Funding for the work described here came from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation and the California Department of Water Resources.

1. Urban Bioswale Efficacy Monitoring
<ol>
	<li>Storm Water Sampling
	<ol>
		<li>Sample 4 L of pre-treatment stormwater leaving the parking lot as it enters the bioswale inlet, and then 4 L of post-treatment stormwater as it leaves the bioswale through the 4&#34; outlet drain.</li>
		<li>Using local weather predictions, collect samples at the beginning, middle, and end of the storm&#39;s hydrograph. Composite the samples to characterize runoff variability during the storm event.</li>
		<li>Collect 1.3 ...

<ol>
	<li>Anderson, B. S., Hunt, J. W., Markewicz, D., Larsen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Toxicity in California Waters, Surface Water Ambient Monitoring Program. , (2011).</li><li>Anderson, B. S., Phillips, B. M., Voorhees, J. P., Siegler, K., Tjeerdema, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioswales+reduce+contaminants+associated+with+toxicity+in+urban+stormwater.">Bioswales reduce contaminants associated with toxicity in urban stormwater.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. 35 (12), 3124-3134 (2016).</li><li>Anderson, B. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pesticide+and+toxicity+reduction+using+an+integrated+vegetated+treatment+system.">Pesticide and toxicity reduction using an integrated vegetated treatment system.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. (30), 1036-1043 (2011).</li><li>Phillips, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Mitigation Strategies for Reducing Aquatic Toxicity from Chlorpyrifos in Cole Crop Irrigation Runoff. , (2014).</li><li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Method 1640: Determination of Trace Elements in Ambient Waters by On-Line Chelation Pre-concentration and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry. , (1995).</li><li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Methods for organic chemical analysis of municipal and industrial wastetwater, Method 625- Base/neutrals and acids. , (1984).</li><li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> , (1993).</li><li>Johnson, H. M., Domagalski, J. L., Saleh, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trends+in+Pesticide+Concentrations+in+Streams+of+the+Western+United+States.">Trends in Pesticide Concentrations in Streams of the Western United States.</a> J Am Water Resour Assoc. 47 (2), 265-286 (1993).</li><li>Siegler, K., Phillips, B. M., Anderson, B. S., Voorhees, J. P., Tjeerdema, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+and+spatial+trends+in+sediment+contaminants+associated+with+toxicity+in+California+watersheds.">Temporal and spatial trends in sediment contaminants associated with toxicity in California watersheds.</a> Environ Poll. , 1-6 (2015).</li><li>U.S. EPA. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Methods for measuring acute toxicity of effluents and receiving water to freshwater and marine organisms. , (2002).</li><li>Bailey, H. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Joint+acute+toxicity+of+diazinon+and+chlorpyrifos+to+Ceriodaphnia+dubia.">Joint acute toxicity of diazinon and chlorpyrifos to Ceriodaphnia dubia.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. 16, 2304-2308 (1997).</li><li>Supowit, S., Sadaria, A. M., Reyes, E. J., Halden, R. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mass+balance+of+fipronil+and+total+toxicity+of+fipronil-related+compounds+in+process+streams+during+conventional+wastewater+and+wetland+treatment.">Mass balance of fipronil and total toxicity of fipronil-related compounds in process streams during conventional wastewater and wetland treatment.</a> Environ Sci Technol. 50 (3), 1519-1526 (2016).</li><li>Stang, C., Bakanov, N., Schulz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experiments+in+water-macrophyte+systems+to+uncover+the+dynamics+of+pesticide+mitigation+processes+in+vegetated+surface+waters/streams.">Experiments in water-macrophyte systems to uncover the dynamics of pesticide mitigation processes in vegetated surface waters/streams.</a> Environ Sci Pollut Res. , (2015).</li><li>Schulz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Field+studies+on+exposure,+effects,+and+risk+mitigation+of+aquatic+nonpoint-source+insecticide+pollution:+A+review.">Field studies on exposure, effects, and risk mitigation of aquatic nonpoint-source insecticide pollution: A review.</a> J Environ Qual. 33 (2), 419-448 (2004).</li><li>Moore, M. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transport+and+fate+of+atrazine+and+lambda-cyhalothrin+in+a+vegetated+drainage+ditch+in+the+Mississippi+Delta.">Transport and fate of atrazine and lambda-cyhalothrin in a vegetated drainage ditch in the Mississippi Delta.</a> Agric Ecosyst Environ. 87, 309-314 (2001).</li><li>Phillips, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effects+of+the+Landguard+A900+Enzyme+on+the+Macroinvertebrate+Community+in+the+Salinas+River,+California,+United+States+of+America.">The Effects of the Landguard A900 Enzyme on the Macroinvertebrate Community in the Salinas River, California, United States of America.</a> Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 70 (2), 231-240 (2016).</li><li>Han, W., Fang, J., Liu, X., Tang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Techno-economic+feasibility+evaluation+of+a+combined+bioprocess+for+fermentative+hydrogen+production+from+food+waste.">Techno-economic feasibility evaluation of a combined bioprocess for fermentative hydrogen production from food waste.</a> Bioresource Technology. , 107-112 (2016).</li><li>Solomon, K. R., Giddings, J. M., Maund, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probabilistic+risk+assessment+of+cotton+pyrethroids:+I.+Distributional+analysis+of+laboratory+aquatic+toxicity+data.">Probabilistic risk assessment of cotton pyrethroids: I. Distributional analysis of laboratory aquatic toxicity data.</a> Environ Toxicol Chem. 20, 652-659 (2001).</li><li>Weston, D. P., Lydy, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toxicity+of+the+Insecticide+Fipronil+and+Its+Degradates+to+Benthic+Macroinvertebrates+of+Urban+Streams.">Toxicity of the Insecticide Fipronil and Its Degradates to Benthic Macroinvertebrates of Urban Streams.</a> Environ Sci Tech. , (2014).</li><li>Voorhees, J. P., Anderson, B. S., Phillips, B. M., Tjeerdema, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carbon+treatment+as+a+method+to+remove+imidacloprid+from+agriculture+runoff.">Carbon treatment as a method to remove imidacloprid from agriculture runoff.</a> Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. , (2017).</li></ol>

The practices described in this protocol are intended as final steps in an overall strategy to remove pollutants in agriculture irrigation and stormwater runoff. Use of bioswales and other urban green-infrastructure LID practices are intended as a final piece of the puzzle to remove contaminants in runoff before they reach adjacent receiving waters. This protocol emphasizes methods to monitor urban bioswales to determine treatment efficacy for removing toxicity associated with urban contaminants, with emphasis on current...

Surface water toxicity is prevalent in California watersheds and decades of monitoring have shown that toxicity is often due to pesticides and other contaminants1. The primary sources of surface water contamination are stormwater and irrigation runoff from urban and agriculture sources. As waterbodies are listed as degraded due to contaminants and the toxicity is identified from urban and agricultural sources, water quality regulators partner with state and federal funding sources to implement practices to reduce contaminant loading. Green infrastructure is being promoted in California urban watersheds to reduce flooding and increase the recovery of stormwater through infiltration and storage. While Low Impact Development (LID) designs are being mandated for new construction in many regions, few studies have monitored the efficacy of these systems beyond measurements of conventional contaminants like dissolved solids, metals, and hydrocarbons. More intensive monitoring has recently evaluated reductions in chemical concentrations and chemical loading responsible for surface water toxicity, and to directly determine whether bioswales reduce toxicity of runoff. This has shown that bioswales are effective at removing toxicity associated with some contaminant classes2, but additional research is required for emerging chemicals of concern.
Vegetated treatment systems are also being implemented in agriculture watersheds in California, and these have been shown to be effective at reducing pesticides and other contaminants in agriculture irrigation runoff3,4. These systems represent components of a suite of approaches to reduce contaminant loading to surface waters. Because they are intended to mitigate contaminants responsible for surface water toxicity, a key component of the implementation process is monitoring to ensure their long-term effectiveness. Monitoring includes both chemical analyses of chemicals of concern, as well as toxicity testing with sensitive indicator species. This article describes protocols and monitoring results for an urban parking lot bioswale and an agricultural vegetated drainage ditch system.
The design attributes of a typical parking lot bioswale, such as may be used to treat storm runoff in a typical mixed-use urban shopping parking area depend on the area being treated. In the example described here, 53,286 square feet of asphalt create an impervious surface area that drains to a swale, which consists of 4,683 square feet of landscaping. To accommodate runoff from this surface area, a 215 feet long flat-bottom, semi-V shape channel comprises the swale with a side slope less than 50% and a longitudinal slope of 1% (Figure 1). This swale comprises three layers including native bunch grass planted in 6 inches of topsoil, layered over 2.5 feet of compacted subgrade. Stormwater flows from parking areas to multiple entry points along the swale. The water infiltrates the vegetated area, then permeates the subgrade and drains into a 4-inch perforated drain. This system drains water through a system plumbed to an adjacent wetland that eventually drains into a local creek.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="679">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">HOBO tipping-bucket digital logger rain gauge&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Onset Computer Co., Bourne MA, USA)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Onset RG3</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Rain gauge</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mechanical geared pulse flow meter&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Seametrics Inc., Kent WA</td>
			<td>Seametrics MJ-R</td>
			<td>Flow meter for measuring bioswale outlet flow</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Filtrexx SafteySoxx</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Filtrexx Co. - info@filtrexx.com</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SafetySoxx</td>
			<td>perforated synthetic cloth for granulated activated carbon and compost</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Granulated activated carbon&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Evoqua - Siemens Corp., Oakland CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AC380</td>
			<td>GAC for agriculture irrigation water treatment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Digital flow meters&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Seametrics Inc. Kent WA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Ag2000; WMP101</td>
			<td>Flow meters for agriculture irrigation treatment system monitoring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Data Loggers</td>
			<td>Campbell Scientific Inc., Logan, UT</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CR1000</td>
			<td>Data loggers for recording flow data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Peristaltic pumps for composite sampling</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Omega Engineering Inc. Stamford CT</td>
			<td>Omegaflex FPU-122-12VDC&#160;</td>
			<td>Pumps for composite sampling</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

vegetated treatment systems for removing contaminants associated with surface water toxicity in agriculture and urban runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

Urban Bioswale Efficacy
During the 18.5 h of the storm, 1.52&#34; of rain was recorded by the rain gauge, and this resulted in 50,490 gallons of water flowing from the parking lots into the bioswale. Of this total volume, 5,248 gallons were recorded by the outlet flow meter, resulting in a total infiltration of 90% of the stormwater that flowed into the bioswale. The bioswale reduced all of the chemicals monitored. Total suspended ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff at JoVE.com

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

The overall goal of these procedures is to combine chemical analysis with freshwater invertebrate toxicity tests to evaluate how well vegetated treatment systems remove current-use pesticides from urban storm water, and agriculture irrigation runoff. This approach is intended to answer whether standard remediation practices are effective at protecting surface water quality from contaminants. And to determine the appropriate monitoring components for evaluating effectiveness of management practices.The main advantage of these procedures is that they couple toxicity test protocols with chemical monitoring of in-field remediation techniques, designed to reduce loading of pesticides in surface waters. Bryn Phillips and Michael Cahn will demonstrate components of an integrated vegetated treatment system, designed to remove pesticides and other contaminants from agricultural runoff. Jennifer Voorhees will demonstrate three toxicity test protocols, used to monitor the treatment system.The vegetated drainage ditch, used in the current example, is 152 meters long, and has a semi V-shaped cross-section width of five meters at the top, and one meter depth. The ditch vegetation is a combination of native grass species, primarily seeded with red fescue. The vegetated ditch is augmented with compost filters and carbon filters.Filters are constructed from tubular mesh sleeves that are two meters long and twenty centimeters in diameter. Fill each carbon sleeve with 30 liters of granulated, activated carbon. And fill each compost sleeve with 15 kilograms each of partially decomposed yard waste from any clean source, such as a local landfill.Install the filters in different sections of the vegetated ditch, as displayed in the text protocol. Anchor the sleeves to the ditch bottom with wire stakes on the upstream edge. Then, place a 2.5 meter long, six inch wide, section of pine board on the downstream edge of each of the sleeves.Dig the pine boards into the two sides, and bottom of the channel, to minimize water bypassing and undercutting the carbon sleeves. The boards will also provide vertical support to maximize the water contact time with the carbon. The efficacy of the integrated ditch system can be tested by creating simulated agricultural runoff, using groundwater mixed with suspended sediment and spiked with a model pesticide.Since neurotoxic pesticides, such as organophosphates, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids, have recently been linked to surface water toxicity, treatment systems and monitoring programs should emphasize these pesticide classes. Monitor the inlet flow rate with a digital meter, and data logger. Use the data to quantify total volume of the runoff water applied to the ditch inlet.Construct a weir at the outlet of the ditch, and plumb it with an outlet pipe connected to a digital flow meter and data logger. Program the data loggers to activate peristaltic pumps located at the inlet, and at various stations below the inlet of the ditch, to collect composite subsamples of runoff into stainless steel containers at five minute intervals. Transfer composite samples of runoff water from trials into amber glass bottles at the end of each runoff trial.Maintain the samples on ice at four degrees Celsius for later toxicity and chemical analysis, as described in the text protocol. Due to time constraints, we have emphasized an integrated vegetated ditch for treating pesticides and agricultural runoff. The design and monitoring principles applied to this system also apply to urban storm water treatment using bioswales, as discussed in the manuscript.Prepare composited inlet and outlet vegetated ditch water samples for conducting toxicity tests using three test species, following modified US Environmental Protection Agency acute and chronic test protocols. Prior to setting up exposures, measure the dissolved oxygen, PH, and conductivity of a subsample of each sample, using appropriate meters and electrodes. Also, measure unionized ammonia using a spectrophotometer.Next, conduct acute 96 hour survival tests, with the cladoceran Ce.dubia. Expose five Ce.dubia neonates in each of five replicates of inlet and outlet stormwater samples. Replicates consist of 20 milliliter scintillation vials containing 15 milliliters of test solution.Renew the Ce.dubia test daily by feeding neonates a mixture of yeast, Cerophyll, trout chow, and Selenastrum algae two hours prior to renewal. Then, transfer the organisms to a fresh sample. Record the total number of surviving neonates daily.Also, conduct acute 10 day survival tests with the amphipod H.azteca. Expose 10 seven day-to 14 day-old amphipods to each of five replicates. Replicates consist of 300 milliliter glass beakers, containing 100 milliliters of test solution.Count the number of surviving amphipods daily, and renew 50%of the test solution every 48 hours. Feed each beaker every 48 hours with 1.5 milliliters of YCT after the renewal. To conduct chronic 10 day survival and growth tests with the midge C.dilutus, expose 12 seven day-old animals in each of four replicates.Replicates consist of 300 milliliter glass beakers, containing 200 milliliters of test solution, and five milliliters of sand, as the substrate for tube-building by the larvae. Renew 50%of the test solution every 48 hours. Feed each beaker daily with an increasing amount of fish food slurry, from four grams per liter of fish food slurry.After counting the final survival of C.dilutus, measure the growth of the surviving organisms as ash-free dry weight. Compare final Ce.dubia survival after 96 hours of exposure to inlet and outlet vegetated ditch samples to their survival in moderately-hard control water, using a t-test. Use the same procedures to compare final survival of H.azteca, and the final survival and growth of C.Dilutus.Representative results of the vegetated treatment of agriculture irrigation runoff, showed that this system is effective at reducing pesticide and toxicity. The average chlorpyrifos loading was reduced by 98%at a flow rate of 3.2, and by 94%at a flow rate of 6.3 liters per second. Toxicity was eliminated in two of the three trials at the lower flow rate, and one of the three trials at the higher flow rate.Reductions of toxicity and pesticides and other contaminants were also observed in bioswale treatment of storm water. Pyrethroid pesticides were greatly reduced in storm water, and associated toxicity to the amphipod, H.azteca, was also reduced. Conversely, the concentration of fipronil sulfone was not reduced by bioswale treatment, and neither was toxicity to the midge, C.Dilutus.Water quality regulators and researchers use aquatic toxicity testing to evaluate the capacity of surface waters to support aquatic life. Data generated through decades of monitoring in California has shown that most toxicity to invertebrates is caused by pesticides. Environmental regulators in California are implementing policies to reduce loading of pesticides from storm water, and agriculture runoff.These include the promotion of treatment systems, designed to reduce loading of current-use pesticides from these sources. Visual demonstration of the toxicity test protocols should reinforce the concept that monitoring the efficacy of these treatment systems needs to use test species and protocols that are sensitive to current-use pesticides. We have shown that vegetated systems are a cost-effective solution for treating pesticides in agricultural runoff.Addition of granulated, activated carbon to these systems has been shown to remove residual pesticides not removed by vegetation. Monitoring the effectiveness of these systems using targeted chemical analysis, and appropriate toxicity test protocols, will ensure that these practices are protecting aquatic ecosystems.

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10.4K 조회수.  University of California, Davis. The overall goal of these procedures is to combine chemical analysis with freshwater invertebrate toxicity tests to evaluate how well vegetated treatment systems remove current-use pesticides from urban storm water, and agriculture irrigation runoff. This approach is intended to answer whether standard remediation practices are effective at protecting surface water quality from contaminants. And to determine the appropriate monitoring components for evaluating effectiveness of management prac...