This work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 within the LDRD program.

폴리 셔 및 슬러리 1. 준비 먼저 집중적 인 연마 시스템 준비 (나는 독립 표면 nitial, 특히 C의 onvergent라고 불리는, S 화롯불 반복, R의 ogue 입자 - 무료 폴리 셔 또는 CISR (발음 &#39;가위&#39;)) 패드 및 격막 조절 패드를 설치하여 7,17, 희석 및 화학적 슬러리를 안정화하고, 여과 시스템 내의 슬러리를 통합. <ol><li> CISR 폴리 셔에, 화강암 무릎베이스 상에 폴리 우레탄 패드를 준수합니다. 하나의 가장자리를 제 1 패드 부착되어 에어 갭을 최소화하는 대향 에지를 향해 방향으로 압력을 적용한다. 돌출 된 패드를 잘라서 천공하고 필요하다면 기포를 제거하는 면도날과 롤러를 사용한다. </li><li> 처음 사용하기 위해 모든 ~ 100 시간 후CMP 다이아몬드 컨디셔너를 사용하여 패드, 다이아몬드 연마 조건의 R (50mm 직경은 0.6 psi의 압력을 적용, 5 분 체류를 25mm 간격 단위로 각 반경 무릎 위치에서, 무릎 회전 25 RPM) 흐르는 DI 물. </li><li> 흐르는 DI 물, 연마 반복 사이에 현장 초음파 세척기 (무릎 회전 rpm으로 5 ~ 각 반경 위치에서 2 분 드웰)를 사용하여 패드에서 잔류 슬러리 및 유리 제품을 제거합니다. </li><li> 독특한 모양의 격막의 무게에, ​​양면 폼 테이프 후 격벽 재료 (예를 들면, 프리 컷 유리 또는 다른 비 착용 재료)를 준수합니다. 격벽 재료와 가중치의 형상과 일치하도록 돌출 폼 테이프 트림. 격막 디자인 (형태와 무게 모두) 워크 랩 7,17의 다른 크기에 대한 변경을합니다. </li><li> 부피 혼합 구체적으로 (보메 4 농도에 슬러리를 연마 준비 ~ 11 L의 BU 1 부 산화 세륨 연마 슬러리 ~ 9 부 탈 이온수 (DI) 물cket). 보메 플로트를 사용하여 보메을 확인합니다. 9.5의 pH를 조정하고 ~ 독점적 ​​인 계면 활성제 (19)의 120 ㎖ (1 부피 %)를 추가 할 수 KOH (10 M)의 ~ 5 ML을 추가합니다. pH와 바움 연마의 모든 24 시간을 조정합니다. </li><li> 여과 시스템으로 제조 된 슬러리 양동이를 설치합니다. 이어서 여과 시스템에 원하는 CMP 입자 필터를 설치한다. 몇 시간 동안 여과 시스템 내에서 슬러리 재순환을 보자. </li><li> 슬러리의 측정 입도 분포 (예를 들어, 하나의 입자 광 센싱 기술을 사용하여) 분포의 꼬리 단부를 충분히 확보하기 위해서는 불량 무 입자 9,20이다. </li></ol> 워크 (에칭 및 차단) 2. 준비 연마 전에, 화학적 손상 21 연삭 서브 표면을 제거하는데 필요한 물질 제거의 양을 줄이기 위해 수용된대로 미세 접지 공작물을 에칭. 종횡비 (즉, 길이 / 두께)&gt; 1 인 경우, (공작물 블록0) (22)를 차단 및 연마 동안 공작물 구부러짐을 방지하는 신규 한 피치 차단 버튼 (PBB) 기술을 사용. <ol><li> NH 4 F : 6 시간 (6 : (BOE) 3X는 DI 물에 희석 한 완충 산화물 에칭)을 제거하는 미세 접지 편 (구체적으로는 265 X 265 X 8mm 3 용융 실리카 유리 평면) HF로 채워진 탱크에 에칭 공작물의 표면에서 유리의 10 μm의. 주의! BOE는 매우 위험합니다; 적절한 개인 보호 장비 (PPE)를 착용. 에칭 탱크에서 작업 물을 제거하고 적극적으로 DI 워터 워크를 씻어 공기 워크 수직으로 건조 할 수 있습니다. </li><li> 어두운 방에 밝은 빛 검사를 사용하여 연마 과정에서 깊은 손상 워크를 검사합니다. 더 깊은 손상이 발견되지 않는 경우, 다른 재 연삭 다시 워크를 보내, 다음 단계로 진행하십시오. </li><li> 아교 총에 피치를 차단 가열의 얼굴에 피치 ~ 95 ºC과 장소 방울 (또한 버튼) (~ 0.06 g)에9 X 9 배열의 차단 판 (26mm 간격으로 81 버튼). 다른 크기의 워크의 경우, 이상적인 수, 크기에 대한 규칙 및 피치 버튼 (22)의 간격을 디자인을 참조하십시오. 적용 버튼을 70 예열 오븐에 얼굴을 차단 플레이트를 배치 ºC. </li><li> 폴리싱 될하지 않은 공작물의면에 테이프를 적용한다. 기포를 생성하거나 과도하게 테이프를 연신 피한다. </li><li> 오븐에 차단 판에 버튼에 내려 테이프 측면과 공작물을 놓습니다. 대류 흐름을 최소화하기 위해 공작물 버튼 블록을 커버. 1.5 시간 후, 실온으로 10 ºC / 시간을 냉각 오븐 설정합니다. 냉각 후, 차단 된 공작물의 피치 두께는 ~ 1mm이어야한다. </li></ol> 3. 집중적 인 연마 <ol><li> 연마 동안 건조에서 슬러리를 방지하기 위해 CISR 광택제의 환경 챔버에서 습도 시스템의 전원을 켜고 워크를 긁적 불량 입자를 최소화 할 수 있습니다. </li><li> INS키와 폴리 셔로 설계하고 준비 격막을 탑재합니다. 워크를 개최 CISR 광택제 낮은 붐에 PBB 공작물을 설치합니다. </li><li> ~ 75mm의 반경 획 1 갤런 / 분의 여과 시스템에서 슬러리 흐름 25 rpm으로 유사한 무릎 공작물 회전 속도로 4 시간 동안 CISR 폴란드어 공작물. 주 : 0.6 psi의 압력을인가하도록 공작물 적재 중량으로 대응하는 차단 판 역할도. </li><li> 무릎과 공작물 회전 및 슬러리의 흐름을 끕니다. CISR 폴리 셔에서 PBB 공작물을 제거하고 DI 물이 채워진 욕조에 그것을 물속에 가라 앉히다. 잠수하는 동안 클린 룸 천으로 공작물 표면을 닦으십시오. DI의 물로 씻어 목욕 PBB 공작물을 제거하고 스프레이. </li><li> 공작물 블록 계면 심을 삽입하여 디 블록 공작물. 공작물 표면에서 테이프를 제거합니다. 적극적으로 DI 물과 공기 건조와 워크를 씻어. </li><li> PBB이어서 PO 반복 항에서 기술 한 공작물의 대향면3 항에 명시된 절차를 퍼블리싱. </li></ol> 4. 계측 및 검사 <ol><li> 측정은, 간섭계를 이용하여 공작물의 양면의 파면 (즉, 표면도)뿐만 아니라 투과 파면을 반영. </li><li> 마운트 밝은 빛 검사 역에 소재 및 광 제조 표준 방법을 사용하여 스크래치 / 발굴 특성을 측정한다. 단계 2.1에 기재된 바와 같이 공작물의 짧은 에칭 BOE는 높은 플루 언스의 레이저 용도에 사용 공작물 숨겨져 흠집을 노출시킬 수있다. 공작물에 미세한 흠집이나 거칠기의 측정을 위해 표준 광학 현미경 또는 백색광 간섭계가 사용될 수있다. </li><li> 스토어 공작물의 얼굴을 가진 컨테이너 최소화 접촉 워크를 완료했다. </li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

서론에서 언급 한 바와 같이 제거하거나 인해 워크 형상에 공작물 무릎 불일치의 것을 제외하고 공간 자료 비 균일 영향을 미치는 모든 현상을 최소화 포함, 융합의 성공적인 구현은 그림 표면에 대해 연마. 이러한 현상 중 어느 하나를 적절하게, 어느 공정 제어를 통하여 또는 광택제, 다음 원하는 수렴 점 달성 또는 유지 될 수없는 적절한 공학을 통해 완화되지 않는 경우; 따라서 기본적으로 모?...

일반적인 광 제조 공정의 주요 단계는 성형, 연마, 전체 조리개 연마, 1-3을 연마 때로는 작은 도구를 포함한다. 이미징 및 레이저 시스템을위한 고품질의 광학 부품에 대한 수요 증가, 지난 몇 년 동안 광학 제조에 상당한 발전이 있었다. 예를 들어, 정밀를 들어, 결정 물질 제거 (CNC) 유리 형성 기계 제어 컴퓨터 수치의 발전과 형성 및 연마 과정에서 지금 가능하다. 마찬가지로, 작은 도구 연마 기술 (예를 들어, 컴퓨터 제어 광학 표면 처리 (CCOS), 이온 파악하고, 자기 유동 학적 마무리 (MRF))은 이렇게 강하게 광 제조 산업에 영향을 미치는 결정적 물질 제거 및 표면 그림 컨트롤을 주도했다. 그러나, 마무리 공정을, 전체 개구 연마의 중간 단계는 아직 통상의 숙련을 필요 opticia, 높은 결정 성 결여NS는, 복수를 수행하는 종종 여러 프로세스 변경 긴, 반복주기를 원하는 표면 그림 1-3을 달성하기 위해. 연마 방법, 공정 변수와 복잡한 화학 및 소재, 무릎 및 슬러리 3-4 사이의 기계적 상호 작용의 많은 수는 도전적인 과학 &#39;예술&#39;에서 광학 연마를 변환하기 위해 만들었습니다. 결정적 전체 조리개 연마를 달성하기 위하여, 연마 율은 잘 이해되어야한다. 역사적으로, 소재 제거율은 널리 사용되는 프레스 식 (5)에 의해 설명 되었으나 <img alt="식 (1)" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" width="100px" /> (1) DH / DT는 평균 두께 제거 속도이고, p는 유전 상수 프리스톤, σ O이다적용된 압력 및 V R을 공작물과 무릎 사이의 평균 상대 속도이다. 모식 시공간 속도 변동 및 압력 차이 포함한 프리스톤 수식 바와 같은 재료 제거 속도에 영향을 미치는 물리적 인 개념을 도시 한 도표 적용된 압력 및 압력 분포 공작물 경험과 마찰 효과 6-8. 특히, 공작물에 의해 경험되는 실제 압력 분포 강하게 공작물의 표면도를 수득 영향 (다른 곳에서 상세히 설명한 6-8) 현상의 수에 의해 지배된다. 또한, 프레스톤 식에서 현미경 및 분자 수준의 효과는 주로 전체적인 재료 제거 속도, 마이크로 거칠기, 심지어 공작물에 스크래치에 영향을 육안 프리스톤 상수 (k 값 P), 접혀있다. 다양한 연구는 설명하기 위해 프레스턴의 모델을 확대<html> 미세한 슬러리 입자 패드 워크 상호 작용 물질 제거 속도와 거칠기 9-16를 설명하기 위해. 전체 조리개 폴리싱 동안에도 표면의 결정 성 제어를 달성하기 위해, 상술 한 현상을 각각 정량 이해하고 제어 할 필요가있다. 집중적 인 연마 뒤에 전략 중 설계 광택제 설계를 통해 또는 제거 인해 공작물 형상 공작물 랩 불일치에 의해서만 구동되도록 프로세스 제어에 의해, 제거 또는 비 균일 한 물질 제거의 바람직하지 않은 원인을 최소화하는 것이다 7,17- 18. 그림 2는 공작물 형상이 공작물 무릎 불일치 개념을 기반으로 융합으로 이어질 수있는 방법을 보여줍니다. 평면 무릎과 좌측 상단에 복잡한 모양의 가상 워크를 고려한다. (갭, ΔH 올 라 칭함) 인터페이스 높이 불일치는 인터페이스 압력 분포 (σ)에 영향을 미친다 : 콘텐츠 &quot;FO : 유지-together.within 페이지 =&quot;항상 &quot;&gt; <img alt="식 (2)" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" width="100px" /> (2) h는 상수 설명 속도가 어디되는 압력은 갭 ΔH 올 6의 증가와 함께 감소한다. 이 예에서, 공작물은 폴리싱 동안 높은 초기 물질 제거율을 관찰한다 중심에서 가장 높은 로컬 압력 (도 2의 왼쪽 아래 참조), 따라서이 위치를 갖는다. 재료가 제거 될 때, 공작물에 걸쳐 압력 차이가 공작물 무릎 불일치 감소로 인하여 감소되며, 공작물의 랩 형상으로 수렴된다. 수렴, 공작물 압력 분포, 따라서 물질 제거시 (도 2의 우측 참조)에 걸쳐 균일 한 공작물 것이다. 이 예제는 howev, 평면 무릎에 대한 설명된다어, 동일한 개념은 (오목 또는 볼록 중) 구형 무릎에 적용됩니다. 공간 재료 불균일성에 영향을주는 모든 다른 현상이 제거 된 경우에는 다시,이 수렴 프로세스는 작동한다. 수렴 연마 프로토콜 구현의 구체적인 절차 및 엔지니어링 완화는 토론에 설명되어 있습니다. 다음 연구에 기재된 프로토콜은 미세 지표면에서 시작 26.5 cm 정사각형 용융 실리카 유리 편 특별히 수렴 연마 공정이다. 연마 8 시간 (4 시간 /면),이 소재는 매우 높은 표면 품질 (즉, 낮은 스크래치 밀도)와 함께 ~ λ / 2의 광택 평탄도를 달성 할 수있다.

<table><tbody><tr><td>MHN 50 mil Polyurethane Pad&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Eminess Technologies</td><td>PF-MHN15A050L-56</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cerium oxide polishing slurry</td><td>Universal Photonics</td><td>HASTILITE PO</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Septum Glass (waterjet cut)</td><td>Borofloat ; Schott&amp;nbsp;</td><td>NA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Diamond conditioner</td><td>Morgan Advanced Ceramics&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CMP-25035-SFT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ultrasonic Cleaner</td><td>Advanced Sonics Processing System</td><td>URC4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Purification Optima Filter cartridge</td><td>3M</td><td>CMP560P10FC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blocking Pitch</td><td>Universal Photonics</td><td>BP1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blocking Tape</td><td>3M</td><td>#4712</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cleanroom Cloth</td><td>ITW Texwipe</td><td>AlphaWipe TX1013</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Single Particle Optical Sensing</td><td>Paritcle Sizing Systems</td><td>Accusizer 780 AD</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

convergent polishing: a simple, rapid, full aperture polishing process of high quality optical flats &amp; spheres

집중적 인 연마는 초기 형태의 독립적 인 워크, (즉, 표면 그림), 고정, 변하지 않는 조건에서 우수한 표면 품질과 최종 표면의 그림을 수렴 할에 평면과 구면 유리 광학 마무리를위한 새로운 연마 시스템 및 방법입니다 하나의 연마 반복에서 매개 변수를 연마. 대조적으로, 종래의 전체 개구 연마 방법은 원하는 표면도를 달성하는 연마, 계측 및 공정 변화를 포함하는 다수의, 종종 긴 반복주기를 요구한다. 수렴 폴리싱 처리는 무릎의 형태로 수렴 공작물의 제거 및 감소의 결과로 압력 차가 발생 공작물 랩 높이 불일치의 개념에 기초한다. 수렴 폴리싱 공정의 성공적인 구현은 공작물 무릎 제외 불균일 공간 재료 제거 (모두를 제거하기위한 다양한 기술의 조합의 결과이다표면도 컨버전스 불일치) 및 낮은 스크래치 밀도 및 낮은 거칠기 시스템에서 악성 입자의 수​​를 감소시킨다. 수렴 폴리싱 처리는 각종 유리 재료에 모두 아파트와 다양한 형상, 크기의 분야, 및 종횡비의 제조를 위해 설명되었다. 실질적인 영향은 고품질 광학 부품은 낮은 단가의 결과, 이하와 메트 롤로 지, 덜 노동, 더 반복하여,보다 신속하게 제조 될 수 있다는 것이다. 본 연구에서는 융합 연마 프로토콜은 특히 사각 81cm 직경 폴리 셔에 표면 당 4 시간을 연마 한 후 폴리싱 ~ λ / 2면 그림을 잘 접지면에서 실리카 아파트를 융합 26.5 cm 제조 기술되어있다.

집중적 인 연마 프로토콜 상술의 산곡 평탄성, 표면 당 4 시간의 단일 반복에서, 연마 (이 경우 26.5 cm 정사각형)을 접지 용융 실리카 공작물을 허용 ~ λ / 2 (~ 낮은 종횡비의 공작물과 높은 종횡비 가공품 1λ ~ (~ 633 ㎚) 330 ㎚) ()도 3 참조. 다시 한번,이 프로세스는 반복적으로 연마 매개 변수를 변경하지 않고 동일한 최종 표면 도표에 공작물을 집광하고, 초기 표면도 무관하다. 또한, ~ 4?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres at JoVE.com

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

A novel optical polishing process, called &#8220;Convergent Polishing&#8221;, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

집중적 인 연마 : 고품질 광학 플랫 &amp; 분야의 단순, 신속, 전체 조리개 연마 공정

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial ...

convergent-polishing-simple-rapid-full-aperture-polishing-process

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats &amp; Spheres

11.0K 조회수.  Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. A novel optical polishing process, called “Convergent Polishing”, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

비디오: Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

실리카 초고 품질 팩터 Microresonators의 제작

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

연구

공학

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The optical modes are frequently referred to as "whispering gallery modes" (WGM) or "morphology dependent resonances" (MDR) and exhibit high optical quality factors. Some proposed applications of micro-cavity optical resonators are in spectroscopy1, micro-cavity laser technology2, optical communications3-6 as well as sensor technology. The WGM-based sensor applications include those in biology7, trace gas detection8, and impurity detection in liquids9. Mechanical sensors based on microsphere resonators have also been proposed, including those for force10,11, pressure12, acceleration13 and wall shear stress14. In the present, we demonstrate a WGM-based electric field sensor, which builds on our previous studies15,16. A candidate application of this sensor is in the detection of neuronal action potential.
The electric field sensor is based on polymeric multi-layered dielectric microspheres. The external electric field induces surface and body forces on the spheres (electrostriction effect) leading to elastic deformation. This change in the morphology of the spheres, leads to shifts in the WGM. The electric field-induced WGM shifts are interrogated by exciting the optical modes of the spheres by laser light. Light from a distributed feedback (DFB) laser (nominal wavelength of ~ 1.3 &mu;m) is side-coupled into the microspheres using a tapered section of a single mode optical fiber. The base material of the spheres is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three microsphere geometries are used: (1) PDMS sphere with a 60:1 volumetric ratio of base-to-curing agent mixture, (2) multi layer sphere with 60:1 PDMS core, in order to increase the dielectric constant of the sphere, a middle layer of 60:1 PDMS that is mixed with varying amounts (2% to 10% by volume) of barium titanate and an outer layer of 60:1 PDMS and (3) solid silica sphere coated with a thin layer of uncured PDMS base. In each type of sensor, laser light from the tapered fiber is coupled into the outermost layer that provides high optical quality factor WGM (Q ~ 106). The microspheres are poled for several hours at electric fields of ~ 1 MV/m to increase their sensitivity to electric field.

A high-sensitivity photonic micro sensor was developed for electric field detection. The sensor exploits the optical modes of a dielectric sphere. Changes in the external electric field perturb the sphere morphology leading to shifts in its optical modes. The electric field strength is measured by monitoring these optical shifts.

갤러리 모드 고분자 마이크로 광 전기장 센서 글린의 개발

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The ...

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

마이크로 웨이브 포토닉스 시스템 속삭이는 - 갤러리 모드 공진기를 기반으로

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the standard quantum limit or to cool mechanical systems to their quantum ground state. This is for example the case of future gravitational wave observatories, whose sensitivity to gravitational wave signals is expected to be limited in the most sensitive frequency band, by atomic vibration of their mirror masses. One promising approach being pursued to overcome this limitation is to employ higher-order Laguerre-Gauss (LG) optical beams in place of the conventionally used fundamental mode. Owing to their more homogeneous light intensity distribution these beams average more effectively over the thermally driven fluctuations of the mirror surface, which in turn reduces the uncertainty in the mirror position sensed by the laser light.
We demonstrate a promising method to generate higher-order LG beams by shaping a fundamental Gaussian beam with the help of diffractive optical elements. We show that with conventional sensing and control techniques that are known for stabilizing fundamental laser beams, higher-order LG modes can be purified and stabilized just as well at a comparably high level. A set of diagnostic tools allows us to control and tailor the properties of generated LG beams. This enabled us to produce an LG beam with the highest purity reported to date. The demonstrated compatibility of higher-order LG modes with standard interferometry techniques and with the use of standard spherical optics makes them an ideal candidate for application in a future generation of high-precision interferometry.

Large laser-interferometers are being constructed to create a new type of astronomy based on gravitational waves. Their sensitivities, as for many other high-precision experiments, are approaching fundamental noise limits such as the atomic vibration of their components. We are pioneering technologies to overcome these limits using novel laser beam shapes.

고정밀 간섭에 대한 높은 순서 Laguerre-가우스 광학 빔의 생성

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several  types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the  ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

빛의 통과 앤더슨 현지화 무질서 폴리머 광섬유의 제조 및 특성

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

Stimulated Stokes and Antistokes Raman Scattering in Microspherical Whispering Gallery Mode Resonators

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres can be thought as a store of energy with a huge variety of applications: compact laser sources, highly sensitive biochemical sensors and nonlinear phenomena. A protocol for the fabrication of both the microspheres and coupling system is given. The couplers described here are tapered fibers. Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS). A proof of the cavity-enhanced phenomenon is given by the lack of correlation among the pump, signal and idler: a resonant mode has to exist in order to obtain the pair of signal and idler. In the case of hyperparametric oscillations (four wave mixing and stimulated anti-stokes Raman scattering), the modes must fulfill the energy and momentum conservation and, last but not least, have a good spatial overlap.

Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS).

Microspherical 위스퍼 링 갤러리 모드 공진기에 자극 스톡스와 Antistokes 라만 산란

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.

광 공진기 및 레이저 응용을위한 고분자 미소 구의 제조

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, ...

Demonstration of a Hyperlens-integrated Microscope and Super-resolution Imaging

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and nanotechnology. Although near-field scanning microscopy and superlenses have improved the resolution in the near-field region, far-field imaging in real-time remains a significant challenge. Recently, the hyperlens, which magnifies and converts evanescent waves into propagating waves, has emerged as a novel approach to far-field imaging. Here, we report the fabrication of a spherical hyperlens composed of alternating silver (Ag) and titanium oxide (TiO2) thin layers. Unlike a conventional cylindrical hyperlens, the spherical hyperlens allows for two-dimensional magnification. Thus, incorporation into conventional microscopy is straightforward. A new optical system integrated with the hyperlens is proposed, allowing for a sub-wavelength image to be obtained in the far-field region in real time. In this study, the fabrication and imaging setup methods are explained in detail. This work also describes the accessibility and possibility of the hyperlens, as well as practical applications of real-time imaging in living cells, which can lead to a revolution in biology and nanotechnology.

The use of a hyperlens has been regarded as a novel super-resolution imaging technique due to its advantages in real-time imaging and its simple implementation with conventional optics. Here, we present a protocol describing the fabrication and imaging applications of a spherical hyperlens.

Hyperlens 통합 현미경 및 슈퍼 해상도 영상

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and ...

Rapid Optical Clearing for Semi-High-Throughput Analysis of Tumor Spheroids

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the spheroid at the cellular level is important for analysis, yet existing techniques are often expensive, laborious, use non-standard equipment, cause significant size distortion, or are limited to relatively small spheroids. This protocol presents a new method of mounting and clearing spheroids that address these issues while allowing for confocal analysis of the inner structure of spheroids. In contrast to existing approaches, this protocol provides for rapid mounting and clearing of a large number of spheroids using standard equipment and laboratory supplies. Mounting spheroids in a pH-neutral agarose-PBS gel solution before introducing a refractive-index-matched clearing solution minimizes size distortion common to other similar techniques. This allows for detailed quantitative and statistical analysis where the accuracy of size measurements is paramount. Furthermore, compared to liquid clearing solutions, the agarose gel technique keeps spheroids fixed in place, allowing for the collection of three-dimensional (3D) confocal images. The present article elaborates how the method yields high-quality two- and 3D images that provide information about inter-cell variability and inner spheroid structure.

Tumor spheroids are becoming increasingly utilized to assess tumor cell-microenvironment interactions and therapy response. The present protocol describes a robust but simple method for semi-high-throughput imaging of 3D tumor spheroids using rapid optical clearing.

종양 구상체의 반 높은 처리량 분석을 위한 신속한 광학 클리어링

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the ...

암 연구학

Trace-Gas Spectroscopy에 적용하기 위한 Fabry-Pérot Etalon 제작

Fabrication of a Low-Cost, Fiber-Coupled, and Air-Spaced Fabry-P&#233;rot Etalon

Fabry-P&#233;rot etalons (FPE) have found their way into many applications. In fields such as spectroscopy, telecommunications, and astronomy, FPEs are used for their high sensitivity as well as their exceptional filtering capability. However, air-spaced etalons with high finesse are usually built by specialized facilities. Their production requires a clean room, special glass handling, and coating machinery, meaning commercially available FPEs are sold for a high price. In this article, a new and cost-effective method to fabricate fiber-coupled FPEs with standard photonic laboratory equipment is presented. The protocol should serve as a step-by-step guide for the construction and characterization of these FPEs. We hope this&#160;will enable researchers to conduct fast and cost-effective prototyping of FPEs for various fields of application. The FPE, as presented here, is used for spectroscopic applications. As shown in the representative results section via proof of principle measurements of water vapor in ambient air, this FPE has a finesse of 15, which is sufficient for the photothermal detection of trace concentrations of gases.

저자 스포트라이트: 저비용, 섬유 결합 및 공기 간격의 Fabry-Pérot Etalon 제작  

This protocol describes the construction of a low-cost, discrete, fiber-coupled, and air-spaced Fabry-Perot etalon with various applications, such as in trace-gas spectroscopy. The fabrication is possible in any facility with standard optical laboratory equipment available.

저비용, 섬유 결합 및 공기 간격 Fabry-Pérot Etalon 제작

Fabry-P&#233;rot etalons (FPE) have found their way into many applications. In fields such as spectroscopy, telecommunications, and astronomy, FPEs are ...

집중적 인 연마 : 고품질 광학 플랫 & 분야의 단순, 신속, 전체 조리개 연마 공정

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