する安定性、タンパク質や細胞への非特異的な結合への抵抗のために最適化されています。

ビデオ: Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging

We describe the preparation of colloidal quantum dots with minimized hydrodynamic size for single-molecule fluorescence imaging.  Compared to conventional quantum dots, these nanoparticles are similar in size to globular proteins and are optimized for single-molecule brightness, stability against photodegradation, and resistance to nonspecific binding to proteins and...

fluorescent lateral flow immunoassay based on quantum dots nanobeads

Author Spotlight: High-Quality Quantum Dot Nanobeads for Sensitive Fluorescent Lateral Flow Immunoassays

Here, we describe a protocol for the preparation of quantum dot nanobeads (QDNB) and the detection of disease biomarkers using QDNB-based lateral flow immunoassay strips. The test results can be qualitatively assessed under UV light illumination and quantitatively measured using a fluorescent strip reader within 15...

Fluorescent Lateral Flow Immunoassay Based on Quantum Dots Nanobeads

Quantum Dot Nanobeads for Enhanced Sensitivity in Biomarker Detection

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silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor quantum dots for single-electron pumping

Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

The fabrication process and experimental characterization techniques relevant to single-electron pumps based on silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor quantum dots are...

production and targeting of monovalent quantum dots

Production and Targeting of Monovalent Quantum Dots

We provide detailed instructions for the preparation of monovalent targeted quantum dots (mQDs) from phosphorothioate DNA of defined length. DNA wrapping occurs in high yield, and therefore, products do not require purification. We demonstrate the use of the SNAP tag to target mQDs to cell-surface receptors for live-cell imaging applications.

nanofabrication of gate-defined gaas/algaas lateral quantum dots

Nanofabrication of Gate-defined GaAs/AlGaAs Lateral Quantum Dots

This paper presents a detailed fabrication protocol for gate-defined semiconductor lateral quantum dots on gallium arsenide heterostructures. These nanoscale devices are used to trap few electrons for use as quantum bits in quantum information processing or for other mesoscopic experiments such as coherent conductance...

synthesis of cd-free inp/zns quantum dots suitable for biomedical applications

Synthesis of Cd-free InP/ZnS Quantum Dots Suitable for Biomedical Applications

In this protocol, the synthesis of Cd-free InP/ZnS quantum dots (QDs) is detailed. InP-based QDs are gaining popularity due to the toxicity of Cd2+ ions that may be released through nanoparticle degradation. After synthesis, QDs are solubilized in water using an amphiphilic polymer for use in biomedical...

preparation of quantum dots (qds) nanobeads for qdnb-based lateral flow immunoassay

Preparation of Quantum Dots (QDs) Nanobeads for QDNB-Based Lateral Flow Immunoassay

single-molecule imaging of nuclear transport

Single-Molecule Imaging of Nuclear Transport

Single molecule microscopy approch provided novel insights into nuclear...

synthesis of in37p20(o2cr)51 clusters and their conversion to inp quantum dots

Synthesis of In37P20O2CR51 Clusters and Their Conversion to InP Quantum Dots

A protocol for the synthesis of In37P20(O2C14H27)51 clusters and their conversion to indium phosphide quantum dots is...

Synthesis of In37P20(O2CR)51 Clusters and Their Conversion to InP Quantum Dots

solubilization and bio-conjugation of quantum dots and bacterial toxicity assays by growth curve and plate count

Solubilization and Bio-conjugation of Quantum Dots and Bacterial Toxicity Assays by Growth Curve and Plate Count

Nanoparticles such as semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) can be used to create photoactivatable agents for anti-microbial or anti-cancer applications. This technique shows how to water-solubilize cadmium telluride (CdTe) QDs, conjugate them to an antibiotic, and perform a bacterial inhibition assay based upon growth curves and plate...

combining single-molecule manipulation and imaging for the study of protein-dna interactions

Combining Single-molecule Manipulation and Imaging for the Study of Protein-DNA Interactions

Here we describe the instrumentation and methods for detecting single fluorescently-labeled protein molecules interacting with a single DNA molecule suspended between two optically trapped...

visualizing subcellular localization of a protein in the heart using quantum dots-mediated immuno-labeling followed by transmission electron microscopy

Visualizing Subcellular Localization of a Protein in the Heart Using Quantum Dots-Mediated Immuno-Labeling Followed by Transmission Electron Microscopy

The present protocol describes a method of immuno-labeling a protein in the heart tissue sections using quantum dots. This technique provides a useful tool to visualize any protein&#39;s subcellular localization and expression at the ultrastructural...

in situ nucleosome assembly for single-molecule correlative force and fluorescence microscopy

Author Spotlight: Efficient Nucleosome Reconstitution for Single-Molecule Techniques

This article presents a detailed experimental procedure for reconstituting nucleosome-containing DNA tethers for single-molecule correlative force and fluorescence microscopy. It further describes several downstream experiments that can be conducted to visualize the binding behavior of chromatin-interacting proteins and analyze changes in the physical properties of...

In Situ Nucleosome Reconstitution for Single-Molecule Studies

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single-molecule imaging of ews-fli1 condensates assembling on dna

Single-Molecule Imaging of EWS-FLI1 Condensates Assembling on DNA

Here, we describe the use of the single-molecule imaging method, DNA Curtains, to study the biophysical mechanism of EWS-FLI1 condensates assembling on...

an in vitro single-molecule imaging assay for the analysis of cap-dependent translation kinetics

An In Vitro Single-Molecule Imaging Assay for the Analysis of Cap-Dependent Translation Kinetics

Tracking individual translation events allows for high-resolution kinetic studies of cap-dependent translation mechanisms. Here we demonstrate an in vitro single-molecule assay based on imaging interactions between fluorescently labeled antibodies and epitope-tagged nascent peptides. This method enables single-molecule characterization of initiation and peptide elongation kinetics during active in vitro cap-dependent...

An In Vitro Single-Molecule Imaging Assay for the Analysis of Cap-Dependent Translation Kinetics

single-molecule measurement of protein interaction dynamics within biomolecular condensates

Author Spotlight: Evaluation of Protein-Condensate Dynamics in Live Human Cells

Many intrinsically disordered proteins have been shown to participate in the formation of highly dynamic biomolecular condensates, a behavior important for numerous cellular processes. Here, we present a single-molecule imaging-based method for quantifying the dynamics by which proteins interact with each other in biomolecular condensates in live...

Live Cell Single-Molecule Imaging-Based Quantification of Protein Interactions

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halo-ligand staining of cells for protein condensate-interaction studies using single-molecule imaging

Halo-Ligand Staining of Cells for Protein Condensate-Interaction Studies Using Single-Molecule Imaging

single-molecule imaging to visualize fusion protein condensates assembly on dna curtains

This video describes a method to visualize the assembly of fusion protein condensates on DNA molecules at specific loci using single-molecule imaging. These condensates are formed due to LCD-LCD and LCD-DBD interactions, which allow for the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and enhanced gene...

Single-Molecule Imaging to Visualize Fusion Protein Condensates Assembly on DNA Curtains

Gradient Echo Quantum Memory in Warm Atomic Vapor

Gradient echo memory (GEM) is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in atomic ensembles. The primary motivation for such a technology is that quantum key distribution (QKD), which uses Heisenberg uncertainty to guarantee security of cryptographic keys, is limited in transmission distance. The development of a quantum repeater is a possible path to extend QKD range, but a repeater will need a quantum memory. In our experiments we use a gas of rubidium 87 vapor that is contained in a warm gas cell. This makes the scheme particularly simple. It is also a highly versatile scheme that enables in-memory refinement of the stored state, such as frequency shifting and bandwidth manipulation. The basis of the GEM protocol is to absorb the light into an ensemble of atoms that has been prepared in a magnetic field gradient. The reversal of this gradient leads to rephasing of the atomic polarization and thus recall of the stored optical state. We will outline how we prepare the atoms and this gradient and also describe some of the pitfalls that need to be avoided, in particular four-wave mixing, which can give rise to optical gain.

The gradient echo memory is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in atomic ensembles. Quantum memory is a key element of a quantum repeater, which can extend the range of quantum key distribution. We outline the operation of the scheme when implemented in a 3-level atomic ensemble.

Gradient  echo memory (GEM) is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in  atomic ensembles. The primary motivation for such a technology ...

A quantum computer is a computer composed of quantum bits (qubits) that takes advantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of states and entanglement, to solve certain problems exponentially faster than with the best known algorithms on a classical computer. Gate-defined lateral quantum dots on GaAs/AlGaAs are one of many avenues explored for the implementation of a qubit. When properly fabricated, such a device is able to trap a small number of electrons in a certain region of space. The spin states of these electrons can then be used to implement the logical 0 and 1 of the quantum bit. Given the nanometer scale of these quantum dots, cleanroom facilities offering specialized equipment- such as scanning electron microscopes and e-beam evaporators- are required for their fabrication. Great care must be taken throughout the fabrication process to maintain cleanliness of the sample surface and to avoid damaging the fragile gates of the structure. This paper presents the detailed fabrication protocol of gate-defined lateral quantum dots from the wafer to a working device. Characterization methods and representative results are also briefly discussed. Although this paper concentrates on double quantum dots, the fabrication process remains the same for single or triple dots or even arrays of quantum dots. Moreover, the protocol can be adapted to fabricate lateral quantum dots on other substrates, such as Si/SiGe.

This paper presents a detailed fabrication protocol for gate-defined semiconductor lateral quantum dots on gallium arsenide heterostructures. These nanoscale devices are used to trap few electrons for use as quantum bits in quantum information processing or for other mesoscopic experiments such as coherent conductance measurements.

A quantum computer is a computer composed of quantum bits (qubits) that takes advantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of states and ...

Analysis of Contact Interfaces for Single GaN Nanowire Devices

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit a strong degradation after annealing due to the occurrence of void formation at the contact/SiO2 interface. This void formation can cause cracking and delamination of the metal film, which can increase the resistance or lead to a complete failure of the NW device. In order to address issues associated with void formation, a technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from the substrates to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN NW devices. This procedure determines the degree of adhesion of the contact films to the substrate and NWs and allows for the characterization of the morphology and composition of the contact interface with the substrate and nanowires. This technique is also useful for assessing the amount of residual contamination that remains from the NW suspension and from photolithographic processes on the NW-SiO2 surface prior to metal deposition. The detailed steps of this procedure are presented for the removal of annealed Ni/Au contacts to Mg-doped GaN NWs on a SiO2 substrate.

A technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from their substrate to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN nanowire devices.

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit  a strong degradation after annealing due to the  occurrence of void formation at the ...

Construction and Characterization of External Cavity Diode Lasers for Atomic Physics

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and Titanium Sapphire lasers as the workhorse laser of atomic physics labs1,2. Their versatility and prolific use throughout atomic physics in applications such as absorption spectroscopy and laser cooling1,2 makes it imperative for incoming students to gain a firm practical understanding of these lasers. This publication builds upon the seminal work by Wieman3, updating components, and providing a video tutorial. The setup, frequency locking and performance characterization of an ECDL will be described. Discussion of component selection and proper mounting of both diodes and gratings, the factors affecting mode selection within the cavity, proper alignment for optimal external feedback, optics setup for coarse and fine frequency sensitive measurements, a brief overview of laser locking techniques, and laser linewidth measurements are included.

This is an instructional paper to guide the construction and diagnostics of external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs), including component selection and optical alignment, as well as the basics of frequency reference spectroscopy and laser linewidth measurements for applications in the field of atomic physics.

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and ...

Quantum State Engineering of Light with Continuous-wave Optical Parametric Oscillators

Engineering non-classical states of the electromagnetic field is a central quest for quantum optics1,2. Beyond their fundamental significance, such states are indeed the resources for implementing various protocols, ranging from enhanced metrology to quantum communication and computing. A variety of devices can be used to generate non-classical states, such as single emitters, light-matter interfaces or non-linear systems3. We focus here on the use of a continuous-wave optical parametric oscillator3,4. This system is based on a non-linear &#967;2 crystal inserted inside an optical cavity and it is now well-known as a very efficient source of non-classical light, such as single-mode or two-mode squeezed vacuum depending on the crystal phase matching. 
Squeezed vacuum is a Gaussian state as its quadrature distributions follow a Gaussian statistics. However, it has been shown that number of protocols require non-Gaussian states5. Generating directly such states is a difficult task and would require strong &#967;3 non-linearities. Another procedure, probabilistic but heralded, consists in using a measurement-induced non-linearity via a conditional preparation technique operated on Gaussian states. Here, we detail this generation protocol for two non-Gaussian states, the single-photon state and a superposition of coherent states, using two differently phase-matched parametric oscillators as primary resources. This technique enables achievement of a high fidelity with the targeted state and generation of the state in a well-controlled spatiotemporal mode.

We describe the reliable generation of non-Gaussian states of traveling optical fields, including single-photon states and coherent state superpositions, using a conditional preparation method operated on the non-classical light emitted by optical parametric oscillators. Type-I and type-II phase-matched oscillators are considered and common procedures, such as the required frequency filtering or the high-efficiency quantum state characterization by homodyning, are detailed.

Engineering non-classical states of the electromagnetic field is a central quest for quantum optics1,2. Beyond their fundamental significance, such states ...

Investigating Single Molecule Adhesion by Atomic Force Spectroscopy

Atomic force spectroscopy is an ideal tool to study molecules at surfaces and interfaces. An experimental protocol to couple a large variety of single molecules covalently onto an AFM tip is presented. At the same time the AFM tip is passivated to prevent unspecific interactions between the tip and the substrate, which is a prerequisite to study single molecules attached to the AFM tip. Analyses to determine the adhesion force, the adhesion length, and the free energy of these molecules on solid surfaces and bio-interfaces are shortly presented and external references for further reading are provided. Example molecules are the poly(amino acid) polytyrosine, the graft polymer PI-g-PS and the phospholipid POPE (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine). These molecules are desorbed from different surfaces like CH3-SAMs, hydrogen terminated diamond and supported lipid bilayers under various solvent conditions. Finally, the advantages of force spectroscopic single molecule experiments are discussed including means to decide if truly a single molecule has been studied in the experiment.

A protocol to couple a large variety of single molecules covalently onto an AFM tip is presented. Procedures and examples to determine the adhesion force and free energy of these molecules on solid supports and bio-interfaces are provided.

Atomic force spectroscopy is an ideal tool to study molecules at surfaces and interfaces. An experimental protocol to couple a large variety of single ...

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of biosensing devices. We report on a protocol of using KrF and ArF lasers irradiating Si (001) samples immersed in a liquid environment with low number of pulses and operating at moderately low pulse fluences to induce Si wettability modification. Wafers immersed for up to 4 hr in a 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution did not show measurable change in their initial contact angle (CA) ~75&#176;. However, the 500-pulse KrF and ArF lasers irradiation of such wafers in a microchamber filled with 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution at 250 and 65 mJ/cm2, respectively, has decreased the CA to near 15&#176;, indicating the formation of a superhydrophilic surface. The formation of OH-terminated Si (001), with no measurable change of the wafer&#8217;s surface morphology, has been confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements. The selective area irradiated samples were then immersed in a biotin-conjugated fluorescein-stained nanospheres solution for 2 hr, resulting in a successful immobilization of the nanospheres in the non-irradiated area. This illustrates the potential of&#160;the method for selective area biofunctionalization and fabrication of advanced Si-based biosensing architectures. We also describe a similar protocol of irradiation of wafers immersed in methanol (CH3OH) using ArF laser operating at pulse fluence of 65 mJ/cm2 and in situ formation of a strongly hydrophobic surface of Si (001) with the CA of 103&#176;. The XPS results indicate ArF laser induced formation of Si&#8211;(OCH3)x compounds responsible for the observed hydrophobicity. However, no such compounds were found by XPS on the Si surface irradiated by KrF laser in methanol, demonstrating the inability of the KrF laser to photodissociate methanol and create -OCH3 radicals.

We report on a process of in situ alteration of HF treated Si (001) surface into a hydrophilic or hydrophobic state by irradiating samples in microfluidic chambers filled with&#160;H2O2/H2O solution (0.01%-0.5%) or methanol solutions using pulsed UV laser of a relative low pulse fluence.

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of ...

As mass-produced silicon transistors have reached the nano-scale, their behavior and performances are increasingly affected, and often deteriorated, by quantum mechanical effects such as tunneling through single dopants, scattering via interface defects, and discrete trap charge states. However, progress in silicon technology has shown that these phenomena can be harnessed and exploited for a new class of quantum-based electronics. Among others, multi-layer-gated silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology can be used to control single charge or spin confined in electrostatically-defined quantum dots (QD). These QD-based devices are an excellent platform for quantum computing applications and, recently, it has been demonstrated that they can also be used as single-electron pumps, which are accurate sources of quantized current for metrological purposes. Here, we discuss in detail the fabrication protocol for silicon MOS QDs which is relevant to both quantum computing and quantum metrology applications. Moreover, we describe characterization methods to test the integrity of the devices after fabrication. Finally, we give a brief description of the measurement set-up used for charge pumping experiments and show representative results of electric current quantization.

The fabrication process and experimental characterization techniques relevant to single-electron pumps based on silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor quantum dots are discussed.

As mass-produced silicon transistors have reached the nano-scale, their behavior and performances are increasingly affected, and often deteriorated, by ...

Use of a Multi-compartment Dynamic Single Enzyme Phantom for Studies of Hyperpolarized Magnetic Resonance Agents

Imaging of hyperpolarized substrates by magnetic resonance shows great clinical promise for assessment of critical biochemical processes in real time. Due to fundamental constraints imposed by the hyperpolarized state, exotic imaging and reconstruction techniques are commonly used. A practical system for characterization of dynamic, multi-spectral imaging methods is critically needed. Such a system must reproducibly recapitulate the relevant chemical dynamics of normal and pathological tissues. The most widely utilized substrate to date is hyperpolarized [1-13C]-pyruvate for assessment of cancer metabolism. We describe an enzyme-based phantom system that mediates the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. The reaction is initiated by injection of the hyperpolarized agent into multiple chambers within the phantom, each of which contains varying concentrations of reagents that control the reaction rate. Multiple compartments are necessary to ensure that imaging sequences faithfully capture the spatial and metabolic heterogeneity of tissue. This system will aid the development and validation of advanced imaging strategies by providing chemical dynamics that are not available from conventional phantoms, as well as control and reproducibility that is not possible in vivo.

A multi-compartment dynamic phantom is used to simulate some biology of interest for metabolic studies using hyperpolarized magnet resonance agents.

Imaging of hyperpolarized substrates by magnetic resonance shows great clinical promise for assessment of critical biochemical processes in real time. Due ...

Compact Lens-less Digital Holographic Microscope for MEMS Inspection and Characterization

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and automotive. However, effective inspection and characterization metrology systems are needed to ensure the functional reliability of MEMS. This study presents a system based on digital holography as a tool for MEMS metrology. Digital holography has gained increasing attention in the past 20 years. With the fast development and decreasing cost of sensor arrays, resolution of such systems has increased broadening potential applications. Thus, it has attracted attention from both research and industry sides as a potential reliable tool for industrial metrology. Indeed, by recording the interference pattern between an object beam (which contains sample height information) and a reference beam on a CCD camera, one can retrieve the quantitative phase information of an object. However, most of digital holographic systems are bulky and thus not easy to implement on industry production lines. The novelty of the system presented is that it is lens-less and thus very compact. In this study, it is shown that the Compact Digital Holographic Microscope (CDHM) can be used to evaluate several characteristics typically consider as criteria in MEMS inspections. The surface profiles of MEMS in both static and dynamic conditions are presented. Comparison with AFM is investigated to validate the accuracy of the CDHM.

We present a compact reflection digital holographic system (CDHM) for inspection and characterization of MEMS devices. A lens-less design using a diverging input wave providing natural geometrical magnification is demonstrated. Both static and dynamic studies are presented.

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and ...