This work was supported by a CIHR operating grant (MOP-102624) to Q. Y. We thank Dr Carolyn Harley for helpful discussions throughout the study, Dr. Qinlong Hou, Amin Shakhawat, and Andrea Darby-King for technical support.

男女のスプラーグドーリーラット（チャールズリバー）の仔が使用されている。同腹仔は、PD1（誕生PD0である）で12に淘汰されている。ダムは食料と水は自由に摂取させ 、12時間の明/暗サイクルで維持されている。実験手順は、メモリアル大学の動物実験委員会によって承認されている。 1鼻プラグ建設注：この手順では、適応とカミングスらから変更されました（1997年）35。 <ol><li> AQUIREポリエチレン-20チューブと3-0絹縫合糸。 </li><li>約0.8mmとポリエチレン20チューブの小片をカット。 </li><li>チューブの部分の両側のスレッドが存在するように準備されたチューブを介して糸絹縫合。 </li><li>プラグの外側糸の一端には、スレッド内で結び目を作る。 </li><li>スレッド内の結び目の上にダウンチューブの部分を引き出します。結び目は、管の内側に申し立てる必要があります。</li><li>糸の約2 mmはチューブの一端から突出するように糸の両端をトリミング（ 図1Aを参照）。 </li></ol>トレーニングの前に2。ナリスオクルージョン<ol><li>定期的な布団で覆われた安全な皿にダムや場所から子犬を削除します。 </li><li>閉塞されるべき鼻孔に、局所麻酔薬ゼリー、2％キシロカインを軽くするために綿棒アプリケーションを使用します。 </li><li>子犬〜3分間皿に休息できるようにします。 </li><li>非利き手で穏やかに、しかし確実に子犬を持ってください。 </li><li>利き手を使用して、鼻栓をピックアップし、スレッドが突出していないから、先端の周りに同じ局所麻酔薬ゼリーを軽くたたく。これはプラグ挿入に関連するすべてのマイナー痛みのための麻酔薬の両方として機能し、鼻孔の内部潤滑剤として機能します。注：キシロカインの効果は数分以内に開始し、20〜30分続きます。キシロカインゼリー適用後のプラグ挿入のための一般的なショーの良い耐性の子犬（Minimum苦労と発声）。 </li><li>優しくしっかりと子犬を保持し、プラグが完全に挿入され、わずか2ミリのスレッドが鼻孔から突出するまで、ゆっくりと非常に穏やかなプッシュで、プラグを回転させることにより、鼻のプラグを差し込みます（ 図1B参照 ）。このプロセスの間のいずれかの鼻孔からの出血があってはなりません。鼻プラグ挿入時の出血の仔は除外され、ダムに戻される</li><li>動物はプラグに慣らすために、5分間この料理で休むようにします。 </li><li>慣れ皿から子犬を外し、コンディショニングパラダイム24を始める。 </li></ol><img alt="図1" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51808/51808fig1highres.jpg" width="500" /> 鼻プラグの図1の構築。 A）は回路図、鼻プラグを製造するステップを示す。スレッドは、ポリエチレン管を通して引っ張られている。結び目が作られ、PULさそれを遮断するチューブの途中に導か;両端は、管のうちの一方の端に2ミリメートル残基で切断されています。B）フロントと1鼻孔鼻栓ラットの側面図を。 3香り​​寝具の準備<ol><li> 、臭気汚染を防ぐためビニール袋に木材チップの寝具の500ミリリットルを配置するために、新しい手袋を着用し、ドラフト中。 </li><li> 0.3ミリリットルペパーミントエキスを策定するために、注射器を使用し、ビニール袋に布団の上にこれをスプレー。 </li><li>袋を閉じて接続し、積極的に袋を振ると、寝具は5分間の袋で休むことができます。 </li><li>使用前に5分間ヒュームフードで明らかになった明確な、浅い、アクリル研修箱（20×20×5cm 3の、 図2A）で香りのベッドを配置します。寝具が準備されると、これらの手袋を破棄し、これらの手袋は、動物に触れないようにしてください。 </li><li>同一の透明なプラスチックの箱に無香料のベッドを配置し、専用それは香りの寝具類、または使用済みの手袋と接触しないことを確認してください。 </li></ol> 4。臭気コンディショニングパラダイム（図2（a）の画像を参照してください） 子犬は、PD 6、または複数のトライアルセッション（一日一セッション、PD 3-6）で、いずれか一つの条件付けセッションを受ける。 <ol><li>香りの寝具に慣れ子犬を置きます。制御臭の場合のみ（O / S - ）仔、4.5に進み、その後、10分間のベッド上でこれらの子犬を残す。実験的な臭気+ストローク（O / S +）の仔については、このセクションの次の手順に進みます。 </li><li>ストロークの小さな絵筆を用いて30秒間の子犬。主に子犬の後ろ足領域の周囲に急速な円運動を使用してください。 </li><li>子犬30秒間休ませるようにします。 </li><li>繰り返します（+臭いをなでるすなわち 10ペア）を10分間で合計4.2＆4.3を繰り返します。 </li><li>空調ボックスから子犬を外し、鼻栓を取り外し、ダムに子犬を返します。 </li></ol> &lt;Pクラス= &quot;jove_title&quot;&gt; 5。左右で非対称臭気選好テスト（図2Bの図を参照） テストは、最終的なトレーニングセッション、次 ​​のさまざまな時点（ 例えば 、24または48時間）で行われます。試験は2センチメートルニュートラルゾーンによって分離された2つのトレーニングボックス（トレーニングボックスは3.4に記載されている）の上に配置されるステンレス鋼の試験チャンバー（30×20×18 cm 3程度）で行われる。他のボックスがきれいで、無香料寝具が含まれていながら、一つのトレーニングボックスはペパーミントの香りの寝具が含まれています。試験室の床は、次にプラスチックメッシュ（ 図2B）の取り外し可能なシートによって覆われた金属格子である。 <ol><li>第3節に従って1ペパーミントと1無臭のベッドを用意し、2センチメートル離れて、検査室の反対側の下にそれぞれのボックスを配置します。検査室の金属グリッド床にプラスチック製のメッシュを配置します。 </li><li>ダムから子犬を外し、鼻孔に無臭シリコーングリースをしっかりDABを置くそのは、トレーニング中に吸蔵される。必要に応じて最初の試験手順全体を通してグリースを再適用します。注：ランダム鼻孔閉塞訓練および試験中はバイアスを回避するために考えることができる。 </li><li>検査室の中立ゾーンに子犬を置きます。 </li><li>子犬室の両側以上を費やしどのくらい記録、子犬1分間チャンバーを探求することを許可する（ つまり、ペパーミントまたは中立の香りの寝具の上）。 </li><li>子犬覆われたプラスチック製の保持チャンバーに1分間休息できるようにします。 </li><li>繰り返しますが、10分間、合計5.2＆5.3ステップ（ すなわち 、5残りの試行で区切っ5テストトライアル）方向の好みのために制御するために、チャンバー内の子犬の初期の向きを切り替える。 </li><li>直ちに試験後、鼻孔からのグリースを拭き取ってください。 </li><li>セクション2に従って反対鼻孔にポリエチレンnoseplugを挿入し、動物を10分間休ませることができます。 </li><li>のように、再び子犬をテスト<html> 5.3 -5.6、プラグを取り外し、ダムに子犬を返します。取り外し、95％エタノールで試験チャンバーのプラスチックメッシュをきれいにし、液体を蒸発させる。次の子犬をテストする前に戻ってメッシュを配置します。 注：テスト中に最初の鼻孔閉塞にシリコーングリースを適用すると、出血や鼻プラグ挿入に関連したストレスの可能性を防止します。 </li></ol><img alt="図2" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51808/51808fig2highres.jpg" width="500" /> 図2。初期の臭気の好みのトレーニングとテスト。パラダイムをなでる臭+。B）片側のペパーミント寝具を備えた2つの選択肢の匂いの嗜好性テストを使用して、A）初期の臭気の好みのトレーニング、反対側に無香料寝具を制御します。 2センチメートルニュートラルゾーンがその間に配置されている。 6。シングルナリスオクルージョンの有効性をテストする&quot;&gt;この実験は、単一の鼻孔閉塞が嗅覚系の左右で非対称に活性化をもたらすか否かが判定されるヌクレオチド。 <ol><li>セクション2で説明したように、PD 6または7匹に一方的な鼻孔閉塞を実行します。 </li><li> 〜5分間の馴化後、蓋付きプラスチック容器に子犬を配置し、10分間組織片に浸し30μlの純粋なペパーミントオイルに公開。 </li><li>すぐにペパーミント臭暴露後、全身麻酔薬、またはペントバルビタール、（150mgの/ kg）のように抱水クロラール（400 mgの/ kg）を腹腔内（IP）を子犬を注入。 </li><li>完全に（尾または足のピンチに応答を示さない）を麻酔したら、経心0.1 Mリン酸緩衝液、PBSに溶解したパラホルムアルデヒド（4％、続いて約1分間、生理食塩水（0.9％）の氷冷溶液との子犬を、灌流）。 </li><li>パラホルムアルデヒド灌流の10分後、脳を収集し、4℃で一晩パラホルムアルデヒド中に入れ、その後、トランスさらに24時間、スクロース溶液（PBS中20％）に脳FER。 </li><li>クライオスタットで30μmの厚さで冠状脳スライスをカット。 OBとPCのスライスを収集し、pCREB抗体21,25,30のための標準的な免疫組織化学染色を行ったゼラチンコートしたスライド上にマウントします。 </li></ol> 7シングルナリス閉塞の可逆性をテストするブロッキング効果は鼻栓を除去した後の24時間後に可逆的であるかどうかをこの実験をテストします。 <ol><li>セクション2で説明したように、PD 6または7匹に一方的な鼻孔閉塞を実行します。 </li><li> （トレーニング中鼻孔閉塞の期間に相当する - 5分馴化+ 10分のトレーニング）15分後、鼻栓を取り外し、ダムに子犬を返します。 </li><li> 6.2で説明したように24時間後、10分間の蓋付きプラスチック容器にペパーミント臭に子犬を公開します。 </li><li>宗派の同じ手順に従ってくださいイオンは6.3から6.6。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Gregory, E. H., Pfaff, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+olfactory-guided+behavior+in+infant+rats.">Development of olfactory-guided behavior in infant rats.</a> Physiol Behav. 6, 573-576 (1971).</li><li>Alberts, J. R., May, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nonnutritive,+thermotactile+induction+of+filial+huddling+in+rat+pups.">Nonnutritive, thermotactile induction of filial huddling in rat pups.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 17, 161-181 (1984).</li><li>Galef, B. G., Kaner, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Establishment+and+maintenance+of+preference+for+natural+and+artificial+olfactory+stimuli+in+juvenile+rats.">Establishment and maintenance of preference for natural and artificial olfactory stimuli in juvenile rats.</a> J Comp Physiol Psychol. 94, 588-595 (1980).</li><li>Johanson, I. B., Hall, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Appetitive+learning+in+1-day-old+rat+pups.">Appetitive learning in 1-day-old rat pups.</a> Science. 205, 419-421 (1979).</li><li>Johanson, I. B., Hall, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Appetitive+conditioning+in+neonatal+rats:+conditioned+orientation+to+a+novel+odor.">Appetitive conditioning in neonatal rats: conditioned orientation to a novel odor.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 15, 379-397 (1982).</li><li>Johanson, I. B., Teicher, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Classical+conditioning+of+an+odor+preference+in+3-day-old+rats.">Classical conditioning of an odor preference in 3-day-old rats.</a> Behav Neural Biol. 29, 132-136 (1980).</li><li>McLean, J. H., Darby-King, A., Sullivan, R. M., King, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Serotonergic+influence+on+olfactory+learning+in+the+neonate+rat.">Serotonergic influence on olfactory learning in the neonate rat.</a> Behav Neural Biol. 60, 152-162 (1993).</li><li>Moore, C. L., Power, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variation+in+maternal+care+and+individual+differences+in+play,+exploration,+and+grooming+of+juvenile+Norway+rat+offspring.">Variation in maternal care and individual differences in play, exploration, and grooming of juvenile Norway rat offspring.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 25, 165-182 (1992).</li><li>Pedersen, P. E., Williams, C. L., Blass, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+and+odor+conditioning+of+suckling+behavior+in+3-day-old+albino+rats.">Activation and odor conditioning of suckling behavior in 3-day-old albino rats.</a> J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 8, 329-341 (1982).</li><li>Sullivan, R. M., Hall, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reinforcers+in+infancy:+classical+conditioning+using+stroking+or+intra-oral+infusions+of+milk+as+UCS.">Reinforcers in infancy: classical conditioning using stroking or intra-oral infusions of milk as UCS.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 21, 215-223 (1988).</li><li>Sullivan, R. M., Leon, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+olfactory+learning+induces+an+enhanced+olfactory+bulb+response+in+young+rats.">Early olfactory learning induces an enhanced olfactory bulb response in young rats.</a> Brain Res. 392, 278-282 (1986).</li><li>Weldon, D. A., Travis, M. L., Kennedy, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Posttraining+D1+receptor+blockade+impairs+odor+conditioning+in+neonatal+rats.">Posttraining D1 receptor blockade impairs odor conditioning in neonatal rats.</a> Behav Neurosci. 105, 450-458 (1991).</li><li>Sullivan, R. M., Hofer, M. A., Brake, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory-guided+orientation+in+neonatal+rats+is+enhanced+by+a+conditioned+change+in+behavioral+state.">Olfactory-guided orientation in neonatal rats is enhanced by a conditioned change in behavioral state.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 19, 615-623 (1986).</li><li>Camp, L. L., Rudy, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changes+in+the+categorization+of+appetitive+and+aversive+events+during+postnatal+development+of+the+rat.">Changes in the categorization of appetitive and aversive events during postnatal development of the rat.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 21, 25-42 (1988).</li><li>Moriceau, S., Wilson, D. A., Levine, S., Sullivan, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dual+circuitry+for+odor-shock+conditioning+during+infancy:+corticosterone+switches+between+fear+and+attraction+via+amygdala.">Dual circuitry for odor-shock conditioning during infancy: corticosterone switches between fear and attraction via amygdala.</a> J Neurosci. 26, 6737-6748 (2006).</li><li>Roth, T. L., Sullivan, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endogenous+opioids+and+their+role+in+odor+preference+acquisition+and+consolidation+following+odor-shock+conditioning+in+infant+rats.">Endogenous opioids and their role in odor preference acquisition and consolidation following odor-shock conditioning in infant rats.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 39, 188-198 (2001).</li><li>Roth, T. L., Sullivan, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consolidation+and+expression+of+a+shock-induced+odor+preference+in+rat+pups+is+facilitated+by+opioids.">Consolidation and expression of a shock-induced odor preference in rat pups is facilitated by opioids.</a> Physiol Behav. 78, 135-142 (2003).</li><li>Sullivan, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developing+a+sense+of+safety:+the+neurobiology+of+neonatal+attachment.">Developing a sense of safety: the neurobiology of neonatal attachment.</a> Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1008, 122-131 (2003).</li><li>Wilson, D. A., Sullivan, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+associative+conditioning+in+infant+rats+with+brain+stimulation+as+reward.+I.+Neurobehavioral+consequences.">Olfactory associative conditioning in infant rats with brain stimulation as reward. I. Neurobehavioral consequences.</a> Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 53, 215-221 (1990).</li><li>Sullivan, R. M., Wilson, D. A., Leon, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Associative+Processes+in+Early+Olfactory+Preference+Acquisition:+Neural+and+Behavioral+Consequences.">Associative Processes in Early Olfactory Preference Acquisition: Neural and Behavioral Consequences.</a> Psychobiology. , 29-33 (1989).</li><li>McLean, J. H., Harley, C. W., Darby-King, A., Yuan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=pCREB+in+the+neonate+rat+olfactory+bulb+is+selectively+and+transiently+increased+by+odor+preference-conditioned+training.">pCREB in the neonate rat olfactory bulb is selectively and transiently increased by odor preference-conditioned training.</a> Learn Mem. 6, 608-618 (1999).</li><li>Sullivan, R. M., Stackenwalt, G., Nasr, F., Lemon, C., Wilson, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Association+of+an+odor+with+activation+of+olfactory+bulb+noradrenergic+beta-receptors+or+locus+coeruleus+stimulation+is+sufficient+to+produce+learned+approach+responses+to+that+odor+in+neonatal+rats.">Association of an odor with activation of olfactory bulb noradrenergic beta-receptors or locus coeruleus stimulation is sufficient to produce learned approach responses to that odor in neonatal rats.</a> Behav Neurosci. 114, 957-962 (2000).</li><li>Yuan, Q., Harley, C. W., McLean, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitral+cell+beta1+and+5-HT2A+receptor+colocalization+and+cAMP+coregulation:+a+new+model+of+norepinephrine-induced+learning+in+the+olfactory+bulb.">Mitral cell beta1 and 5-HT2A receptor colocalization and cAMP coregulation: a new model of norepinephrine-induced learning in the olfactory bulb.</a> Learn Mem. 10, 5-15 (2003).</li><li>Fontaine, C. J., Harley, C. W., Yuan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lateralized+odor+preference+training+in+rat+pups+reveals+an+enhanced+network+response+in+anterior+piriform+cortex+to+olfactory+input+that+parallels+extended+memory.">Lateralized odor preference training in rat pups reveals an enhanced network response in anterior piriform cortex to olfactory input that parallels extended memory.</a> J Neurosci. 33, 15126-15131 (2013).</li><li>Morrison, G. L., Fontaine, C. J., Harley, C. W., Yuan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+role+for+the+anterior+piriform+cortex+in+early+odor+preference+learning:+evidence+for+multiple+olfactory+learning+structures+in+the+rat+pup.">A role for the anterior piriform cortex in early odor preference learning: evidence for multiple olfactory learning structures in the rat pup.</a> J Neurophysiol. 110, 141-152 (2013).</li><li>Nakamura, S., Kimura, F., Sakaguchi, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Postnatal+development+of+electrical+activity+in+the+locus+ceruleus.">Postnatal development of electrical activity in the locus ceruleus.</a> J Neurophysiol. 58, 510-524 (1987).</li><li>Harley, C. W., Darby-King, A., McCann, J., McLean, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beta1-adrenoceptor+or+alpha1-adrenoceptor+activation+initiates+early+odor+preference+learning+in+rat+pups:+support+for+the+mitral+cell/cAMP+model+of+odor+preference+learning.">Beta1-adrenoceptor or alpha1-adrenoceptor activation initiates early odor preference learning in rat pups: support for the mitral cell/cAMP model of odor preference learning.</a> Learn Mem. 13, 8-13 (2006).</li><li>Shakhawat, A. M., Harley, C. W., Yuan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+bulb+alpha2-adrenoceptor+activation+promotes+rat+pup+odor-preference+learning+via+a+cAMP-independent+mechanism.">Olfactory bulb alpha2-adrenoceptor activation promotes rat pup odor-preference learning via a cAMP-independent mechanism.</a> Learn Mem. 19, 499-502 (2012).</li><li>Isaacson, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Odor+representations+in+mammalian+cortical+circuits.">Odor representations in mammalian cortical circuits.</a> Curr Opin Neurobiol. 20, 328-331 (2010).</li><li>Lethbridge, R., Hou, Q., Harley, C. W., Yuan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+bulb+glomerular+NMDA+receptors+mediate+olfactory+nerve+potentiation+and+odor+preference+learning+in+the+neonate+rat.">Olfactory bulb glomerular NMDA receptors mediate olfactory nerve potentiation and odor preference learning in the neonate rat.</a> PLoS One. 7, e35024 (2012).</li><li>Yuan, Q., Harley, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What+a+nostril+knows:+olfactory+nerve-evoked+AMPA+responses+increase+while+NMDA+responses+decrease+at+24-h+post-training+for+lateralized+odor+preference+memory+in+neonate+rat.">What a nostril knows: olfactory nerve-evoked AMPA responses increase while NMDA responses decrease at 24-h post-training for lateralized odor preference memory in neonate rat.</a> Learn Mem. 19, 50-53 (2012).</li><li>Schwob, J. E., Price, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+of+axonal+connections+in+the+central+olfactory+system+of+rats.">The development of axonal connections in the central olfactory system of rats.</a> J Comp Neurol. 223, 177-202 (1984).</li><li>Kucharski, D., Hall, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+routes+to+early+memories.">New routes to early memories.</a> Science. 238, 786-788 (1987).</li><li>Kucharski, D., Johanson, I. B., Hall, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unilateral+olfactory+conditioning+in+6-day-old+rat+pups.">Unilateral olfactory conditioning in 6-day-old rat pups.</a> Behav Neural Biol. 46, 472-490 (1986).</li><li>Cummings, D. M., Henning, H. E., Brunjes, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+bulb+recovery+after+early+sensory+deprivation.">Olfactory bulb recovery after early sensory deprivation.</a> J Neurosci. 17, 7433-7440 (1997).</li><li>Kucharski, D., Hall, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+change+in+the+access+to+olfactory+memories.">Developmental change in the access to olfactory memories.</a> Behav Neurosci. 102, 340-348 (1988).</li><li>Brunjes, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unilateral+odor+deprivation:+time+course+of+changes+in+laminar+volume.">Unilateral odor deprivation: time course of changes in laminar volume.</a> Brain Res Bull. 14, 233-237 (1985).</li><li>Kass, M. D., Pottackal, J., Turkel, D. J., McGann, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changes+in+the+neural+representation+of+odorants+after+olfactory+deprivation+in+the+adult+mouse+olfactory+bulb.">Changes in the neural representation of odorants after olfactory deprivation in the adult mouse olfactory bulb.</a> Chem Senses. 38, 77-89 (2013).</li><li>Kim, H. H., Puche, A. C., Margolis, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Odorant+deprivation+reversibly+modulates+transsynaptic+changes+in+the+NR2B-mediated+CREB+pathway+in+mouse+piriform+cortex.">Odorant deprivation reversibly modulates transsynaptic changes in the NR2B-mediated CREB pathway in mouse piriform cortex.</a> J Neurosci. 26, 9548-9559 (2006).</li><li>Korol, D. L., Brunjes, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+changes+in+2-deoxyglucose+uptake+and+amino+acid+incorporation+following+unilateral+odor+deprivation:+a+laminar+analysis.">Rapid changes in 2-deoxyglucose uptake and amino acid incorporation following unilateral odor deprivation: a laminar analysis.</a> Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 52, 75-84 (1990).</li><li>Leung, C. H., Wilson, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trans-neuronal+regulation+of+cortical+apoptosis+in+the+adult+rat+olfactory+system.">Trans-neuronal regulation of cortical apoptosis in the adult rat olfactory system.</a> Brain Res. 984, 182-188 (2003).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

重要な時間ウィンドウ内仔ラットにおける左右で非対称匂い学習と記憶モデルは、第1のホールらによって設立されました。研究33,34,36のシリーズでは、それらは、臭気嗜好メモリは仔ラットにおけるPD 6に一つの鼻孔に臭気+ミルクペアによって左右で非対称にできることを示した。優先メモリは同じ鼻孔がトレーニングやテスト中に開いていた際に堅調に推移しましたが、閉塞した鼻...

嗅覚は、彼らが正常に移動したり、その環境の中で生き残ることができないであろうことなく、げっ歯類における一次感覚モダリティである。これは、1を養うために母親を見つけるために嗅覚を使用するために、最初の出生後の週の間に見ることも聞くこともできない新生児の仔、特に重要である。その結果、新生仔ラットの仔は、簡単な実験操作で臭いを好むように調整することができる。さまざまな刺激は、ネスティング環境2,3を含む新生児、ミルク授乳4-6、なでたり触覚刺激7で（条件刺激、CS）小説臭いに調整応答を誘導することが無条件刺激（UCS）として使用されている12、テールピンチ13、母性唾液13、穏やかなフットショック14-18、および頭蓋脳刺激19。本研究は、私は、この場合はペパーミントに、十分に確立された初期の匂いの嗜好パラダイム請求臭気を採用ペパーミント24時間後10,11,20に対する選好を生成するために、触覚刺激と組み合わせることよ。これらの悪臭メモリは、主に嗅球（OB）21〜23と前梨状皮質（APC）24,25を含め、無傷の嗅覚回路に依存している。 初期の匂いの嗜好学習の実験的研究は、深めおよび哺乳類メモリの分子および生理学的基盤の理解を広げてきた。この哺乳動物モデルは、メモリメカニズムを研究するいくつかの利点を有する。まず、UCS信号の神経源が同定されている。前述のようにさまざまな刺激が順番に22,27,28の学習サポート細胞および生理学的効果を引き起こし、OBおよびAPCで複数のアドレナリン受容体を活性化させる軌跡青斑のノルエピネフリン放出26を刺激する。次に、メモリ支持機構は明確に定義された層状の神経構造に起こる。ザ·新生ラットにおける嗅覚回路のシンプルさがシナプス可塑性に関連する複雑なプロセスを明らかにした理想的なフレームワークを研究者に提供します。他の構造29の中で、OBと同側外側嗅索（LOT） を介して梨状皮質（PC）へのターンプロジェクトでこれらの僧帽/房状細胞での僧帽/房状細胞への嗅上皮プロジェクト内の嗅覚感覚ニューロン（OSN）、。 OB中OSNシナプスの両方が30,31およびAPCにおけるLOTシナプス24,25学習および記憶をサポートするシナプスの変化に重要な遺伝子座として同定されている。第三に、ラットでの初期の時代に、嗅覚の入力が容易に左​​右で非対称にすることができます。この白質が完全に生後12日目（PD12）32が形成されると、各APCは前交連を介した二国間の匂い情報へのアクセスを持っています。 PD 12の前に、臭気の入力は、&lt;単一鼻孔閉塞24,25,31,33,34を通じてOBとAPCをipisilateralする単離することができる/ SUP&gt;。シングル鼻孔閉塞はオープン鼻孔から臭気記憶形成を可能にし、前に、PD 12〜33に閉塞鼻孔から同じメモリを防ぐことができます。臭気メモリはOBおよびAPCの両方を含む同側半球に分離されている。したがって、各ラットの仔は生理学を学び、支えるためにそれ自体の制御することができます。 本研究では、左右で非対称に早期臭気嗜好学習プロトコルが導入される。この方法は、それによって必要な動物の数と一般バリエーションの両方を削減、内動物管理24,25,31を提供することにより、臭気の学習を支える神経機構を研究するための強力なツールとして機能します。鼻孔の閉塞は、グリースまたは鼻栓を適用し、最小限のストレス又は動物への損傷を除去することができるという点で可逆的である。ここでは、まず、初期の臭気の好みのトレーニングとテストの詳細な手順は、第持つ単一の鼻孔閉塞を使用して左右で非対称プロトコルを中心に記載されているEプラグ。その後、結果は、臭気入力を単離し、左右で非対称臭気メモリを製造する際に、単一の鼻孔の閉塞の有効性を実証するために提示される。最後に、両方の学習とサポートメモリ表現を生成する嗅覚系における生理学的変化を研究するために、この左右で非対称に学習モデルを使用しての電位が議論されている。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="580">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Polythylene 20 tubing</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Intramedic</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">427406</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Non radiopaque, Non toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">3-0 silk suture thread</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Syneture</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">Sofsilk</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Non absorbant&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Silicone grease</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Warner Instrument</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">64-0378</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Odorless</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">2% xylocaine gel</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">AstraZeneca</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">Prod. No 061</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Lidocaine hydrochloride jelly,&#160; purchased at local pharmacy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Paint brush</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Dynasty</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">206R</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Similar size/other brands work too</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Peppermint extract</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">W284807</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Other brand should be okay too</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="171">
			<td height="171" style="height:171px;width:149px;">Training box</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Acrylic box (20x20x5cm3), see Figure 2A. Parameters and material for the box are not critical and can be modified. Material used should be odorless and does not absorb odors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="182">
			<td height="182" style="height:182px;width:149px;">Testing chamber</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Stainless steel (30x20x18cm3), see Figure 2B. Parameters and material for the chamber are not critical and can be modified. For example, an acrylic chamber instead of a stainless steel one can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">pCREB antibody</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Cell Signaling</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">9198</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Ser 133 (87G3) Rabbit mAb</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Chloral hydrate</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">C8383</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Paraformaldehype</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">P6148</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Sucrose</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">S9378</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a lateralized odor learning model in neonatal rats for dissecting neural circuitry underpinning memory formation

Rat pups during a critical postnatal period (&#8804; 10 days) readily form a preference for an odor that is associated with stimuli mimicking maternal care. Such a preference memory can last from hours, to days, even life-long, depending on training parameters. Early odor preference learning provides us with a model in which the critical changes for a natural form of learning occur in the olfactory circuitry. An additional feature that makes it a powerful tool for the analysis of memory processes is that early odor preference learning can be lateralized via single naris occlusion within the critical period. This is due to the lack of mature anterior commissural connections of the olfactory hemispheres at this early age. This work outlines behavioral protocols for lateralized odor learning using nose plugs. Acute, reversible naris occlusion minimizes tissue and neuronal damages associated with long-term occlusion and more aggressive methods such as cauterization. The lateralized odor learning model permits within-animal comparison, therefore greatly reducing variance compared to between-animal designs. This method has been used successfully to probe the circuit changes in the olfactory system produced by training. Future directions include exploring molecular underpinnings of odor memory using this lateralized learning model; and correlating physiological change with memory strength and durations.

ここでは、臭気入力を分離して一方の半球に学ぶことに鼻孔閉塞の有効性、およびこの方法の可逆性を実証するために以前に確立された結果24の一部を確認します。 初期の匂いの嗜好トレーニング中のシングル鼻孔閉塞は左右で非対称臭気メモリ24につながる。メモリは免れ鼻孔（ 図3）に限定されている。子犬を訓練中のように閉塞同じ鼻?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation at JoVE.com

A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation

This protocol introduces lateralized early odor preference learning in rats using acute single naris occlusion. Lateralized learning permits the examination of behavioral outcomes and underpinning biological mechanisms within the same animals, reducing variance induced by between-animal designs. This protocol can be used to investigate molecular mechanisms underpinning early odor learning.

神経回路基盤記憶形成を解剖するための新生児ラットの左右で非対称匂い学習モデル

Rat pups during a critical postnatal period (&#8804; 10 days) readily form a preference for an odor that is associated with stimuli mimicking maternal ...

a-lateralized-odor-learning-model-neonatal-rats-for-dissecting-neural

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.9K ビュー.  Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University. This protocol introduces lateralized early odor preference learning in rats using acute single naris occlusion. Lateralized learning permits the examination of behavioral outcomes and underpinning biological mechanisms within the same animals, reducing variance induced by between-animal designs. This protocol can be used to investigate molecular mechanisms underpinning early odor learning.

ビデオ: A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment through neuron-specific detection of food and chemical odors1, 2, and can associate nutritive states with chemical odors3, temperature4, and the pathogenicity of a food source5.
Here, we describe assays of C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. We modified an aversive olfactory learning paradigm6 to instead produce a positive response; the assay involves starving ~400 worms, then feeding the worms in the presence of the AWC neuron-sensed volatile chemoattractant butanone at a concentration that elicits a low chemotactic index (similar to Toroyama et al.7). A standard population chemotaxis assay1 tests the worms' attraction to the odorant immediately or minutes to hours after conditioning.
After conditioning, wild-type animals' chemotaxis to butanone increases ~0.6 Chemotaxis Index units, its "Learning Index". Associative learning is dependent on the presence of both food and butanone during training. Pairing food and butanone for a single conditioning period ("massed training") produces short-term associative memory that lasts ~2 hours. Multiple conditioning periods with rest periods between ("spaced training") yields long-term associative memory (&lt;40 hours), and is dependent on the cAMP Response Element Binding protein (CREB),6 a transcription factor required for long-term memory across species.8
Our protocol also includes image analysis methods for quick and accurate determination of chemotaxis indices. High-contrast images of animals on chemotaxis assay plates are captured and analyzed by worm counting software in MatLab. The software corrects for uneven background using a morphological tophat transformation.9 Otsu's method is then used to determine a threshold to separate worms from the background.10 Very small particles are removed automatically and larger non-worm regions (plate edges or agar punches) are removed by manual selection. The software then estimates the size of single worm by ignoring regions that are above a specified maximum size and taking the median size of the remaining regions. The number of worms is then estimated by dividing the total area identified as occupied by worms by the estimated size of a single worm.
We have found that learning and short- and long-term memory can be distinguished, and that these processes share similar key molecules with higher organisms.6,8 Our assays can quickly test novel candidate genes or molecules that affect learning and short- or long-term memory in C. elegans that are relevant across species.

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Here we describe methods to test C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. These population assays employ the worms abilities to chemotax toward volatile odorants, and form positive associations upon pairing food with the chemoattractant butanone. Increasing the number of conditioning periods induces long-term memory.

C. elegansの正ブタノンの学習、短期、および長期連想記憶アッセイ

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment ...

神経科学

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

でアッセイする運動、学習、記憶障害ショウジョウバエ</em神経変性の>モデル

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

Morris Water Maze Test for Learning and Memory Deficits in Alzheimer&#39;s Disease Model Mice

The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was first established by neuroscientist Richard G. Morris in 1981 in order to test hippocampal-dependent learning, including acquisition of spatial memoryand long-term spatial memory 1. The MWM is a relatively simple procedure typically consisting of six day trials, the main advantage being the differentiation between the spatial (hidden-platform) and non-spatial (visible platform) conditions 2-4. In addition, the MWM testing environment reduces odor trail interference 5. This has led the task to be used extensively in the study of the neurobiology and neuropharmacology of spatial learning and memory. The MWM plays an important role in the validation of rodent models for neurocognitive disorders such as Alzheimer&#x2019;s Disease 6, 7. In this protocol we discussed the typical procedure of MWM for testing learning and memory and data analysis commonly used in Alzheimer&#x2019;s disease transgenic model mice.

Morris Water Maze Test for Learning and Memory Deficits in Alzheimer&#039;s Disease Model Mice

The Morris Water Maze is a behavioral task to test hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. It has been widely used in the study of neurobiology, neuropharmacology and neurocognitive disorders in rodent models.

アルツハイマー病モデルマウスにおける学習記憶障害のためのモリス水迷路試験

The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was first established by neuroscientist Richard G. Morris in 1981 in order to test hippocampal-dependent learning, including ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

単一セルと単スパイク分解能で閾値上神経活動の光記録

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

Viral Tracing of Genetically Defined Neural Circuitry

Classical methods for studying neuronal circuits are fairly low throughput. Transsynaptic viruses, particularly the pseudorabies (PRV) and rabies virus (RABV), and more recently vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), for studying circuitry, is becoming increasingly popular. These higher throughput methods use viruses that transmit between neurons in either the anterograde or retrograde direction.
Recently, a modified RABV for monosynaptic retrograde tracing was developed. (Figure 1A). In this method, the glycoprotein (G) gene is deleted from the viral genome, and resupplied only in targeted neurons. Infection specificity is achieved by substituting a chimeric G, composed of the extracellular domain of the ASLV-A glycoprotein and the cytoplasmic domain of the RABV-G (A/RG), for the normal RABV-G1. This chimeric G specifically infects cells expressing the TVA receptor1. The gene encoding TVA can been delivered by various methods2-8. Following RABV-G infection of a TVA-expressing neuron, the RABV can transmit to other, synaptically connected neurons in a retrograde direction by nature of its own G which was co-delivered with the TVA receptor. This technique labels a relatively large number of inputs (5-10%)2 onto a defined cell type, providing a sampling of all of the inputs onto a defined starter cell type.
We recently modified this technique to use VSV as a transsynaptic tracer9. VSV has several advantages, including the rapidity of gene expression. Here we detail a new viral tracing system using VSV useful for probing microcircuitry with increased resolution. While the original published strategies by Wickersham et al.4 and Beier et al.9 permit labeling of any neurons that project onto initially-infected TVA-expressing-cells, here VSV was engineered to transmit only to TVA-expressing cells (Figure 1B). The virus is first pseudotyped with RABV-G to permit infection of neurons downstream of TVA-expressing neurons. After infecting this first population of cells, the virus released can only infect TVA-expressing cells. Because the transsynaptic viral spread is limited to TVA-expressing cells, presence of absence of connectivity from defined cell types can be explored with high resolution. An experimental flow chart of these experiments is shown in Figure 2. Here we show a model circuit, that of direction-selectivity in the mouse retina. We examine the connectivity of starburst amacrine cells (SACs) to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs).

A method of tracing synaptically connected neurons is described. We use TVA specificity of an upstream cell to probe whether a cell population of interest receives synaptic input from genetically defined cell types.

遺伝的に定義された神経回路のトレースウイルス

Classical methods for studying neuronal circuits are fairly low throughput. Transsynaptic viruses, particularly the pseudorabies (PRV) and rabies virus ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

齧歯類の中枢神経系の生体光遺伝学的刺激

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, interest in the cognitive processes of nonmodel species, typically within an ecological context, has also become an emerging field of study. In particular, interest in the cognitive processes in reptiles is growing although experimental studies on reptilian cognition are sparse. The few reptilian studies that have experimentally tested for spatial learning and memory have used rodent paradigms modified for use in reptiles. However, ecologically important aspects of the physiology and behavior of this taxonomic group must be taken into account when testing for spatially based cognition. Here, we describe modifications of the dry land Barnes maze and associated testing protocol that can improve performance when probing for spatial learning and memory ability in small squamate reptiles. The described paradigm and procedures were successfully used with male side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), demonstrating that spatial learning and memory can be assessed in this taxonomic group with an ecologically relevant apparatus and protocol.

This paper describes a modification of the Barnes maze, a standard rodent paradigm used to assess spatial memory and learning, for use in small squamate reptiles.

小さなうろこに覆われた爬虫類の空間学習と記憶を評価します

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, ...

Recording EEG in Freely Moving Neonatal Rats Using a Novel Method

EEG is a useful method to detect electrical activity in the brain. Moreover, it is a widely used diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, such as epilepsy and neurodegenerative disorders. However, it is technically difficult to obtain EEG recordings in neonates as it requires specialized handling and great care. Here, we present a novel method to record EEG in neonatal rat pups (P8-P15). We designed a simple and reliable electrode using computer pin loci; it can be easily implanted into the skull of a rat pup to record high-quality EEG signals in the normal and epileptic brain. Pups were given an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of the neurotoxin kainic acid (KA) to induce epileptic seizures. The surgical implantation performed in this procedure is less expensive than other EEG procedures for neonates. This method allows one to record high-quality and stable EEG signals for more than 1 week. Furthermore, this procedure can also be applied to adult rats and mice to study epilepsy or other neurological disorders.

Here, we introduce a novel technique designed to record electroencephalography (EEG) in freely moving neonatal epileptic pups and describe its procedures, features, and applications. This method allows one to record EEG for more than 1 week.

新しい方法を用いた自由に動く新生児ラットの脳波記録

EEG is a useful method to detect electrical activity in the brain. Moreover, it is a widely used diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, such ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

ショウジョウバエの訓練と記憶の尺度としてのコンディショニング

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...

In Vitro Wedge Slice Preparation for Mimicking In Vivo Neuronal Circuit Connectivity

In vitro slice electrophysiology techniques measure single-cell activity with precise electrical and temporal resolution. Brain slices must be relatively thin to properly visualize and access neurons for patch-clamping or imaging, and in vitro examination of brain circuitry is limited to only what is physically present in the acute slice. To maintain the benefits of in vitro slice experimentation while preserving a larger portion of presynaptic nuclei, we developed a novel slice preparation. This &#8220;wedge slice&#8221; was designed for patch-clamp electrophysiology recordings to characterize the diverse monaural, sound-driven inputs to medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons in the brainstem. These neurons receive their primary afferent excitatory and inhibitory inputs from neurons activated by stimuli in the contralateral ear and corresponding cochlear nucleus (CN). An asymmetrical brain slice was designed which is thickest in the rostro-caudal domain at the lateral edge of one hemisphere and then thins towards the lateral edge of the opposite hemisphere. This slice contains, on the thick side, the auditory nerve root conveying information about auditory stimuli to the brain, the intrinsic CN circuitry, and both the disynaptic excitatory and trisynaptic inhibitory afferent pathways that converge on contralateral MOC neurons. Recording is performed from MOC neurons on the thin side of the slice, where they are visualized using DIC optics for typical patch-clamp experiments. Direct stimulation of the auditory nerve is performed as it enters the auditory brainstem, allowing for intrinsic CN circuit activity and synaptic plasticity to occur at synapses upstream of MOC neurons. With this technique, one can mimic in vivo circuit activation as closely as possible within the slice. This wedge slice preparation is applicable to other brain circuits where circuit analyses would benefit from preservation of upstream connectivity and long-range inputs, in combination with the technical advantages of in vitro slice physiology.

Integration of diverse synaptic inputs to neurons is best measured in a preparation that preserves all pre-synaptic nuclei for natural timing and circuit plasticity, but brain slices typically sever many connections. We developed a modified brain slice to mimic in vivo circuit activity while maintaining in vitro experimentation capability.

生体内ニューロン回路接続を模倣するためのインビトロウェッジスライスの準備

In vitro slice electrophysiology techniques measure single-cell activity with precise electrical and temporal resolution. Brain slices must be relatively ...