All animal imaging was performed at the Small Animal Imaging Core Facility, University of Utah.
This study was funded in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health (R21 AG043952, R01 AG040297, K01 AG046326, K02 AG045339, and R01 DK100505).

모든 동물의 절차는 실험 동물 (14)의 관리 및 사용에 대한 가이드를 본와 유타 대학과 솔트 레이크 시티 재향 군인 의료 센터 동물 관리 및 사용에 의해 승인되었다. 1. 동물 준비 <ol><li> 100 % 산소 3 %의 이소 플루 란을 포함 마취 유도 챔버에서 동물을 놓습니다. 그것은 외부 자극에 응답하지 않는 때까지 유도 챔버에서 동물을 둡니다. </li><li> 유도 챔버에서 동물을 제거하고 심전도 (ECG) 전극이 장착 된 가열 시험 테이블에 놓습니다. 100 % 산소 3 % 이소 플루 란 마취를 유지한다. 상완 표재성 대퇴 동맥 FMD 동시에 수행 될 수 없다. 따라서, 각 측정을위한 준비 지침은 다음과 같습니다. </li></ol> 2. 상완 동맥 준비 <ol><li> 동물 부정사의 위치를 ​​왼쪽 상지와 각각의 하체를 억제수술 테이프로 시험 테이블에 imal. </li><li> 상지의 하부 약간 플랫폼 상기 (~ 0.2-0.5 cm의)을 상승되도록 상기 동물의 우측 상지 억제. </li><li> 머리를 제거하기 위해 동물의 우측 상지에 제모 제 (예 : 나이 르)을 적용합니다. </li><li> 팔꿈치에 오른쪽 상단 사지 말단에 폐색 커프 (직경 표준 혈관 occluder에 루멘 10mm)를 배치합니다. 인플레이션 / 디플레이션이 사지를 이동하고 초음파 이미지를 방해하므로, 플랫폼에 occluder에 휴식하지 마십시오. </li><li> 초음파 키보드를 사용하여 B-모드로 초음파 기계를 설정합니다. </li><li> 폐색 커프 동물, 기단의 상지 초음파 겔 소량을 적용한다. </li><li> 수동 상지와 정위 홀더에 부착 된 초고주파 선형 어레이 변환기 정렬. 상완 동맥은 2~3mm 깊이 볼 수 있어야합니다. </li><li> 상완 동맥,하지 상완 정맥이되고 있음을 확인하려면영상화, 초음파 키보드를 사용 PW 모드로 전환. 연속 혈액 흐름을 미칠 인접한 정맥 반대로 동맥 박동성 혈류를 가질 것이다. </li></ol> 3. 피상적 인 대퇴 동맥 준비 <ol><li> 동물 부정사를 놓고 상지 및 수술 테이프로 시험 테이블에 왼쪽 하체를 억제. </li><li> 패드 (예를 들어, 접힌 된 종이 수건)를 사용하여 플랫폼 위의 높은 위치 (~ 0.5 cm)에 동물의 오른쪽 하체를 억제. </li><li> 동물의 오른쪽으로 머리를 제거하는 낮은 다리를 제모 제 (예 : 나이 르)을 적용합니다. 머리 제거 후 대퇴 정맥 상부 허벅지 안쪽에서 명확하게 볼 수 있어야합니다. </li><li> 오른쪽 발목에 폐색 커프 (직경 표준 혈관 occluder에 루멘 10mm) 근위부를 놓습니다. 인플레이션 / 디플레이션은 하체를 이동하고 초음파 이미지를 방해하므로, 플랫폼에 occluder에 휴식하지 마십시오. </li><li> 에 초음파 기계를 설정B 모드. </li><li> 폐색 커프 동물, 기단의 하체에 초음파 겔 소량을 적용한다. </li><li> 수동으로 피부를 통해 보이는 대퇴부 정맥으로 정위 홀더에 부착 된 초고주파 선형 어레이 변환기 정렬. 피상적 대퇴 동맥은 1mm 깊은 &lt;볼 수 있어야합니다. </li><li> 피상적 인 대퇴 동맥이 아닌 대퇴 정맥이 이미지화되고 있음을 확인하려면, PW 모드로 전환합니다. 연속 혈액 흐름을 미칠 인접한 정맥 반대로 동맥 박동성 혈류를 가질 것이다. </li></ol> 4. 기준 상 <ol><li> 이 인간 (15)에서 수행하는 방법을 동일한 B 모드 영상을 최적화. 모두 벽으로 시각화 중막과 선박의 가로, 세로 이미지가 관찰되어 있는지 확인합니다. 약간 가능한 동맥의 정도를 확인하기 위해 초음파 프로브의 위치를 ​​조절하여 이미지를 최적화하여 캡쳐 윈도우를 볼 수있다.<ol><li> 대안 적으로, 밝기 / 콘트라스트 초점 영역, 주파수, 동적 범위, 및 선 밀도를 변경하여 더 나은 화상을 얻는 초음파 설정을 조정한다. 거기에 초음파 영상을 최적화하는 다른 방법이 있지만, 이들의 상세한 설명은이 프로토콜의 범위를 벗어난다. </li></ol></li><li> 동맥 이미지의 최적화 후, 수집 된 하나의 직경 프레임은 심장주기의 각 이완기 부분 동안 있는지 확인하기 위해 R 파 동안 촬영 된 이미지 만 표시 ECG-게이트의 전원을 켭니다. 참고 : ECG-게이팅은 생리 설정 옵션에서 ECG-게이팅을 선택하여이 프로토콜에 사용되는 초음파 시스템에서 사용할 수 있습니다, 그러나,이 기능은 모든 초음파 시스템에서 사용하지 못할 수 있습니다. 화상 최적화 후 ECG 게이팅은 낮은 프레임 속도로 화상을 얻는 것이 어렵 기 때문에, 온한다 (즉, 한번 R 파마다). ECG 게이팅 높은 프레임 높은 심장 쥐 속도 요구의 조합없이속도는 심장주기의 이완기 부분 만 ~ 10-20초 클립을 가능하게 촬영합니다. 각 클립 내의 데이터의 번거로운 크기와 양이 실질적으로 분석 부담을 증가시킨다. </li><li> 기록 B 모드를 사용하여 기준 데이터 60초. 주 : 초음파 클립에 기록 될 수 프레임 수에 제한이, 상기 초음파 장치는 항상 기록하고, 그러나, 사진은 초음파 시스템에 저장된다. 상기 클립의 길이 (즉, 프레임의 수)의 설정을 조정할 수있다. 클립 당 프레임의 최대 수를 설정하는 것이 좋습니다. 기록은 클립의 단부에있을 때, 기록이 계속된다 (즉, 프레임들의 최대 수에 도달), 그러나 클립이 전방으로 가장 최근의 프레임 캡처 롤. 이 경우, 최대 프레임 한계 밖에서 캡처 된 이전 프레임 이후에 삭제된다. 기록에서 이러한 복잡한 기계 사이에 차이가 있지만, 녹화 시간의 조정이 필요할 수 있습니다. </li><li> SWIPW-모드로 TCH. 루멘의 중간에 커서를 놓습니다. 샘플 게이트는 커서를 참조하여 자동으로 배치되지만, 초음파 키보드를 사용하여 폭 조절 될 수있다. ≤60 °의 insonation 각도를 유지한다. <ol><li> 도플러 빔 각도를 변경하여 insonation 각도를 조정합니다. 초음파 키보드를 사용하여 각도를 미세 조정합니다. 이 중 어느 것도 측정에 적합한 각도를 제공하는 경우, 수동으로 더 최적의 각도로 동맥을 기울여 초음파 프로브를 조정합니다. 초음파 각도 어떠한 조정이 수행된다면, B 모드 이미지를 캡처. </li></ol></li><li> 속도 데이터 10 초를 기록한다. </li></ol> 5. 폐색 단계 <ol><li> 공기로 채워진 10 ㎖ 주사기를 사용하여 혈관 occluder에 팽창. 혈관 occluder에 공기 압력을 일정하게 유지하기 위해, 자체에 튜브를 접어 접힘 튜브 바인더 클립을 배치했다. </li><li> 에 의해 입증, 커프스 폐색을 확인하기 위해 PW-모드로 전환혈액 속도의 큰 감소. </li><li> 폐쇄 4시 45분 분까지, 60초 클립에 B 모드 및 기록 데이터로 전환합니다. </li><li> PW-모드로 전환합니다. 심박수를 기록 및 분석을위한 초음파 각 클립의 시간을 유지한다. </li></ol> 6. 충혈 단계 <ol><li> 접힌 튜브에서 바인더 클립을 제거하여 PW-모드로 녹화하는 동안 커프를 놓습니다. 기록 오초 이전에 5 초 커프 출시 된 이후. </li><li> 폐쇄 후 삼분 때까지 60초 클립에 B 모드 및 기록 데이터로 전환합니다. 심박수를 기록 및 분석을위한 초음파 각 클립의 시간을 유지한다. </li><li> FMD 종료 후의 검사 테이블에서 동물을 제거하고 흉골 드러 누움을 유지하기에 충분한 의식을 회복 할 때까지 모니터링한다. </li></ol> 7. 분석 <ol><li> 분석을 위해, 편견을 허용 에지 감지 소프트웨어가 설치된 오프라인 컴퓨터에 DICOM 파일로 내보내기 초음파 저지각 프레임에서의 동맥 직경 mination. 그것은 매우 시간 집약적이고 연구자의 편견이 적용됩니다으로 분석, 초음파 시스템에 그러나, 그것은하지 않는 것이 좋습니다 수 있습니다. </li><li> 기준 및 폐쇄 단계에서 60초 세그먼트에서 동맥 직경의 데이터를 분석하고, 충혈 단계에서 십초 세그먼트입니다. </li><li> 자동 에지 검출 소프트웨어의 흐름 분석 기능을 사용하여 혈액의 속도 데이터를 분석한다. 기준 및 폐쇄 단계에서 균일 한 모양의 5 이상 연속 파형을 측정하여 평균 혈액 속도를 결정합니다. 즉시 커프 출시 된 이후 혈액 속도에 대한 반응성 충혈 동안 평균 혈액 속도를 결정합니다. 가장 높은 혈액 속도와 파형 피크 혈액 속도로 간주됩니다. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Smits, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endothelial+release+of+nitric+oxide+contributes+to+the+vasodilator+effect+of+adenosine+in+humans.">Endothelial release of nitric oxide contributes to the vasodilator effect of adenosine in humans.</a> Circulation. 92, 2135-2141 (1995).</li><li>Forstermann, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nitric+oxide+synthase+isozymes.+Characterization,+purification,+molecular+cloning,+and+functions.">Nitric oxide synthase isozymes. Characterization, purification, molecular cloning, and functions.</a> Hypertension. 23, 1121-1131 (1994).</li><li>Gardiner, S. M., Compton, A. M., Bennett, T., Palmer, R. M., Moncada, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+regional+blood+flow+by+endothelium-derived+nitric+oxide.">Control of regional blood flow by endothelium-derived nitric oxide.</a> Hypertension. 15, 486-492 (1990).</li><li>Harris, R. A., Nishiyama, S. K., Wray, D. W., Richardson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+assessment+of+flow-mediated+dilation.">Ultrasound assessment of flow-mediated dilation.</a> Hypertension. 55, 1075-1085 (2010).</li><li>Corretti, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidelines+for+the+ultrasound+assessment+of+endothelial-dependent+flow-mediated+vasodilation+of+the+brachial+artery:+a+report+of+the+International+Brachial+Artery+Reactivity+Task+Force.">Guidelines for the ultrasound assessment of endothelial-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery: a report of the International Brachial Artery Reactivity Task Force.</a> J Am Coll Cardiol. 39, 257-265 (2002).</li><li>Celermajer, D. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+detection+of+endothelial+dysfunction+in+children+and+adults+at+risk+of+atherosclerosis.">Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis.</a> Lancet. 340, 1111-1115 (1992).</li><li>Niebauer, J., Cooke, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiovascular+effects+of+exercise:+role+of+endothelial+shear+stress.">Cardiovascular effects of exercise: role of endothelial shear stress.</a> J Am Coll Cardiol. 28, 1652-1660 (1996).</li><li>Sessa, W. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=eNOS+at+a+glance.">eNOS at a glance.</a> J Cell Sci. 117, 2427-2429 (2004).</li><li>Wray, D. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Does+brachial+artery+flow-mediated+vasodilation+provide+a+bioassay+for+NO?.">Does brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation provide a bioassay for NO?.</a> Hypertension. 62, 345-351 (2013).</li><li>Green, D. J., Dawson, E. A., Groenewoud, H. M., Jones, H., Thijssen, D. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Is+flow-mediated+dilation+nitric+oxide+mediated?+A+meta-analysis.">Is flow-mediated dilation nitric oxide mediated? A meta-analysis.</a> Hypertension. 63, 376-382 (2014).</li><li>Green, D. J., Jones, H., Thijssen, D., Cable, N. T., Atkinson, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow-mediated+dilation+and+cardiovascular+event+prediction:+does+nitric+oxide+matter?.">Flow-mediated dilation and cardiovascular event prediction: does nitric oxide matter?.</a> Hypertension. 57, 363-369 (2011).</li><li>Brevetti, G., Silvestro, A., Schiano, V., Chiariello, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endothelial+dysfunction+and+cardiovascular+risk+prediction+in+peripheral+arterial+disease:+additive+value+of+flow-mediated+dilation+to+ankle-brachial+pressure+index.">Endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular risk prediction in peripheral arterial disease: additive value of flow-mediated dilation to ankle-brachial pressure index.</a> Circulation. , 2093-2098 (2003).</li><li>Gokce, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predictive+value+of+noninvasively+determined+endothelial+dysfunction+for+long-term+cardiovascular+events+in+patients+with+peripheral+vascular+disease.">Predictive value of noninvasively determined endothelial dysfunction for long-term cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral vascular disease.</a> J Am Coll Cardiol. 41, 1769-1775 (2003).</li><li>National Research Council (U.S.). <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals. , (2011).</li><li>Alley, H., Owens, C. D., Gasper, W. J., Grenon, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+assessment+of+endothelial-dependent+flow-mediated+vasodilation+of+the+brachial+artery+in+clinical+research.">Ultrasound assessment of endothelial-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery in clinical research.</a> J Vis Exp. , e52070 (2014).</li><li>Ghiadoni, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+flow-mediated+dilation+reproducibility:+a+nationwide+multicenter+study.">Assessment of flow-mediated dilation reproducibility: a nationwide multicenter study.</a> J Hypertension. 30, 1399-1405 (2012).</li><li>Thijssen, D. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterogeneity+in+conduit+artery+function+in+humans:+impact+of+arterial+size.">Heterogeneity in conduit artery function in humans: impact of arterial size.</a> Am J Physiol Heart Circ. 295, H1927-H1934 (2008).</li><li>Green, D. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Why+isn't+flow-mediated+dilation+enhanced+in+athletes?.">Why isn't flow-mediated dilation enhanced in athletes?.</a> Med Sci Sports. 45, 75-82 (2013).</li><li>Heiss, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+measurement+of+flow-mediated+vasodilation+in+living+rats+using+high-resolution+ultrasound.">In vivo measurement of flow-mediated vasodilation in living rats using high-resolution ultrasound.</a> Am J Physiol Heart Circ. 294, H1086-H1093 (2008).</li><li>Chen, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacological+inhibition+of+S-nitrosoglutathione+reductase+improves+endothelial+vasodilatory+function+in+rats+in+vivo.">Pharmacological inhibition of S-nitrosoglutathione reductase improves endothelial vasodilatory function in rats in vivo.</a> J Appl Physiol. 114, 752-760 (2013).</li><li>Pinnamaneni, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brief+exposure+to+secondhand+smoke+reversibly+impairs+endothelial+vasodilatory+function.">Brief exposure to secondhand smoke reversibly impairs endothelial vasodilatory function.</a> Nicotine Tob Res. 16, 584-590 (2014).</li><li>Liu, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impairment+of+Endothelial+Function+by+Little+Cigar+Secondhand+Smoke.">Impairment of Endothelial Function by Little Cigar Secondhand Smoke.</a> Tob Regul Sci. 2, 56-63 (2016).</li><li>Schuler, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+endothelium-dependent+vasodilation+in+mice--brief+report.">Measurement of endothelium-dependent vasodilation in mice--brief report.</a> Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 34, 2651-2657 (2014).</li><li>Erkens, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Left+ventricular+diastolic+dysfunction+in+Nrf2+knock+out+mice+is+associated+with+cardiac+hypertrophy,+decreased+expression+of+SERCA2a,+and+preserved+endothelial+function.">Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in Nrf2 knock out mice is associated with cardiac hypertrophy, decreased expression of SERCA2a, and preserved endothelial function.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 89, 906-917 (2015).</li><li>Harris, S. A., Billmeyer, E. R., Robinson, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+repeated+measurements+of+radon-222+concentrations+in+well+water+sampled+from+bedrock+aquifers+of+the+Piedmont+near+Richmond,+Virginia,+USA:+:+effects+of+lithology+and+well+characteristics.">Evaluation of repeated measurements of radon-222 concentrations in well water sampled from bedrock aquifers of the Piedmont near Richmond, Virginia, USA: : effects of lithology and well characteristics.</a> Environmental research. 101, 323-333 (2006).</li></ol>

본 연구에서는 FMD의 비 침습 측정은 상완과 쥐의 표면 대퇴 동맥에서 입증되었다. 5 분 폐색 기간 다음 인간 (6)와 마찬가지로, 혈액의 속도 (즉, 반응성 충혈)하여 동맥의 연속적인 혈관 확장의 결과 동맥 벽 전단 속도의 증가가 급격히 증가 하였다. FMD는 상완 피상적 대퇴 동맥 모두에서 관찰되었다. 또한, 동맥 사이의 FMD에 강한 관계가 있었다. 최대 전단 속도는 표면 대퇴 동맥에 이상 이?...

혈관 내피 세포는 선 동맥의 내강을 휴대 단층과 혈관 기능의 중요한 레귤레이터이다. 혈관 직경의 조절 될 내피로부터 방출 수많은 분자가있다. 이러한 분자 중 질소 산화물 (NO), 자극에 반응하여 혈관 내피 세포로부터 방출 주 혈관 확장 분자 것으로 보인다 (예를 들어, 전단 응력 인슐린, 아세틸 또는 변경) 1. 혈관 내피 세포에서 NO는 NO 합성 효소 (eNOS의)를 내피없는 효소에 의해 생성되며, 이후 내피 세포 (2)로부터 방출된다. NO는 휴식과 증가 된 혈관 직경 3의 원인이되는 혈관 평활근에 확산하지 않습니다. 내피 기능 장애는 유동 매개 팽창 (FMD) 기술을 사용하여 인간 4,5- 비 침습적으로 평가할 수있다. FMD가 기능적 생물학적 검정 나타내는 것이 제안되었다 내피 - 유래인간 NO 생체 이용률이, 그리고 일반적으로 ~ 5 분 사지의 폐색 (6) 다음 반응 충혈에 대한 응답으로 상완 또는 표면 대퇴 동맥에서 평가되지 않습니다. 반응성 충혈는 NO (8)의 방출 신호, 내피 세포 (7)에 형질 도입하는 층류 전단력을 증가시킨다. 최근, NO 릴리스 개시 혈관 확장의 비율이 9,10 논의되었지만, FMD는 내피 의존성 팽창 나타내는 일관 심혈관 11-13을 예측하는 것으로 나타났다. 지금까지의 연구 수천 인간의 내피 기능의 비 침습 측정을위한 FMD 기술을 사용하고있다. 중개 연구에 초점 최근의 변화를 고려, 설치류에서 FMD의 비 침습적 측정을위한 가이드 라인은 매우 도움이 될 것입니다. 병진 접근 방식을 유지,이 프로토콜은 상완과 공중으로의 FMD의 측정을 위해 설립되었다해당 사이트로 쥐의 rficial 대퇴 동맥은 가장 일반적으로 인간에서 측정된다. 래트에서 강력하고 반복 FMD 응답에서이 프로토콜 결과 그러나, 쥐에서 FMD 측정 기술적으로 요구하고 다른 연구자들은 비디오 데모없이 복제하기 어려울 수있다. 따라서, 다음 문서는 상완과 쥐의 대퇴 동맥 표면 FMD의 비 침습성 측정을위한 방법을 설명 할 것이다.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="710">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="58">
			<td height="58" style="height:58px;width:203px;">Vevo 2100 High Resolution Micro-Ultrasound Imaging System</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">VisualSonics, Toronto, ON, CAN</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="77">
			<td height="77" style="height:77px;width:203px;">MicroScan Ultra-High Frequency Linear Array Transducer - MS-700 30-70 MHz</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">VisualSonics, Toronto, ON, CAN</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Vevo Imaging Station</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">VisualSonics, Toronto, ON, CAN</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Thermasonic gel warmer</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Parker Laboratories, Fairfield, NJ, USA</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">82-03</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Optional</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Signacreme electrode cream</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Parker Laboratories, Fairfield, NJ, USA</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">17-05</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Transpore surgical tape</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">3M, Maplewood, MN, USA</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">1527-1</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:203px;">Depilatory cream (e.g., Nair)</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:203px;">Cotton swabs</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:203px;">Ultrasound gel</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Standard vascular occluder, 10 mm lumen diameter</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA, USA</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">62-0115</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">10 ml syringe with Luer-Lok tip</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General Supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Used for occlusion cuff apparatus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Paperclip</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General Supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Used for occlusion cuff apparatus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Hypodermic needle &#8211; 18 gauge&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General Supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Used for occlusion cuff apparatus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:203px;">Medium binder clip</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">General Supply</td>
			<td style="width:169px;"></td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Used for occlusion cuff apparatus</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

ultrasound assessment of flow-mediated dilation of the brachial and superficial femoral arteries in rats

Arterial vasodilation to increases in wall shear rate is indicative of vascular endothelial function. In humans, the non-invasive measurement of endothelial function can be achieved by employing the flow-mediated dilation technique, typically performed in the brachial or superficial femoral artery. Briefly, a blood pressure cuff placed distal to an ultrasound probe is inflated to a suprasystolic pressure, which results in limb ischemia. After 5 min of occlusion the cuff is deflated, resulting in reactive hyperemia and increases in wall shear rate that signal vasodilatory molecules to be released from the endothelium eliciting vasodilation. Despite the thousands of studies performing flow-mediated dilation in humans, surprisingly, no studies have performed this technique non-invasively in living rats. Considering the recent shift in focus to translational research, the establishment of guidelines for non-invasive measurement of flow-mediated dilation in rats and other rodents would be extremely valuable. In the following article, a protocol is presented for the non-invasive measurement of flow-mediated dilation in brachial and superficial femoral arteries of rats, as those sites are most commonly measured in humans.

흐름 매개 팽창 8의 Wistar 래트의 상완 피상적 대퇴 동맥에서 수행 하였다. 래트의 위치는도 1에 도시된다. 피상적 인 대퇴 동맥의 대표 초음파 영상은 그림 2에 표시됩니다. <img alt="그림 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54762/54762fig1.jpg" /> 도 1 쥐 ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ultrasound Assessment of Flow-Mediated Dilation of the Brachial and Superficial Femoral Arteries in Rats at JoVE.com

Ultrasound Assessment of Flow-Mediated Dilation of the Brachial and Superficial Femoral Arteries in Rats

인간 내피 기능의 비 침습적 평가는 유동 매개 팽창 기술에 의해 결정될 수있다. 연구 수천이 기술을 사용하고 있지만, 어떤 연구는 쥐에서 비 침습적이 기술을 수행하지 않았다. 다음 문서에서는 상완의 흐름 중재 팽창과 쥐의 표면 대퇴 동맥의 비 침습적 측정을 설명합니다.

흐름 매개 상완의 팽창과 쥐의 피상적 인 대퇴 동맥의 초음파 평가

Arterial vasodilation to increases in wall shear rate is indicative of vascular endothelial function. In humans, the non-invasive measurement of ...

ultrasound-assessment-flow-mediated-dilation-brachial-superficial

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

11.5K 조회수.  University of Utah.  인간 내피 기능의 비 침습적 평가는 유동 매개 팽창 기술에 의해 결정될 수있다. 연구 수천이 기술을 사용하고 있지만, 어떤 연구는 쥐에서 비 침습적이 기술을 수행하지 않았다. 다음 문서에서는 상완의 흐름 중재 팽창과 쥐의 표면 대퇴 동맥의 비 침습적 측정을 설명합니다. 

비디오: Ultrasound Assessment of Flow-Mediated Dilation of the Brachial and Superficial Femoral Arteries in Rats

A Novel Application of Musculoskeletal Ultrasound Imaging

Ultrasound is an attractive modality for imaging muscle and tendon motion during dynamic tasks and can provide a complementary methodological approach for biomechanical studies in a clinical or laboratory setting. Towards this goal, methods for quantification of muscle kinematics from ultrasound imagery are being developed based on image processing. The temporal resolution of these methods is typically not sufficient for highly dynamic tasks, such as drop-landing. We propose a new approach that utilizes a Doppler method for quantifying muscle kinematics. We have developed a novel vector tissue Doppler imaging (vTDI) technique that can be used to measure musculoskeletal contraction velocity, strain and strain rate with sub-millisecond temporal resolution during dynamic activities using ultrasound. The goal of this preliminary study was to investigate the repeatability and potential applicability of the vTDI technique in measuring musculoskeletal velocities during a drop-landing task, in healthy subjects. The vTDI measurements can be performed concurrently with other biomechanical techniques, such as 3D motion capture for joint kinematics and kinetics, electromyography for timing of muscle activation and force plates for ground reaction force. Integration of these complementary techniques could lead to a better understanding of dynamic muscle function and dysfunction underlying the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of musculoskeletal disorders.

We describe a new ultrasound-based vector tissue Doppler imaging technique to measure muscle contraction velocity, strain and strain rate with sub-millisecond temporal resolution during dynamic activities. This approach provides complementary measurements of dynamic muscle function and could lead to a better understanding of mechanisms underlying musculoskeletal disorders.

근골격계 초음파 이미징의 소설 응용 프로그램

Ultrasound is an attractive modality for imaging muscle and tendon  motion during dynamic tasks and can provide a complementary methodological  approach ...

연구

의학

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial-Dependent Flow-Mediated Vasodilation of the Brachial Artery in Clinical Research

The vascular endothelium is a monolayer of cells that cover the interior of blood vessels and provide both structural and functional roles. The endothelium acts as a barrier, preventing leukocyte adhesion and aggregation, as well as controlling permeability to plasma components. Functionally, the endothelium affects vessel tone.
Endothelial dysfunction is an imbalance between the chemical species which regulate vessel tone, thombroresistance, cellular proliferation and mitosis. It is the first step in atherosclerosis and is associated with coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, heart failure, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia.
The first demonstration of endothelial dysfunction involved direct infusion of acetylcholine and quantitative coronary angiography. Acetylcholine binds to muscarinic receptors on the endothelial cell surface, leading to an increase of intracellular calcium and increased nitric oxide (NO) production. In subjects with an intact endothelium, vasodilation was observed while subjects with endothelial damage experienced paradoxical vasoconstriction.
There exists a non-invasive, in vivo method for measuring endothelial function in peripheral arteries using high-resolution B-mode ultrasound. The endothelial function of peripheral arteries is closely related to coronary artery function. This technique measures the percent diameter change in the brachial artery during a period of reactive hyperemia following limb ischemia.
This technique, known as endothelium-dependent, flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) has value in clinical research settings. However, a number of physiological and technical issues can affect the accuracy of the results and appropriate guidelines for the technique have been published. Despite the guidelines, FMD remains heavily operator dependent and presents a steep learning curve. This article presents a standardized method for measuring FMD in the brachial artery on the upper arm and offers suggestions to reduce intra-operator variability.

Endothelial dysfunction is associated with numerous disease states and is predictive of adverse cardiovascular events in humans. Flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) is a non-invasive ultrasound method of evaluating endothelial function. Methodological choices and operator experience may affect results. A systematic approach to FMD in human studies is discussed here.

임상 연구에서 상완 동맥의 초음파 평가 내피 의존 흐름 매개 혈관 확장

The vascular endothelium is a monolayer of cells that cover the interior of blood vessels and provide both structural and functional roles. The ...

Ultrasound Based Assessment of Coronary Artery Flow and Coronary Flow Reserve Using the Pressure Overload Model in Mice

Transthoracic Doppler echocardiography (TTDE) is a clinically useful, noninvasive tool for studying coronary artery flow velocity and coronary flow reserve (CFR) in humans. Reduced CFR is accompanied by marked intramyocardial and pericoronary fibrosis and is used as an indication of the severity of dysfunction. This study explores, step-by-step, the real-time changes measured in the coronary flow velocity, CFR and systolic to diastolic peak velocity (S/D) ratio in the setting of an aortic banding model in mice. By using a Doppler transthoracic imaging technique that yields reproducible and reliable data, the method assesses changes in flow in the septal coronary artery (SCA), for a period of over two weeks in mice, that previously either underwent aortic banding or thoracotomy. 
During imaging, hyperemia in all mice was induced by isoflurane, an anesthetic that increased coronary flow velocity when compared with resting flow. All images were acquired by a single imager. Two ratios, (1) CFR, the ratio between hyperemic and baseline flow velocities, and (2) systolic (S) to diastolic (D) flow were determined, using a proprietary software and by two independent observers. Importantly, the observed changes in coronary flow preceded LV dysfunction as evidenced by normal LV mass and fractional shortening (FS). 
The method was benchmarked against the current gold standard of coronary assessment, histopathology. The latter technique showed clear pathologic changes in the coronary artery in the form of peri-coronary fibrosis that correlated to the flow changes as assessed by echocardiography. 
The study underscores the value of using a non-invasive technique to monitor coronary circulation in mouse hearts. The method minimizes redundant use of research animals and demonstrates that advanced ultrasound-based indices, such as CFR and S/D ratios, can serve as viable diagnostic tools in a variety of investigational protocols including drug studies and the study of genetically modified strains.

Coronary flow reserve (CFR) is useful for assessment of myocardial oxygen demand and evaluation of cardiovascular risk. This study establishes a step-by-step transthoracic Doppler echocardiographic (TTDE) method for longitudinal monitoring of the changes in CFR, as measured from coronary artery in mice, under the experimental pressure overload of aortic banding.

마우스의 압력 과부하 모델을 사용하여 관상 동맥 흐름 및 관상 동맥 흐름 준비 제도 이사회의 초음파를 바탕으로 평가

Transthoracic Doppler echocardiography (TTDE) is a clinically useful, noninvasive tool for studying coronary artery flow velocity and coronary flow ...

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of mortality and a major cause of disability worldwide. The dysfunction of the vascular endothelium is a pathological condition characterized mainly by a disruption in the balance between vasodilator and vasoconstrictor substances and is proposed to play an important role in the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Therefore, a precise evaluation of endothelial function in humans represents an important tool that could help better understand the etiology of multiple cardio-centric pathologies.
Over the past twenty-five years, many methodological approaches have been developed to provide an assessment of endothelial function in humans. Introduced in 1989, the FMD test incorporates a forearm occlusion and subsequent reactive hyperemia that promotes nitric oxide production and vasodilation of the brachial artery. The FMD test is now the most widely utilized, non-invasive, ultrasonic assessment of endothelial function in humans and has been associated with future cardiovascular events.
Although the FMD test could have clinical utility, it is a physiological assessment that has inherited several confounding factors that need to be considered. This article describes a standardized protocol for determining FMD including the recommended methodology to help minimize the physiological and technical issues and improve the precision and reproducibility of the assessment.

The flow mediated dilation (FMD) test is the most commonly utilized, non-invasive, ultrasound assessment of endothelial function in humans. Although the FMD test has been related with the prediction of future cardiovascular disease and events, it is a physiological assessment with many inherent confounding factors that need to be considered.

내피 기능의 초음파 평가 : 흐름 중재 팽창 시험의 기술 가이드 라인

Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of mortality and a major cause of disability worldwide. The dysfunction of the vascular endothelium is a ...

Evaluation of Vascular Control Mechanisms Utilizing Video Microscopy of Isolated Resistance Arteries of Rats

This protocol describes the use of in vitro television microscopy to evaluate vascular function in isolated cerebral resistance arteries (and other vessels), and describes techniques for evaluating tissue perfusion using Laser Doppler Flowmetry (LDF) and microvessel density utilizing fluorescently labeled Griffonia simplicifolia (GS1) lectin. Current methods for studying isolated resistance arteries at transmural pressures encountered in vivo and in the absence of parenchymal cell influences provide a critical link between in vivo studies and information gained from molecular reductionist approaches that provide limited insight into integrative responses at the whole animal level. LDF and techniques to selectively identify arterioles and capillaries with fluorescently-labeled GS1 lectin provide practical solutions to enable investigators to extend the knowledge gained from studies of isolated resistance arteries. This paper describes the application of these techniques to gain fundamental knowledge of vascular physiology and pathology in the rat as a general experimental model, and in a variety of specialized genetically engineered &#34;designer&#34; rat strains that can provide important insight into the influence of specific genes on important vascular phenotypes. Utilizing these valuable experimental approaches in rat strains developed by selective breeding strategies and new technologies for producing gene knockout models in the rat, will expand the rigor of scientific premises developed in knockout mouse models and extend that knowledge to a more relevant animal model, with a well understood physiological background and suitability for physiological studies because of its larger size.

This manuscript describes in vitro video microscopy protocols for evaluating vascular function in rat cerebral resistance arteries. The manuscript also describes techniques for evaluating microvessel density with fluorescently labeled lectin and tissue perfusion using Laser Doppler Flowmetry.

쥐의 고립 된 저항 동맥의 비디오 현미경을 이용 하 여 혈관 제어 메커니즘의 평가

This protocol describes the use of in vitro television microscopy to evaluate vascular function in isolated cerebral resistance arteries (and other ...

A Pleural Effusion Model in Rats by Intratracheal Instillation of Polyacrylate/Nanosilica

Pleural effusion is a prevalent clinical finding of many pulmonary diseases. Having a useful animal pleural effusion model is very important to study these pulmonary diseases. Previous pleural effusion models paid more attention to biological factors rather than nanoparticles in the environment. Here, we introduce a model to make pleural effusion in rats by intratracheal instillation of polyacrylate/nanosilica, and a method of nanoparticle isolation in the pleural effusion. By intratracheal instillation of polyacrylate/nanosilica with concentrations of 3.125, 6.25 and 12.5 mg/kg&#8729;mL, the pleural effusion in rats presented on day 3, peaked at days 7-10 in 6.25 and 12.5 mg/kg&#8729;mL groups, then slowly decreased and disappeared on day 14. When the concentration of polyacrylate/nanosilica increased, the pleural effusion is produced more and faster. This pleural fluid was detected by ultrasound examination or CT chest scanning and confirmed by dissection of rats. Silica nanoparticles were observed in the rats' pleural effusion by transmission electron microscope. These results showed that the exposure to polyacrylate/nanosilica leads to the induction of pleural effusion, which was consistent with our previous report in humans. Additionally, this model is beneficial for the further study of nanotoxicology and the pleural effusion diseases.

Here, we present a protocol to construct a pleural effusion model in rats by intratracheal instillation of polyacrylate/nanosilica.

Polyacrylate/Nanosilica의 Intratracheal 주입에 의해 쥐에서 흉 막 유출 모델

Pleural effusion is a prevalent clinical finding of many pulmonary diseases. Having a useful animal pleural effusion model is very important to study ...

Assessment and Characterization of Hyaloid Vessels in Mice

In the eye, the embryonic hyaloid vessels nourish the developing lens and retina and regress when the retinal vessels develop. Persistent or failed regression of hyaloid vessels can be seen in diseases such as persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV), leading to an obstructed light path and impaired visual function. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the hyaloid vessel regression may lead to new molecular insights into the vascular regression process and potential new ways to manage diseases with persistent hyaloid vessels. Here we describe the procedures for imaging hyaloid in live mice with optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA) and a detailed technical protocol of isolating and flat-mounting hyaloid ex vivo for quantitative analysis. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) knockout mice were used as an experimental model of persistent hyaloid vessels, to illustrate the techniques. Together, these techniques may facilitate a thorough assessment of hyaloid vessels as an experimental model of vascular regression and studies on the mechanism of persistent hyaloid vessels.

This protocol describes both in vivo and ex vivo methods to fully visualize and characterize hyaloid vessels, a model of vascular regression in mouse eyes, using optical coherence tomography and fundus fluorescein angiography for the live imaging and ex vivo isolation and subsequent flat mount of hyaloid for quantitative analysis.

쥐에서 히알로이드 혈관의 평가 및 특성화

In the eye, the embryonic hyaloid vessels nourish the developing lens and retina and regress when the retinal vessels develop. Persistent or failed ...

Brachial Artery Catheterization in Swine

The video describes in detail the catheterization of the distal brachial artery in swine. This technique enables researchers to measure arterial blood pressure continuously and collect arterial blood samples to assess arterial blood gas measurements. Arterial blood pressures and arterial blood gases are important physiological parameters to monitor during experimental procedures. In swine, four common methods of arterial catheterization have been described, including catheterization of the carotid, femoral, auricular, and medial saphenous arteries. Each of these techniques have advantages, such as ease of access for the auricular artery, and disadvantages that include deep tissue dissection for carotid artery catheterization. The described alternative method of arterial catheterization in swine, the catheterization of the distal aspect of the brachial artery, is a rapid procedure that requires relatively minimal tissue dissection and provides information that is in line with data collected from other arterial catheterization sites. The procedure uses a medial approach along an oblique plane of the lower brachium, positioned between the olecranon and the flexor aspect of the elbow joint, and this approach allows researchers the major advantage of unimpeded freedom for procedures that involve the caudoventral, caudodorsal back, or hind limbs of the pig. Due to the location of the upper forelimb of the catheterized vessel and potential challenges of effective homeostasis following catheter removal from the artery, this technique may be limited to non-recovery procedures.

The video describes in detail the catheterization of the distal brachial artery in swine. This procedure accurately measures arterial blood pressure and is a simple and fast method to collect samples for arterial blood gas measurements.

돼지에서 상 완 동맥 도관 법

The video describes in detail the catheterization of the distal brachial artery in swine. This technique enables researchers to measure arterial blood ...

Echocardiographic Assessment of Cardiac Anatomy and Function in Adult Rats

The use of experimental animal models has become crucial in cardiovascular science. Most studies using rodent models are focused on two-dimensional imaging to study the cardiac anatomy of the left ventricle and M-mode echo to assess its dimensions. However, this could limit a comprehensive study. Herein, we describe a protocol that allows an assessment of the heart chamber size, left ventricular function (systolic and diastolic) and valvular function. A conventional medical ultrasound machine was used in this protocol and different echo views were obtained through left parasternal, apical and suprasternal windows. In the left parasternal window, the long and short axis were acquired to analyze left chamber dimensions, right ventricle and pulmonary artery dimensions, and mitral, pulmonary and aortic valve function. The apical window allows the measurement of heart chamber dimensions and evaluation of systolic and diastolic parameters. It also allows Doppler assessment with detection and quantification of heart valve disturbances (regurgitation or stenosis). Different segments and walls of the left ventricle are visualized throughout all views. Finally, the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta can be imaged through the suprasternal window. A combination of ultrasound imaging, Doppler flow and tissue Doppler assessment have been obtained to study cardiac morphology and function. This represents an important contribution to improve the assessment of cardiac function in adult rats with impact for research using these animal models.

A non-invasive protocol for transthoracic echocardiography assessment of cardiac anatomy and function for adult rats is presented in the current study. The heart valves, all four cardiac chambers and the ascending aorta, aortic arch and descending aorta are studied in detail.

성인 쥐에서 심장 해부학 및 기능의 심초음파 평가

The use of experimental animal models has become crucial in cardiovascular science. Most studies using rodent models are focused on two-dimensional ...

Semi-Minimal Invasive Method to Induce Myocardial Infarction in Rats and the Assessment of Cardiac Function by an Isolated Working Heart System

Myocardial infarction (MI) remains the main contributor to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, research on this topic is mandatory. An easily and highly reproducible MI induction procedure is required to obtain further insight and better understanding of the underlying pathological changes. This procedure can also be used to evaluate the effects or potency of new and promising treatments (as drugs or interventions) in acute MI, subsequent remodeling and heart failure (HF). After intubation and pre-operative preparation of the animal, an anesthetic protocol with isoflurane was performed, and the surgical procedure was conducted&#160;quickly. Using a minimally invasive approach, the left anterior descending artery (LAD) was located and occluded by a ligature. The occlusion can be performed acutely for subsequent reperfusion (ischemia/reperfusion injury). Alternatively, the vessel can be ligated permanently to investigate the development of chronic MI, remodeling or HF. Despite common pitfalls, the drop-out rates are minimal. Various treatments such as remote ischemic conditioning can be examined for their cardioprotective potential pre-, peri- and post-operatively. The post-operative recovery was quick as the anesthesia was precisely controlled and the duration of the operation was short. Post-operative analgesia was administered for three days. The minimally invasive procedure reduces the risk of infection and inflammation. Furthermore, it facilitates rapid recovery. The &#8220;working heart&#8221; measurements were performed ex vivo and enabled precise control of preload, afterload and flow. This procedure requires specific equipment and training for adequate performance. This manuscript provides a detailed step-by-step introduction for conducting these measurements.

This article presents an efficient method to perform myocardial ischemia and subsequent chronic reperfusion in rats using a minimally invasive approach. In addition, left ventricular hemodynamic function of rats is assessed by echocardiography and isolated working heart methods.&#160;

쥐의 심근 경색과 격리 된 작업 심장 시스템에 의한 심장 기능 평가를 유도하는 반 최소 침습 적 방법

Myocardial infarction (MI) remains the main contributor to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, research on this topic is mandatory. An easily ...