We send special thanks Dr. Mary Ann Foley and Dr. Karen Zabrucky for collaborative work on research projects informing our methodology in this paper.

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Review Board of Georgia State University.
1. Material Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Using the word lists attached in the supplemental materials, create four separate presentations: Imagery A, Imagery B, Non-imagery A, and Non-imagery B. Ensure that all four presentations are void of templates or designs, with white backgrounds and black font. The two list orders, A and B, serve to balance any effects of list order or fatigue. The two...

<ol>
	<li>Deese, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+prediction+of+occurrence+of+particular+verbal+intrusions+in+immediate+recall.">On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall.</a> Journal of Experimental Psychology. 58 (1), 17-22 (1959).</li><li>Roediger, H. L., McDermott, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Creating+false+memories:+Remembering+words+not+presented+in+lists.">Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.</a> Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 21 (4), 803-814 (1995).</li><li>Gallo, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=False+memories+and+fantastic+beliefs:+15+years+of+the+DRM+illusion.">False memories and fantastic beliefs: 15 years of the DRM illusion.</a> Memory &amp; Cognition. 38 (7), 833-848 (2010).</li><li>Lampinen, J. M., Neuschatz, J. S., Payne, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Source+attributions+and+false+memories:+A+test+of+the+demand+characteristics+account.">Source attributions and false memories: A test of the demand characteristics account.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 6 (1), 130-135 (1999).</li><li>Roediger, H. L., Balota, D. A., Watson, J. M., Roediger, H. L., Nairne, J. S., Neath, I., Surprenant, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spreading+activation+and+arousal+of+false+memories.">Spreading activation and arousal of false memories.</a> The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder. , 95-115 (2001).</li><li>Roediger, H. L., Watson, J. M., McDermott, K. B., Gallo, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+that+determine+false+recall:+A+multiple+regression+analysis.">Factors that determine false recall: A multiple regression analysis.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 8 (3), 385-407 (2001).</li><li>Collins, A. M., Loftus, E. 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I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Creating+false+memories+with+hybrid+lists+of+semantic+and+phonological+associates:+Over-additive+false+memories+produced+by+converging+associative+networks.">Creating false memories with hybrid lists of semantic and phonological associates: Over-additive false memories produced by converging associative networks.</a> Journal of Memory And Language. 49 (1), 95-118 (2003).</li><li>Robin, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+and+false+memories.">Imagination and false memories.</a> Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. 30 (4), 407-424 (2011).</li><li>Bays, R. B., Foley, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autobiographical+memories+and+the+DRM+illusion:+Investigating+the+content+and+process+of+lure+activations.">Autobiographical memories and the DRM illusion: Investigating the content and process of lure activations.</a> Applied Cognitive Psychology. 29 (5), 742-752 (2015).</li><li>Foley, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagery+encoding+and+false+recognition+errors:+Exploring+boundary+conditions+of+imagery's+enhancing+effects.">Imagery encoding and false recognition errors: Exploring boundary conditions of imagery's enhancing effects.</a> Memory. 20 (6), 700-716 (2012).</li><li>Foley, M. A., Cowan, E., Schlemmer, E., Belser-Ehrlich, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acts+of+generating+and+their+sources:+Predicting+the+effects+of+imagery+encoding+on+false+recognition+errors.">Acts of generating and their sources: Predicting the effects of imagery encoding on false recognition errors.</a> Memory. 20 (4), 384-399 (2012).</li><li>Oliver, M., Bays, R. B., Zabrucky, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=False+memories+and+the+DRM+paradigm:+Effects+of+imagery,+list+and+test+type.">False memories and the DRM paradigm: Effects of imagery, list and test type.</a> TheJournal of General Psychology. 143 (1), 33-48 (2016).</li><li>Ballou, M. R., Sommers, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Similar+phenomena,+different+mechanisms:+Semantic+and+phonological+false+memories+are+produced+by+independent+mechanisms.">Similar phenomena, different mechanisms: Semantic and phonological false memories are produced by independent mechanisms.</a> Memory &amp; cognition. 36 (8), 1450-1459 (2008).</li><li>Garry, M., Manning, C. G., Loftus, E. F., Sherman, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+inflation:+Imagining+a+childhood+event+inflates+confidence+that+it+occurred.">Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 3 (2), 208-214 (1996).</li><li>Garry, M., Polascheck, D. L. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+and+memory.">Imagination and memory.</a> Current Directions in Psychological Science. 9 (1), 6-10 (2000).</li><li>Hyman, I. E., Pentland, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+mental+imagery+in+the+creation+of+false+childhood+memories.">The role mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories.</a> Journal of Memory and Language. 35 (2), 101-117 (1996).</li><li>Bays, R. B., Zabrucky, K. M., Foley, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagery+induction+processes+differentially+impact+imagination+inflation.">Imagery induction processes differentially impact imagination inflation.</a> Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. 35 (1), 5-25 (2015).</li><li>Wade, K. A., Garry, M., Read, J. D., Lindsay, D. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+picture+is+worth+a+thousand+lies:+Using+false+photographs+to+create+false+childhood+memories.">A picture is worth a thousand lies: Using false photographs to create false childhood memories.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. 9 (3), 597-603 (2002).</li><li>Foley, M. A., Wozniak, K. H., Gillum, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imagination+and+false+memory+inductions:+investigating+the+role+of+process,+content+and+source+of+imaginations.">Imagination and false memory inductions: investigating the role of process, content and source of imaginations.</a> Applied Cognitive Psychology. 20 (9), 1119 (2006).</li><li>McDermott, K. B., Watson, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+rise+and+fall+of+false+recall:+The+impact+of+presentation+duration.">The rise and fall of false recall: The impact of presentation duration.</a> Journal of Memory and Language. 45 (1), 160-176 (2001).</li><li>Robin, F., Mah&#233;, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+image+and+verbal+generation+on+false+memory.">Effects of image and verbal generation on false memory.</a> Imagination, Cognition and Personality. 35 (1), 26-46 (2015).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The protocol employed in this study modified a widely used word list procedure, the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm, to assess the effects of associative processing with and without imagery instructions on false memories in a classroom-based procedure. The expansion to include the variables of list association type, test type, and imagery instruction implemented here afforded the ability to analyze how each of these complex factors influenced a learning context independently, as well as how they interacted, provi...

Memory is malleable and fallible, and these days people realize the limitations of their own memory system. But how do memory errors arise? What mechanisms are responsible for errors in memory retrieval? We modified a widely used and highly cited laboratory-based procedure called the Deese Roediger McDermott paradigm (DRM)1,2 to investigate the influence of different variables on memory errors. In traditional DRM procedures, participants are asked to learn lists of semantically related words (e.g., table, couch, desk, lamp, pillow, stool, bench, rocker). When later asked to recall and/or recognize the words from the lists, participants often report seeing words that were semantically related to the lists but not actually studied (e.g., chair). False memories for these words, referred to as critical lures, can occur 55% - 80% of the time in standard procedures2,3.
The Activation Monitoring Framework is often cited as a theoretical basis for memory errors that arise from the DRM paradigm. Specifically, DRM false memories are attributed to the dual processes of activation (i.e., the tendency for pieces of information currently active in working memory to &#34;spread&#34; and also activate other, related pieces of information) and monitoring (i.e., assessing the accuracy and/or source of something being remembered)5,6. The process of studying semantically related DRM lists causes activation to spread from the list words to the critical lure and thus activates the critical lure in working memory. The result is a false memory that may not be accurately monitored during later tasks.
The three-phase testing procedure inherent to the DRM paradigm allows cognitive psychologists to manipulate a number of variables during the process of encoding (study of the list items), retention (storage of the list items while completing a distractor task to disrupt working memory), or retrieval (a memory test), to better understand the specific processes that contribute to memory errors. Our procedure expands use of traditional DRM procedures to directly compare memory error rates for different types of content during encoding (e.g., semantically related versus phonologically related)9, test type during retrieval (e.g., a recall task versus a recognition task)10 and, perhaps most notably, imagery encoding processes during list study11,12,13,14.
Our primary interest in developing this protocol was to better understand possible effects of imagery on recall and recognition, particularly whether the effects of creating mental images of the list words during encoding (e.g., imagining them) would vary according to whether the list words were related to the critical lure according to sound (i.e., phonologically) or meaning (i.e., semantically). For instance, for the phonological list log, hog, dock, bog, fog, doll, frog, jog, and dot, the critical lure is dog. For the semantic list mug, saucer, tea, coaster, lid, coffee, straw, and soup, the critical lure is cup. We were interested in whether imaging the list words affected the associative processing for those lists differently. While traditional DRM word lists contain 12-15 semantically related list words2, our procedure employed 8-item word lists. These lists were modified from 16-item lists previously developed to investigate the converging effects of phonological and semantic word associations on false memories9. In order to adapt typical DRM procedures to include imagery instructions, we shortened the word lists by selecting the 8 words from each list that were easiest to create mental images of. This allowed for the elimination of less concrete words (e.g., pun, worst) that were hard to imagine. Additionally, we modified a computer-based word list presentation utilized in previous research15 to standardize the presentation of materials and also developed paper/pencil recall and recognition measures to more appropriately suit classroom environments.
Our results did not suggest an interaction between list association type and imagery procedures, but they did demonstrate the significant main effects of imagery and list type14. We pursued this line of inquiry because of the robust literature of imagination inflation effects suggesting enhanced feelings of belief and memory in past childhood events that are repeatedly imagined16,17,18. However, recently researchers suggest that perhaps not all imagery is created equal and that the nature of imagery instructions mediates the effects on false memory rates19. One possible limitation to the work assessing imagination inflation effects is inherent in the procedure itself. That is, participants are asked to provide Likert scale ratings of their confidence or belief in experiencing certain events in childhood, and following imagination of those events, ratings are provided a second time to assess changes (specifically increases) in those ratings. One possible problem with this procedure is a lack of control over the veracity of experiences that participants must identify with confidence ratings both prior to and after the imagery phase. In some studies, researchers consult family members for corroboration20; however, a majority of the research examining imagination inflation relies solely on the word of the participant.
DRM procedures offer methodological advantages over other memory paradigms, including imagination inflation procedures, because researchers maintain control over the content being activated in working memory through the design of the lists. Specifically, researchers select the list items according to their associative strength to the critical lure and can easily measure when a participant commits the targeted memory error (e.g., chair was not on the studied list but was recalled at test). This content control provides insight into processes that drive associative memory errors, affording researchers the opportunity to explore other potentially important factors driving false memory errors, such as the construction of visual images during list encoding21 or even elaborating on the list items to generate complex event narratives11.
This protocol employs a presentation administration of materials and a paper and pencil format of data collection that allows researchers to collect participant data in large groups (e.g., classrooms), while systematically varying variables. The accessibility and experimental control offered by this protocol provides an opportunity to teach students about memory processes with an in-class demonstration while reliably collecting data. Compared to laboratory-based DRM procedures, this context makes results more applicable to classroom learning, thus informing both cognitive science and educational psychology. In addition, this protocol provides optional modifications that can be utilized to remove the usage of imagery instructions or varying list types, thereby offering a construction-kit type approach that allows for more personalized use.

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using a classroom-based deese roediger mcdermott paradigm to assess the effects of imagery on false memories

Associated word list procedures can elicit false memories in predictable ways by inducing associative processing, thus making it harder to monitor the accuracy of memories. The purpose of the method presented here was to induce false memories using lists of either semantically or phonologically related words and to assess the effects of imagery instructions on the recall and recognition of those false memories. To do this, we used a modified version of the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm. We adapted word lists from previous DRM studies to suit imagery procedures and created an automated presentation to present the word lists in classroom settings. We then recruited undergraduate classes and instructed some of the classes to create mental images of the list words as they were being presented, while instructing the other classes to simply remember the words. The automated presentation presented word lists to participants, one word at a time, alternating between phonologically and semantically related lists. Participants used paper-pencil recall packets to immediately recall list items, complete a distractor activity, and take a subsequent final recognition test. Often, participants immediately recalled and later recognized words that were related to the list items but were not actually presented; these are known as critical lures and indicate a false memory. The protocol detailed here describes a four-step procedure - list presentation, immediate recall, distractor phase, and final recognition - that can assess the effects of list type and imagery instruction within the DRM paradigm on memory. The automated nature of the list presentation provides the ability to systematically vary variables of interest, and the paper and pencil method of data collection affords an easily accessible method for collecting data in classroom settings. The protocol also offers options to modify the procedure to a more traditional DRM paradigm without imagery and/or list type manipulations. The use of this protocol can provide results relevant to both classroom learning and cognitive science principles.

Effects of DRM Procedures on False Memories: Standard DRM Instructions without Imagery 
To illustrate standard DRM procedures&#39; ability to induce false memories, we analyzed rates of falsely remembering non-list words during recall and recognition. Table 1 reports proportions for the different types of false remembering that occurred during recall and recognition. During immediate recall, participants recalled unpresented words on 20% of the lists...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Classroom-Based Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm to Assess the Effects of Imagery on False Memories at JoVE.com

Using a Classroom-Based Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm to Assess the Effects of Imagery on False Memories

The method presented here induced false memories using lists of related words and also assessed the effects of imagery instructions on the recall and recognition of those false memories. This protocol details a modified version of the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm.

Associated word list procedures can elicit false memories in predictable ways by inducing associative processing, thus making it harder to monitor the ...

This technique can be used to answer key questions in the field of cognitive science, like how mental imagery during encoding can affect the source monitoring of memories later on. The main advantage of this technique is the automated presentation can be used to systematically control the presentation of stimuli in a classroom environment. Though the method can be used to provide insight into the different types of associative processing on working and long-term memory, it can also be used as an in-class demonstration of the basic principles of cognitive psychology, such as false memories, dual encoding and semantic networks.Begin by creating four separate presentations of word lists:Imagery A, Imagery B, Non-Imagery A, and Non-Imagery B.Ensure that all four presentations are void of templates or designs, with white backgrounds and black font. Entitle the first content slide Instructions. In the body of the Instructions slide, include the relevant instructions according to whether the presentation is designated as imagery or non-imagery.Following the Instructions slide, create slide two, and type Prepare for the practice list"centered vertically and horizontally on the slide in 44 point font. On slides three through 10, present the practice list words in order, one word per slide, centered horizontally and vertically in lower-case 72 point font. Go under Transitions in the menu to designate a slide duration of five seconds.Next, on slide 11, indicate the end of the practice list, and the beginning of recall by typing End of practice list"in black font, with the word recall capitalized and double spaced below it in red font. Designate a slide duration of 45 seconds. After the practice list recall slide, create 10 slides to present the test lists in the same manner.For the first slide, type Prepare for list X"Then, for the following eight slides, include the list words in order, each on a separate slide with five second durations. For the last slide, insert a recall slide for 45 seconds with End of list in black font followed by the number of the list in the presentation. Next, ensure that the order of the lists and the slides vary according to the presentation, either in ascending or descending order.After the recall slide for the last list, ensure that the next slide includes the following text:End of word lists. Turn to the next page in your packets and please take the next seven minutes to work on the attached word searches. Finally, create a slide with no duration that says, End of Word Searching.One last activity. Create two versions of recall packets, Imagery and Non-Imagery, in a word processor. On page one of both versions, prompt participants to write down their name, gender, age, major, or any other demographic variables of interest.On page 13 of both versions, show a word search with dimensions of 20 by 20 letters or larger. Ensure that no list or practice words occur in the word search. Within pages two to 12, include repeated recall activity pages, which vary according to the version.Next, obtain the final recognition test, consisting of 80 items, and keep it separate as a separate sheet from the recall packets. Ensure that instructions on the recognition test prompt participants to indicate yes or no in writing as to whether each item appeared in any of the lists presented. Of the 80 items use 30 from the lists presented on the presentation slides at the start of the study.Include each of the 10 critical lures related to the 10 presented lists on the test. Then, for the additional 40 items, use the Deese-Roediger-McDermott, or DRM lists not presented to the participants, including the first, third, and seventh items from each of the 10 non-presented lists, as well as the associated critical lure for each of the 10 non-presented lists. Arrange the items on the recognition memory test such that one item from each of the 10 presented lists and 10 non-presented lists appears prior to any critical lures.Begin by introducing yourself as the researcher. My name's Dr.Oliver, and this is Dr.Miller, and we're gonna be doing a little research experience and participation in class today. And distribute informed consent forms to participants.Have them read and sign the informed consent. Next, distribute the appropriate recall packets to each participant, based on the condition assigned to their class, and read the instructions from the presentation aloud with the slide presented. Ask participants to flip to the next page in their packet for the practice list.If you guys would please turn to the next page in your packet. Move to presentation slide three and read the prompt aloud. Okay, please prepare for the practice list.Everyone ready to practice? After reading the prompt-Okay, here we go. Move to slide four, and allow the presentation to progress through the timed practice list slides.When the practice list recall slide expires and automatically moves to the next list prompt slide, prompt participants to ask any questions they have about the procedure. Does anyone have any questions about the procedure? Answer any questions and instruct participants to turn to page three in their packet for list one.Then, read the list one prompt out loud, and progress to the timed list one slides. Have participants complete the next page in their packet. After recall for list 10, supervise as the presentation prompts the participants to turn to the next page in their packet and work on the word search for seven minutes.Then, when the presentation automatically progresses to the final slide, collect the recall packets from participants, and distribute the final recognition test. Instruct participants to complete the final recognition test at their own pace, and to do their best not to leave any items blank. Finally, after all participants have finished the test, collect the recognition tests, and verbally debrief participants.We're doing a study using these word lists looking at false memories, and so essentially, these word lists, as you're reading them, remind you of a word that's not actually up there. This table illustrates the effects of standard DRM procedures without imagery on false memories. Participants falsely recalled the critical lures 13%of the time, and falsely recalled other, non-studied words 8%of the time.False memories for critical lures were much more likely on the recognition test, where participants falsely remembered 45%of the critical lures. False memories for other non-studied words were much less likely. Here, the effects of using mental imagery during DRM procedures are shown with a comparison of memory accuracy, including list words accurately remembered and critical lures falsely remembered across imagery and non-imagery conditions.Imagining list words during DRM procedures significantly decreased the proportion of false memories during recall and recognition. False memory rates were 6%lower in the imagery condition than in the standard non-imagery condition. Imagery also improved memory in DRM procedures by significantly increasing the proportion of list words that participants correctly recalled and recognized by 5%This protocol can be adapted if more traditional, non-imagery DRM procedures are your focus.Our protocol details modifications that can be used to adapt materials to include only non-imagery instructions or to use longer DRM word lists from the original DRM studies, both of which can increase false memory rates. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember that even slight modifications in list presentation, such as time durations, can significantly affect the outcomes.

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9.4K ビュー.  Mercer University. この技術は、符号化中の精神的な画像が後で記憶のソースモニタリングにどのような影響を与えるかなど、認知科学の分野における重要な質問に答えるために使用することができます。この技術の主な利点は、教室環境での刺激の提示を体系的に制御するために使用できる自動化されたプレゼンテーションです。この方法は、作業記憶と長期記憶に関するさまざまな種?...