The authors thank members of the Valdez laboratory for intellectual input on experiments and comments on the manuscript.

全ての実験は、NIHガイドラインとバージニア工科大学施設内動物管理使用委員会によって承認された動物プロトコルの下で行いました。 外科1.準備動物<ol><li>滅菌した1 mlのインスリンシリンジで、皮下鼠径注射ケタミンの混合物（90ミリグラム/ kg）およびキシラジン（10mg / kg）でマウスを麻酔。キャリア溶液は、0.9％生理食塩水、17.4 mg / mlでケタミン、および2.6 mg / mlとキシラジンの混合物が含まれています。有効にする薬を待っている間にケージに戻って動物を置きます。 注：負荷用量は処置の持続時間のために十分な麻酔を提供しない場合は、負荷用量の追加の25％が注入されてもよいです。 </li><li>モニターの動物は着実に呼吸数と覚醒レベルの適切なうつ病をチェックするために注射を投稿してください。十分に麻酔をかけたときに何の応答を惹起してはならない後足のピンチで覚醒レベルを確認します。 注：これは通常3-5かかります25〜30グラムを平均し、若い成体マウス分間。動物は、10分後の注射後も応答する場合、麻酔負荷用量の追加の25％が注入されてもよいです。 </li><li>乾燥を防ぐために動物の目にワセリンと軽鉱油眼軟膏を適用します。ケージから動物を取り外し、きれいな、平らな面に置きます。手足の唯一の外側面を露出させ、電気ヘアトリマーを使用して、骨盤に足から所望の後肢を剃ります。 </li><li> 1分間剃らサイトに化学脱毛剤を適用します。手動の実験室ワイプを使用して髪を削除します。実験室できれいに脱毛エリアをエタノールに浸したワイプ。 </li></ol> 2.外科的手順<ol><li>オートクレーブまたは他の適切なメソッドを介して手術器具を滅菌します。 80％エタノール/ H 2 0と、手術部位や手術用ボードを清掃してください。 proviodineで手術部位を消毒します。手術用ボード上にマウスを置き、手足の拘束と合わせます。キープ膝関節と解剖学的に自然な位置にターゲット後肢がわずかに内部または外部回転させずに拡張しました。 </li><li>手術用顕微鏡下で動物とボードを置きます。表面的なランドマークの触診、特に骨膝関節と前脛骨筋と腓腹筋の筋肉の間の尾根を経由して、適切な切開部位へのオリエント。 </li><li>把持するための一般的な鉗子を使用しながら、メスやスプリングはさみを使って皮膚を介して約3cmの切開を行います。共通の腓骨神経の基礎となるコースに垂直切開を行います。 </li><li>大腿二頭筋と外側広筋の筋肉を露出させ、浅筋膜を通して切開を続けます。接続深い筋膜を切断することにより、これらの筋肉を分離します。 1〜2センチメートルカットが十分でなければなりません。 </li><li>上腕二頭筋を撤回共通腓骨神経を明らかにし、機械的なリトラクターを使って尾側筋肉大腿。 </li><li>そのインターまで近位に神経をトレース腓腹筋の外側頭の腱を持つセクションが発見されました。注：暴露は後退し、皮膚と筋肉の追加の操作が必要な場合があります。この交点は、神経損傷のための安定したランドマークとして使用されます。 </li><li>腓腹筋腱の外側縁に平行にヒントを合わせて、細かい鉗子で神経をつかみます。 5秒間安定し、ハード圧力を加えることにより、共通の腓骨神経をつぶします。 </li><li>外科手術用スコープを通して目視検査で神経の完全なクラッシュを裏付けます。これは、損傷部位で半透明表示されます。末梢軸索内の蛍光タンパク質を発現するマウスを使用している場合、蛍光が損傷部位から消えます。 </li><li>開創器を取り外し、その解剖学的位置に筋肉を再調整。 6-0絹縫合糸で切開部位を閉じます。 1-3単純結節縫合で十分です。クリーンケージ内の加熱パッド上療養マウスを置きます。 </li><li> 2時間後にオペラのためのすべての動物を監視しますションは、呼吸や麻酔への副作用をチェックします。すぐに手術からの回復次の皮下鼠径部の注射を介してブプレノルフィン0.05から0.10まで10mg / kgの初期用量を投与。 3追加の用量次の48時間にわたって12時間毎に与えます。完全に回復した後、動物のケア施設にマウスを返します。 </li></ol> 3.単離と染色伸展のDigitorum長い（EDL）筋肉<ol><li>イソフルランを使用して動物を生け贄に捧げます。吸収性labwipesを詰めた50ミリリットルチューブに0.5ミリリットルに液体イソフルランを分注します。密封された2500センチメートル3チャンバー内の動物でキャップされていないチューブを置きます。曝露の少なくとも4分で十分です。二国間の眼瞼、つま先のピンチ、およびテールピンチ反射の損失のための試験各動物は灌流を続行する前に、無意識であることを保証します。 </li><li>経最初の10mLの0.1M PBSで16匹の動物を灌流し、0.1M PBS（pH7.4）中の4％パラホルムアルデヒドを25ml。ヘパリン（30単位/ 20G動物の体重）の灌流の結果を向上させる、小さな毛細血管床に血液凝固を防ぐために、（10単位/ ml）のPBSを添加してもよいです。 </li><li>腹部の周囲の皮膚を通って横方向にカットするはさみを使用して、後肢を覆っている皮膚を取り除きます。ピンセットを用いて、後肢と足を過ぎて皮膚をピールダウン。 </li><li>把持鉗子で剥がして後肢の浅筋膜を削除します。末梢軸索内の蛍光タンパク質を発現するマウスを使用している場合は、50mlチューブに4％PFA中で一晩全体のマウスをポスト修正。 PBSで3回洗浄します。 注：固定したマウスは、4℃でPBS中に保存することができます。ない場合は、このステップをスキップし、定着後の動物せず3.6に進みます。 </li><li>できるだけ無傷の近位および遠位腱を維持することを確認され、マウス後肢からEDL筋18を解剖。 </li><li>少なくとも1時間、緩衝液（0.5％トリトンX-100を、3％BSAおよび5％ヤギ血清を含む1×PBS）でブロッキングEDL筋をインキュベートします。 </li><liシナプトタグミン-2（1：250）3日間ブロッキング緩衝液中に希釈した抗体：&gt;ニューロフィラメント（千1）を含有する試験管に運動軸索とその神経終末、場所の筋肉を可視化するために。筋肉を1×PBSで3回、10分毎の時間を洗ってください。注：末梢軸索内の蛍光タンパク質（XFP）を発現するマウスを使用している場合、この手順を省略してください。 </li><li>完全なNMJの神経支配のための陽性対照として、反対無傷EDLを染色します。陰性対照は、4日後の傷害、NMJが完全に除神経された時点で得られEDLだけでなく、二次抗体のみで染色したEDLを含める必要があります。 </li><li> 1日のニューロフィラメントおよびシナプトタグミン-2を検出するために、適切な蛍光タグ付けされた二次抗体を用いて筋肉をインキュベートします。筋肉を1×PBSで3回、10分毎の時間を洗ってください。注：このステップは、ステップ3.10と一緒に行うことができます。末梢軸索内の蛍光タンパク質を発現するマウスを使用している場合、この手順を省略してください。 </li><li> postsyを可視化するために、NMJのnaptic領域は、5μg/ mlの少なくとも2時間、ブロッキング緩衝液中に希釈したアレクサ555共役アルファ - ブンガロトキシンで筋肉をインキュベートします。筋肉を1×PBSで3回、10分毎の時間を洗ってください。 </li><li>正に荷電したガラススライド上に全体の筋肉をマウントするには、スライド上のメディアをマウントベースグリセロールの数滴を追加し、カバーガラスで覆い、スライド上に直接筋肉を置きます。筋肉を平らにするスライドに対してカバーガラスを押してください。実験用ワイプを使用してスライドとカバーガラスの周囲から取り付けメディアをオフに浸します。カバースリップとスライドの間のエッジをシールするためにマニキュアを適用します。 </li></ol> 4.イメージングとデータ解析<ol><li> NMJ、画像488、555および633 nmの光を励起し、20X及び40Xの目的で放出された光を捕捉するように装備共焦点レーザー走査顕微鏡を用いてEDL筋の構造を解析します。 </li><li>全体のNMJを視覚化するために、光秒の最大値投影画像を作成しますションは離れてNMJのに最高の可視領域の最下位から伸びる1〜2μmで間隔をあけ。市販のイメージングソフトウェアを使用して、最大強度の投影を作成します。 </li><li> 1）完全に除神経=シナプス後部位が軸索とAChRs間の軸索と接触し、5％未満の共局在を完全に欠いている：として神経再生の速度を決定するために、のNMJを分類。 2）部分的に神経支配=軸索は、部分的に軸索とAChRs間postsynapse 5〜95％の共局在と重なります。 3）全神経支配=前後シナプス間のほぼ完全な同格、軸索とAChRsの間、95％を超える共局在。撮像面に対して垂直に位置するか、完全に画像で視覚化されていないのNMJを除外します。注：すべてのこれらの実験では、少なくとも3匹の動物および動物あたり50のNMJを調べました。結果は、0.05未満のP値はスチューデントt検定を用いて有意とみなしました。 </li><li>演算子を盲目にするには、別々の個人が実行することができます手術および画像解析。治療群の知識がなくても、アナライザは、NMJの得点と客観することができます。代替的に、画像はランダム化原料動物の知識なしに分析のためにオペレータに提示することができます。 </li></ol> 5.定量PCR <ol><li>イソフルランと頸椎脱臼を使用して動物を生け贄に捧げます。皮膚とステップ3.3に応じて足の筋肉を覆う浅筋膜を削除します。 3.4段階に応じて前脛骨とEDL筋肉を解剖。 </li><li> Flashは、液体窒素に対する1.5mlチューブ全体の前脛骨とEDL筋肉を凍結します。部分的に液体窒素中に沈め予め冷却乳鉢でチューブと場所から組織を削除します。乳鉢と乳棒を用いて微粉末に凍結された筋肉を挽きます。 </li><li>市販のRNA抽出試薬に凍結筋肉粉末を溶解し、市販のキットを製造業者のIに従っててRNA抽出およびゲノムDNAの除去を行いますnstructions。 </li><li>製造元の説明書に従って市販の逆転写酵素ミ​​ックスを用いて逆転写を行います。 </li><li> （材料の表を参照）、適切なハウスキーピング遺伝子を用いて、市販のキットを用いて定量PCRを実行します。 （材料の表を参照）、PCRを実施するために、市販の定量的PCRサーマルサイクラーを使用してください。 </li><li> 58℃に設定し、アニール温度。 Taqポリメラーゼ/ SYBRグリーンミックスの製造業者の仕様書に追加のサイクリングパラメーターを調整します。プライマー特異性についてテストし、プライマーダイマー形成するために95℃まで65℃から0.5℃の増分増加からなるサーマルサイクラープログラムの最終融解曲線ステップを含みます。 </li><li>コントロール遺伝子として18S RNAを用いて、ΔΔCT法 21から2による相対mRNA発現レベルを決定します。 </li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

この原稿に提示された方法は、神経筋接合部（NMJ）の修復に関与するメカニズムを識別するためのユニークな機会を提供しています。それは膝の近くに腓腹筋腱上を通過するように、この方法は、共通の腓骨神経を破砕することを含みます。私たちは、ピンセットで神経圧迫のわずか5秒後に、完全な変性は、損傷後4日までに指摘されていることを示しています。若い成体マウスでは、アル?...

In young adult and healthy animals, the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a highly stable connection between the presynapse, the nerve ending of an &#945;-motor axon, and the postsynapse, the specialized region of an extrafusal muscle fiber where nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) selectively aggregate1. The nearly perfect apposition of the pre- and post-synaptic apparatuses is necessary for proper neurotransmission, survival of &#945;-motor neurons and muscle fibers and motor function. Unfortunately, the function of the NMJ is adversely affected by aging, diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), autoimmune diseases and injury to muscles and peripheral nerves2-5. These insults often result in degeneration of presynaptic nerve endings, leaving muscles denervated and significantly altering motor skills. For this reason, the identification of molecules that function to maintain and repair the NMJ has become a priority. Because peripheral nerves regenerate and reinnervate targets, peripheral nerve injury models have been used to identify molecular changes associated with regenerating NMJs. 
Peripheral nerve injury models often involve either completely cutting or crushing specific nerve branches6. Following a cut, the endoneurial tube has to be reformed, delaying axonal regeneration and reinnervation of target cells and tissues. The severity of this type of injury also causes axons to meander away from their original path, resulting in their failure to reach original targets. This is in contrast to nerves injured via crush where the endoneurium remains contiguous, providing a path for efficient and proper regrowth of regenerating axons. It also allows axons to find and reinnervate their original muscle fiber partners. Irrespective of injury model, there are a number of cellular and molecular changes that must occur for axons to regenerate and reinnervate targets. After an injury, the nerve segment proximal to the target is broken down and removed via a process termed Wallerian Degeneration7. This process involves reprogramming and de-differentiation of Schwann cells into non-myelinating cells that secrete regenerative factors, clear myelin, and recruit macrophages to the site of injury8. Macrophages in turn complete the clearance of myelin and axonal debris, which would otherwise impede growth of the regenerating axon9. In parallel, motor and sensory neurons activate mechanisms needed to promote regeneration of their severed axons. Once the regenerating axon reaches the target, it must transform from a growth cone to a nerve ending capable of properly transmitting (for motor axons) or receiving (for sensory axons) information10. In this regard, alpha-motor axons undergo a series of well-orchestrated changes that culminate in their growth cone differentiating into a fully functional presynaptic nerve ending that nearly perfectly opposes the post-synaptic site on the target muscle fiber11. 
The sciatic, tibial and accessory nerves have been the primary choices for studying axonal and NMJ regeneration12-14. However, there are a number of drawbacks when using these models to examine cellular and molecular changes associated with regenerating NMJs between animals and under different conditions. Firstly, the sciatic nerve supplies the majority of the muscles of the hind limb, with injury significantly limiting both movement and sensation. It is therefore not possible to use this method to study the impact of exercise alone or in combination with other factors. Additionally, the sciatic nerve is a rather thick structure and thus requires a large amount of compressive force to fully injure all axons. This in turn may result in complete transection of the more superficial axons while leaving the endoneurial tube of deeper lying axons intact, introducing significant variability in the rate and fidelity of regeneration among these axons. Complete transection of this nerve is even less desirable given that many axons will fail to reconnect with the same muscle fibers. Complicating matters, the sciatic nerve possesses intrinsic anatomic variability, both in the number and site of origin of its terminal nerve branches. It is therefore very difficult to lesion the same site. While the tibial nerve is smaller and more amenable to crush injuries, there is also no readily available landmark to serve as a lesion site for this nerve branch. 
The accessory nerve branch (part of cranial nerve XI) that supplies the sternocleidomastoid muscle has also been used to study regeneration of NMJs15. This nerve is particularly attractive because NMJs in the sternocleidomastoid muscle can be more readily imaged in live animals compared to NMJs in other muscles. But similar to the sciatic and tibial nerves, there is no specific landmark that can be used to injure this nerve in the same location, limiting it as a model for comparing regeneration of NMJs among individual animals of an experimental cohort. An inconsistent lesion site introduces variability in the rates of NMJ reinnervation. Due to these shortcomings, the procedure presented here utilizes the injury of a different peripheral nerve branch to examine regenerating NMJs. 
The common fibular nerve, also called the common peroneal nerve, contains many features that make it a reliable nerve to examine regeneration of NMJs between animals and across different treatments. The common fibular nerve has a predictable anatomic course as it runs over the tendon of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle in the knee, the intersection serving as a stable landmark for lesions. The nerve is accessed through a small and minimally invasive incision near but anatomically segregated from the muscles of interest. The findings presented here demonstrate that regenerating motor axons begin to reform NMJs in the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle 8 days after crushing the fibular nerve in 70 days old young adult female mice. Importantly, the pattern and rate of reinnervation is consistent among animals of the same age and sex and therefore provide a reliable injury model that will significantly hasten our understanding of the cellular and molecular changes required to maintain and repair NMJs.

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			<td>Dumont</td>
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the fibular nerve injury method: a reliable assay to identify and test factors that repair neuromuscular junctions

神経筋接合部（NMJ）が加齢、損傷および疾患の結果として有害な構造的および機能的変化を受けます。したがって、のNMJの維持及び修復に関与する細胞および分子の変化を把握することが不可欠です。この目的のために、我々は、確実かつ一貫してマウスでのNMJの再生検査する方法を開発しました。それは膝の近くに腓腹筋腱の外側頭の上を通過するように、この神経損傷の方法は、共通の腓骨神経を破砕することを含みます。 70日齢の雌のマウスを使用して、我々は運動軸索がポストクラッシュ7日以内に、前シナプス後の標的を神経再支配し始めることを示しています。彼らは完全に12日までに、以前のシナプス領域を再占拠します。この傷害の方法の信頼性を決定するために、我々は個々の70日齢の雌マウスとの間神経再支配率を比較しました。我々はreinnervatedシナプス後サイトの数は7、9でマウスの間で類似していたことがわかった、と12日後にクラッシュ。かどうかを確認するにはこの傷害アッセイはまた、筋肉の分子の変化を比較するために使用することができ、我々は、筋肉ニコチン性受容体（γ-のAChR）および筋特異的キナーゼ（ムスク）のγサブユニットのレベルを調べました。ガンマのAChRサブユニットとムスクは非常に次の除神経をアップレギュレートし、のNMJの再神経支配次の通常のレベルに戻っているします。我々は、これらの遺伝子と筋肉の神経支配の状態のための転写レベルの間の密接な関係を発見しました。我々は、このメソッドはNMJや他のシナプスを修復に関与する細胞および分子変化の我々の理解を加速すると考えています。

共通腓骨神経は、また、総腓骨神経と呼ばれる、それは脚部（ 図1A）の前方側面に腓骨の頭の周りに揺動膝窩、上記の坐骨神経から生じます。そこに浅と深い腓骨神経に分岐し、一緒に（前脛骨筋、長指伸筋とブレビス、および伸筋halluces長い筋）足の背屈筋とつま先を供給し、足のeverters（腓骨筋）。この神経はまた、足の甲と足の下半分の外側面に突?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Fibular Nerve Injury Method: A Reliable Assay to Identify and Test Factors That Repair Neuromuscular Junctions at JoVE.com

The Fibular Nerve Injury Method: A Reliable Assay to Identify and Test Factors That Repair Neuromuscular Junctions

We have developed a nerve injury method to reliably examine muscle reinnervation, and thus regeneration of neuromuscular junctions in mice. This technique involves injuring the common fibular nerve via a simple and highly reproducible surgery. Muscle reinnervation in then assessed by whole-mounting the extensor digitorum longus muscle.

腓骨神経損傷方法：神経筋接合部を修復信頼性の高い同定するためのアッセイおよびテスト要因

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) undergoes deleterious structural and functional changes as a result of aging, injury and disease. Thus, it is imperative ...

the-fibular-nerve-injury-method-reliable-assay-to-identify-test

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.6K ビュー.  Virginia Tech. We have developed a nerve injury method to reliably examine muscle reinnervation, and thus regeneration of neuromuscular junctions in mice. This technique involves injuring the common fibular nerve via a simple and highly reproducible surgery. Muscle reinnervation in then assessed by whole-mounting the extensor digitorum longus muscle. 

ビデオ: The Fibular Nerve Injury Method: A Reliable Assay to Identify and Test Factors That Repair Neuromuscular Junctions

An Optic Nerve Crush Injury Murine Model to Study Retinal Ganglion Cell Survival

Injury to the optic nerve can lead to axonal degeneration, followed by a gradual death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), which results in irreversible vision loss. Examples of such diseases in human include traumatic optic neuropathy and optic nerve degeneration in glaucoma. It is characterized by typical changes in the optic nerve head, progressive optic nerve degeneration, and loss of retinal ganglion cells, if uncontrolled, leading to vision loss and blindness.
The optic nerve crush (ONC) injury mouse model is an important experimental disease model for traumatic optic neuropathy, glaucoma, etc. In this model, the crush injury to the optic nerve leads to gradual retinal ganglion cells apoptosis. This disease model can be used to study the general processes and mechanisms of neuronal death and survival, which is essential for the development of therapeutic measures. In addition, pharmacological and molecular approaches can be used in this model to identify and test potential therapeutic reagents to treat different types of optic neuropathy.
Here, we provide a step by step demonstration of (I) Baseline retrograde labeling of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) at day 1, (II) Optic nerve crush injury at day 4, (III) Harvest the retinae and analyze RGC survival at day 11, and (IV) Representative result.

This protocol shows how to retrogradely label retinal ganglion cells, and how to subsequently make an optic nerve crush injury in order to analyze retinal ganglion cell survival and apoptosis. It is an experimental disease model for different types of optic neuropathy, including glaucoma.

網膜神経節細胞の生存を研究するために視神経挫滅モデルマウス

Injury to the optic nerve can lead to axonal degeneration, followed by a gradual death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), which results in irreversible ...

神経科学

Reproducible Mouse Sciatic Nerve Crush and Subsequent Assessment of Regeneration by Whole Mount Muscle Analysis

Regeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is widely studied both for its relevance to human disease and to understand the robust regenerative response mounted by PNS neurons thereby possibly illuminating the failures of CNS regeneration1. Sciatic nerve crush (axonotmesis) is one of the most common models of peripheral nerve injury in rodents2. Crushing interrupts all axons but Schwann cell basal laminae are preserved so that regeneration is optimal3,4. This allows the investigator to study precisely the ability of a growing axon to interact with both the Schwann cell and basal laminae4. Rats have generally been the preferred animal models for experimental nerve crush. They are widely available and their lesioned sciatic nerve provides a reasonable approximation of human nerve lesions5,4. Though smaller in size than rat nerve, the mouse nerve has many similar qualities. Most importantly though, mouse models are increasingly valuable because of the wide availability of transgenic lines now allows for a detailed dissection of the individual molecules critical for nerve regeneration6, 7. Prior investigators have used multiple methods to produce a nerve crush or injury including simple angled forceps, chilled forceps, hemostatic forceps, vascular clamps, and investigator-designed clamps8,9,10,11,12. Investigators have also used various methods of marking the injury site including suture, carbon particles and fluorescent beads13,14,1. We describe our method to obtain a reproducibly complete sciatic nerve crush with accurate and persistent marking of the crush-site using a fine hemostatic forceps and subsequent carbon crush-site marking. As part of our description of the sciatic nerve crush procedure we have also included a relatively simple method of muscle whole mount we use to subsequently quantify regeneration.

In this report we describe a method to crush mouse sciatic nerve. This method uses readily available hemostatic forceps and easily and reproducibly produces complete sciatic nerve crush. In addition, we describe a method to prepare muscle whole mounts suitable for analysis of nerve regeneration after sciatic nerve crush.

ホールマウントマッスル分析による再現性のあるマウスの坐骨神経クラッシュと再生のその後の評価

Regeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is widely studied both for its relevance to human disease and to understand the robust regenerative ...

An Injury Paradigm to Investigate Central Nervous System Repair in Drosophila

An experimental method has been developed to investigate the cellular responses to central nervous system (CNS) injury using the fruit-fly Drosophila. Understanding repair and regeneration in animals is a key question in biology. The damaged human CNS does not regenerate, and understanding how to promote the regeneration is one of main goals of medical neuroscience. The powerful genetic toolkit of Drosophila can be used to tackle the problem of CNS regeneration.
A lesion to the CNS ventral nerve cord (VNC, equivalent to the vertebrate spinal cord) is applied manually with a tungsten needle. The VNC can subsequently be filmed in time-lapse using laser scanning confocal microscopy for up to 24 hr to follow the development of the lesion over time. Alternatively, it can be cultured, then fixed and stained using immunofluorescence to visualize neuron and glial cells with confocal microscopy. Using appropriate markers, changes in cell morphology and cell state as a result of injury can be visualized. With ImageJ and purposely developed plug-ins, quantitative and statistical analyses can be carried out to measure changes in wound size over time and the effects of injury in cell proliferation and cell death. These methods allow the analysis of large sample sizes. They can be combined with the powerful genetics of Drosophila to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying CNS regeneration and repair.

An Injury Paradigm to Investigate Central Nervous System Repair in Drosophila

An injury paradigm using the Drosophila larval ventral nerve cord to investigate central nervous system regeneration and repair is described. Stabbing followed by laser scanning confocal microscopy in time-lapse and fixed specimens, combined with quantitative analysis with purposefully developed software and genetics, are used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of CNS regeneration and repair.

中枢神経系の修復を調査するために傷害パラダイム<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em

An experimental method has been developed to investigate the cellular responses to central nervous system (CNS) injury using the fruit-fly Drosophila. ...

A Human-machine-interface Integrating Low-cost Sensors with a Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation System for Post-stroke Balance Rehabilitation

A stroke is caused when an artery carrying blood from heart to an area in the brain bursts or a clot obstructs the blood flow to brain thereby preventing delivery of oxygen and nutrients. About half of the stroke survivors are left with some degree of disability. Innovative methodologies for restorative neurorehabilitation are urgently required to reduce long-term disability. The ability of the nervous system to reorganize its structure, function and connections as a response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli is called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is involved in post-stroke functional disturbances, but also in rehabilitation. Beneficial neuroplastic changes may be facilitated with non-invasive electrotherapy, such as neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) and sensory electrical stimulation (SES). NMES involves coordinated electrical stimulation of motor nerves and muscles to activate them with continuous short pulses of electrical current while SES involves stimulation of sensory nerves with electrical current resulting in sensations that vary from barely perceivable to highly unpleasant. Here, active cortical participation in rehabilitation procedures may be facilitated by driving the non-invasive electrotherapy with biosignals (electromyogram (EMG), electroencephalogram (EEG), electrooculogram (EOG)) that represent simultaneous active perception and volitional effort. To achieve this in a resource-poor setting, e.g., in low- and middle-income countries, we present a low-cost human-machine-interface (HMI) by leveraging recent advances in off-the-shelf video game sensor technology. In this paper, we discuss the open-source software interface that integrates low-cost off-the-shelf sensors for visual-auditory biofeedback with non-invasive electrotherapy to assist postural control during balance rehabilitation. We demonstrate the proof-of-concept on healthy volunteers.

A novel low-cost human-machine interface for interactive post-stroke balance rehabilitation system is presented in this article. The system integrates off-the-shelf low-cost sensors towards volitionally driven electrotherapy paradigm. The proof-of-concept software interface is demonstrated on healthy volunteers.

脳卒中後のバランスリハビリテーションのための神経筋電気刺激システムで低コストのセンサーを統合ヒューマンマシンインターフェース

A stroke is caused when an artery carrying blood from heart to an area in the brain bursts or a clot obstructs the blood flow to brain thereby preventing ...

Dorsal Root Ganglia Neurons and Differentiated Adipose-derived Stem Cells: An In Vitro Co-culture Model to Study Peripheral Nerve Regeneration

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons, located in the intervertebral foramina of the spinal column, can be used to create an in vitro system facilitating the study of nerve regeneration and myelination. The glial cells of the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells (SC), are key facilitators of these processes; it is therefore crucial that the interactions of these cellular components are studied together. Direct contact between DRG neurons and glial cells provides additional stimuli sensed by specific membrane receptors, further improving the neuronal response. SC release growth factors and proteins in the culture medium, which enhance neuron survival and stimulate neurite sprouting and extension. However, SC require long proliferation time to be used for tissue engineering applications and the sacrifice of an healthy nerve for their sourcing. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASC) differentiated into SC phenotype are a valid alternative to SC for the set-up of a co-culture model with DRG neurons to study nerve regeneration. The present work presents a detailed and reproducible step-by-step protocol to harvest both DRG neurons and ASC from adult rats; to differentiate ASC towards a SC phenotype; and combines the two cell types in a direct co-culture system to investigate the interplay between neurons and SC in the peripheral nervous system. This tool has great potential in the optimization of tissue-engineered constructs for peripheral nerve repair.

Dorsal Root Ganglia Neurons and Differentiated Adipose-derived Stem Cells: An In Vitro Co-culture Model to Study Peripheral Nerve Regeneration

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) are structures containing the sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system. When dissociated, they can be co-cultured with SC-like adipose-derived stem cells (ASC), providing a valuable model to study in vitro nerve regeneration and myelination, mimicking the in vivo environment at the injury site.

根神経節ニューロンと差別化された脂肪由来幹細胞を背：<em&gt;インビトロ</em末梢神経再生を研究するために&gt;共培養モデル

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons, located in the intervertebral foramina of the spinal column, can be used to create an in vitro system facilitating the ...

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people each year, causing impairment of physical, cognitive, and behavioral functions and death. Studies using Drosophila have contributed important breakthroughs in understanding neurological processes. Thus, with the goal of understanding the cellular and molecular basis of TBI pathologies in humans, we developed the High Impact Trauma (HIT) device to inflict closed head TBI in flies. Flies subjected to the HIT device display phenotypes consistent with human TBI such as temporary incapacitation and progressive neurodegeneration. The HIT device uses a spring-based mechanism to propel flies against the wall of a vial, causing mechanical damage to the fly brain. The device is inexpensive and easy to construct, its operation is simple and rapid, and it produces reproducible results. Consequently, the HIT device can be combined with existing experimental tools and techniques for flies to address fundamental questions about TBI that can lead to the development of diagnostics and treatments for TBI. In particular, the HIT device can be used to perform large-scale genetic screens to understand the genetic basis of TBI pathologies.

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

Here we describe a method to inflict closed head traumatic brain injury (TBI) in Drosophila. This method provides a gateway to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie TBI pathologies using the vast array of experimental tools and techniques available for flies.

で閉鎖性頭部外傷性脳損傷を負わせる方法<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people each year, causing impairment of physical, cognitive, and behavioral functions and death. Studies ...

Assessment of Neuromuscular Function Using Percutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation

Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is a non-invasive method commonly used to evaluate neuromuscular function from brain to muscle (supra-spinal, spinal and peripheral levels). The present protocol describes how this method can be used to stimulate the posterior tibial nerve that activates plantar flexor muscles. Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation consists of inducing an electrical stimulus to a motor nerve to evoke a muscular response. Direct (M-wave) and/or indirect (H-reflex) electrophysiological responses can be recorded at rest using surface electromyography. Mechanical (twitch torque) responses can be quantified with a force/torque ergometer. M-wave and twitch torque reflect neuromuscular transmission and excitation-contraction coupling, whereas H-reflex provides an index of spinal excitability. EMG activity and mechanical (superimposed twitch) responses can also be recorded during maximal voluntary contractions to evaluate voluntary activation level. Percutaneous nerve stimulation provides an assessment of neuromuscular function in humans, and is highly beneficial especially for studies evaluating neuromuscular plasticity following acute (fatigue) or chronic (training/detraining) exercise.

We present a protocol to assess changes in neuromuscular function. Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is a non-invasive method that evokes muscular responses. Electrophysiological and mechanical properties of these responses permit the evaluation of neuromuscular function from brain to muscle (supra-spinal, spinal and peripheral levels).

経皮的電気神経刺激を使用した神経筋機能の評価

Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is a non-invasive method commonly used to evaluate neuromuscular function from brain to muscle (supra-spinal, ...

Loading a Calcium Dye into Frog Nerve Endings Through the Nerve Stump: Calcium Transient Registration in the Frog Neuromuscular Junction

One of the most feasible methods of measuring presynaptic calcium levels in presynaptic nerve terminals is optical recording. It is based on using calcium-sensitive fluorescent dyes that change their emission intensity or wavelength depending on the concentration of free calcium in the cell. There are several methods used to stain cells with calcium dyes. Most common are the processes of loading the dyes through a micropipette or pre-incubating with the acetoxymethyl ester forms of the dyes. However, these methods are not quite applicable to neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) due to methodological issues that arise. In this article, we present a method for loading a calcium-sensitive dye through the frog nerve stump of the frog nerve into the nerve endings. Since entry of external calcium into nerve terminals and the subsequent binding to the calcium dye occur within the millisecond time-scale, it is necessary to use a fast imaging system to record these interactions. Here, we describe a protocol for recording the calcium transient with a fast CCD camera.

Here, we describe a method for loading a calcium-sensitive dye through the frog nerve stump into the nerve endings. We also present a protocol for the recording and analysis of fast calcium transients in the peripheral nerve endings.

カエルの神経筋終末へのカルシウム色素の神経切片への積載：カエル神経筋接合部におけるカルシウムの一時的な位置合わせ

One of the most feasible methods of measuring presynaptic calcium levels in presynaptic nerve terminals is optical recording. It is based on using ...

Dorsal Root Ganglion Injection and Dorsal Root Crush Injury as a Model for Sensory Axon Regeneration

Achieving axon regeneration after nervous system injury is a challenging task. As different parts of the central nervous system (CNS) differ from each other anatomically, it is important to identify an appropriate model to use for the study of axon regeneration. By using a suitable model, we can formulate a specific treatment based on the severity of injury, the neuronal cell type of interest, and the desired spinal tract for assessing regeneration. Within the sensory pathway, DRG neurons are responsible for relaying sensory information from the periphery to the CNS. We present here a protocol that uses a DRG injection with a viral vector and a concurrent dorsal root crush injury in the lower cervical spinal cord of an adult rat as a model to study sensory axon regeneration. As demonstrated using a control virus, AAV5-GFP, we show the effectiveness of a direct DRG injection in transducing DRG neurons and tracing sensory axons into the spinal cord. We also show the effectiveness of the dorsal root crush injury in denervating the forepaw as an injury model for evaluating axon regeneration. Despite the requirement for specialized training to perform this invasive surgical procedure, the protocol is flexible, and potential users can modify many parts to accommodate their experimental requirements. Importantly, it can serve as a foundation for those in search of a suitable animal model for their studies. We believe that this article will help new users to learn the procedure in a very efficient and effective manner.

This protocol presents the use of a dorsal root ganglion (DRG) injection with a viral vector and a concurrent dorsal root crush injury in an adult rat as a model to study sensory axon regeneration. This model is suitable for investigating the use of gene therapy to promote sensory axon regeneration.

後根神経節インジェクションおよび後根感覚軸索再生のためのモデルとして傷害をつぶします

Achieving axon regeneration after nervous system injury is a challenging task. As different parts of the central nervous system (CNS) differ from each ...

Imaging Neural Activity in the Primary Somatosensory Cortex Using Thy1-GCaMP6s Transgenic Mice

The mammalian brain exhibits marked symmetry across the sagittal plane. However, detailed description of neural dynamics in symmetric brain regions in adult mammalian animals remains elusive. In this study, we describe an experimental procedure for measuring calcium dynamics through dual optical windows above bilateral primary somatosensory corticies (S1) in Thy1-GCaMP6s transgenic mice using 2-photon (2P) microscopy. This method enables recordings and quantifications of neural activity in bilateral mouse brain regions one at a time in the same experiment for a prolonged period in vivo. Key aspects of this method, which can be completed within an hour, include minimally invasive surgery procedures for creating dual optical windows, and the use of 2P imaging. Although we only demonstrate the technique in the S1 area, the method can be applied to other regions of the living brain facilitating the elucidation of structural and functional complexities of brain neural networks.

Imaging Neural Activity in the Primary Somatosensory Cortex Using Thy1-GCaMP6s Transgenic Mice

We describe an experimental procedure for measuring neuronal activity through dual optical windows above bilateral primary somatosensory corticies (S1) in Thy1-GCaMP6s transgenic mice using 2-photon (2P) microscopy in vivo.

Thy1を用いた一次体性感覚野における神経活動のイメージング-GCaMP6s トランスジェニック マウス

The mammalian brain exhibits marked symmetry across the sagittal plane. However, detailed description of neural dynamics in symmetric brain regions in ...