This work is supported by NIH R01 GM47607, CA163296 and NSF 1334493 to CET. We thank members of the Turner lab for critical reading of the manuscript. All data shown in this report were reproduced by permission from Wormer et al. 201411.

1. Preparation of Durotaxis Chambers
<ol>
	<li>To prepare one 6-well tissue culture plate, tare the balance with a 50-ml conical tube. Weigh out approximately 10 g of the PDMS base solution in the 50-ml tube (the solution is quite viscous).</li>
	<li>For a 90:1 substrate (Compliance of ~1 kPa), divide the measured weight of the PDMS base solution in the tube by 90 to determine the correct amount of crosslinker solution needed. Add the calculated amount of the PDMS crosslinker solution to the same tube. 
	Example: 10 g / 90 = 0.11 g. Add 0.11 g of the PDMS crosslinker solution to the PDMS base solution. 
	NOTE: The base and crosslinker solutions are both provided in the PDMS kit.</li>
	<li>Vigorously mix the PDMS base/crosslinker mixture for 5 min at RT using a small spatula. At this stage the mixture will contain a large number of air bubbles.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the PDMS substrate in a benchtop centrifuge for 5 min at 50 x g at RT to remove the bubbles. If there are still bubbles after the 5 min, centrifuge again.</li>
	<li>Pipette 1 ml of 90:1 PDMS substrate into each well of the tissue culture treated 6-well plate. Any remaining air bubbles present in the PDMS can be eliminated at this stage by popping them using a 21 G&#160;needle. Allow the PDMS to spread for 30 min in the well.</li>
	<li>Boil 12 mm glass #1 coverslips in distilled water for 5 min. Repeat two times and store the coverslips in distilled water.</li>
	<li>Place one, dried coverslip into each well of the tissue culture plate by gently touching one side of the coverslip into the PDMS solution then drop the coverslip onto the PDMS. As the coverslip settles, the PDMS will begin to encroach over the edges of the coverslip, but will not completely cover it. This will generate an interface between the PDMS and glass after curing (see Figure 1A,B).</li>
	<li>Incubate the plate at 70 &#176;C in an oven for 16 hr to cure (harden) the PDMS. Place the plate in a cell culture hood and UV sterilize for 10 min. 
	NOTE: It is best to make the plates within a couple days of use. However, the plates may be wrapped in Parafilm without any buffer and stored at 4 &#176;C for up to 2 weeks without any noticeable decrease in quality.</li>
</ol>
2. Cell Plating
NOTE: If studying the effect of siRNA-mediated knockdown, perform the knockdown using the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions or the optimized protocol for the cell type of choice.
<ol>
	<li>Coat each durotaxis chamber with 1 ml of 10 &#181;g/ml fibronectin in PBS without calcium and magnesium for 1 hr at 37 &#176;C. Alternatively, the fibronectin may be applied the day prior to analysis by incubating the PDMS with 10 &#181;g/ml fibronectin in PBS for 16 hr at 4 &#176;C. Make sure the entire surface is submerged in the fibronectin in PBS solution.</li>
	<li>Prepare heat-denatured 1% BSA. Weigh 0.5 g BSA and dissolve it in 50 ml of PBS. Filter sterilize the solution through a 0.22 &#181;m filter and heat at 80 &#176;C for 12 min. 
	Note: Prepare this solution the day prior to cell plating and store at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the fibronectin solution and wash 3 times with PBS. Add 1 ml of heat-denatured BSA in PBS to each well and incubate for 30 min at RT.</li>
	<li>Trypsinize and count cells of choice while the durotaxis chambers are blocking with the heat denatured BSA.</li>
	<li>Plate 1 x 105 cells in a volume of 2 ml into each well of the durotaxis chamber, using the media required for the particular cell type of choice. Allow the cells to adhere and spread on the substrate for 4 hr in a humidified incubator at 37 &#176;C with 5% CO2. 
	NOTE: U2OS cells are routinely maintained in DMEM with 10% FBS, supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, and 10 I.U./ml penicillin, 10 &#181;g/ml streptomycin. 
	NOTE: The cell number used in this example is optimized for U2OS cells. Optimization for other cell types may be required. This density gives the cells enough room to migrate without significant interactions with other cells.</li>
</ol>
3. Live-cell Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Perform live cell imaging on an inverted microscope, using phase contrast with a 10X objective. The microscope should be fitted with an enclosed environmental, humidified chamber, allowing control of temperature at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 during long-term imaging.</li>
	<li>After the cells have spread for approximately 3.5 hr, assemble the plate in the microscope chamber. Allow the sample(s) to equilibrate in the chamber for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Set up automated, multi-point visiting on the microscope if available. Focus on the interface between the 90:1 PDMS and the glass coverslip and choose points to image all around the interface with an average of 40 points per durotaxis chamber. Image the cells every 10 min for up to 16 hr. 
	NOTE: The region of interest will appear as two lines, with the outer line corresponding to the edge of the coverslip and the inner line corresponding to the actual interface between the PDMS and the coverslip. See Figure 1B.</li>
</ol>
4. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Generate a spreadsheet as in Table 1.</li>
	<li>Count the number of crossing events from the PDMS to the glass surface and vice versa from each movie generated. Record the number of crossing events in the appropriate column in the excel spreadsheet. 
	NOTE: A crossing event is defined as the cell nucleus passing over the boundary between the PDMS and glass in either direction.</li>
	<li>To quantify multiple crossings, count the number of times the cell crossed the interface. That number should be recorded in the excel column corresponding to the substrate on which the cell was located at the end of the movie. Repeat the analysis for every cell that crosses the interface in the movie. Exclude cells that migrate out of the field of view during imaging. 
	NOTE: It is also important to verify, by cell counting at the beginning of the experiment, that the cells are able to adhere equally to the fibronectin-coated PDMS and glass coverslip surfaces.</li>
	<li>Calculate the percentage of cells that migrated from PDMS to the glass surface (i.e., underwent durotaxis). Add the number of crossing events from soft to hard and the multiple crossing events that ended on hard and divide by the total number of crossing events.</li>
	<li>Calculate the percentage of multiple crossings by dividing the number of multiple crossings by the total number of crossings.</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Engler, A. J., Sen, S., Sweeney, H. L., Discher, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Matrix+elasticity+directs+stem+cell+lineage+specification%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Matrix elasticity directs stem cell lineage specification.</a> Cell. 126 (4), 677-689 (2006).</li>
<li>Paszek, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Tensional+homeostasis+and+the+malignant+phenotype%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cancer+Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Tensional homeostasis and the malignant phenotype.</a> Cancer Cell. 8 (3), 241-254 (2005).</li>
<li>Levental, K. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Matrix+crosslinking+forces+tumor+progression+by+enhancing+integrin+signaling%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Matrix crosslinking forces tumor progression by enhancing integrin signaling.</a> Cell. 139 (5), 891-906 (2009).</li>
<li>Lo, C. M., Wang, H. B., Dembo, M., Wang, Y. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Cell+movement+is+guided+by+the+rigidity+of+the+substrate%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biophysical+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Cell movement is guided by the rigidity of the substrate.</a> Biophysical Journal. 79 (1), 144-152 (2000).</li>
<li>Plotnikov, S. V., Waterman, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Guiding+cell+migration+by+tugging%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Current+Opinion+in+Cell+Biology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Guiding cell migration by tugging.</a> Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 25 (5), 619-626 (2013).</li>
<li>Choquet, D., Felsenfeld, D. P., Sheetz, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Extracellular+matrix+rigidity+causes+strengthening+of+integrin-cytoskeleton+linkages%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Extracellular matrix rigidity causes strengthening of integrin-cytoskeleton linkages.</a> Cell. 88 (1), 39-48 (1997).</li>
<li>Balaban, N. Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Force+and+focal+adhesion+assembly%3A+a+close+relationship+studied+using+elastic+micropatterned+substrates%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature+Cell+Biology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Force and focal adhesion assembly: a close relationship studied using elastic micropatterned substrates.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 3 (5), 466-472 (2001).</li>
<li>Provenzano, P. P., Keely, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mechanical+signaling+through+the+cytoskeleton+regulates+cell+proliferation+by+coordinated+focal+adhesion+and+Rho+GTPase+signaling%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Journal+of+Cell+Science%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mechanical signaling through the cytoskeleton regulates cell proliferation by coordinated focal adhesion and Rho GTPase signaling.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 124 (8), 1195-1205 (2011).</li>
<li>Wang, Y. L., Pelham, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Preparation+of+a+flexible%2C+porous+polyacrylamide+substrate+for+mechanical+studies+of+cultured+cells%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+in+Enzymology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Preparation of a flexible, porous polyacrylamide substrate for mechanical studies of cultured cells.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 298, 489-496 (1998).</li>
<li>Prager-Khoutorsky, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Fibroblast+polarization+is+a+matrix-rigidity-dependent+process+controlled+by+focal+adhesion+mechanosensing%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature+Cell+Biology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Fibroblast polarization is a matrix-rigidity-dependent process controlled by focal adhesion mechanosensing.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 13 (12), 1457-1465 (2011).</li>
<li>Wormer, D. B., Davis, K. A., Henderson, J. H., Turner, C. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+focal+adhesion-localized+CdGAP+regulates+matrix+rigidity+sensing+and+durotaxis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PloS+ONE%22%5BJournal%5D)">The focal adhesion-localized CdGAP regulates matrix rigidity sensing and durotaxis.</a> PloS ONE. 9 (3), e91815(2014).</li>
<li>Trichet, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Evidence+of+a+large-scale+mechanosensing+mechanism+for+cellular+adaptation+to+substrate+stiffness%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences%22%5BJournal%5D)">Evidence of a large-scale mechanosensing mechanism for cellular adaptation to substrate stiffness.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (18), 6933-6938 (2012).</li>
<li>Eyckmans, J., Boudou, T., Yu, X., Chen, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+hitchhiker%E2%80%99s+guide+to+mechanobiology%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Developmental+Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">A hitchhiker’s guide to mechanobiology.</a> Developmental Cell. 21 (1), 35-47 (2011).</li>
<li>Martinac, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mechanosensitive+ion+channels%3A+molecules+of+mechanotransduction%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Journal+of+Cell+Science%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mechanosensitive ion channels: molecules of mechanotransduction.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 117 (12), 2449-2460 (2004).</li>
<li>Jafar-Nejad, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Sec15%2C+a+component+of+the+exocyst%2C+promotes+notch+signaling+during+the+asymmetric+division+of+Drosophila+sensory+organ+precursors%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Developmental+Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Sec15, a component of the exocyst, promotes notch signaling during the asymmetric division of Drosophila sensory organ precursors.</a> Developmental Cell. 9 (3), 351-363 (2005).</li>
</ol>

The authors have no conflicts to disclose.

Herein we describe a simple assay to study durotaxis in migrating cells. A major strength of this assay is the ease of preparing the durotaxis chambers using PDMS. The rigidity of the substrates can be easily manipulated by changing the ratio of PDMS base solution to crosslinker to allow the study of various rigidities in the assay. However, one potential limitation of the system is that cells are only exposed to a single change in substrate rigidity as opposed to experiencing a rigidity gradient that is provided by more...

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is comprised of a complex array of structural and crosslinking proteins including collagen, fibronectin and laminin. Although it is well established that the ECM provides important structural support for cellular tissues, there is increasing evidence to indicate that cells actively respond to physical changes in their ECM environment to regulate diverse cellular processes including cell survival, differentiation and cell migration. For example, differences in the rigidity of the ECM can drive mesenchymal stem cells towards different lineages, with soft substrates (~1 kPa) promoting neurogenic lineages while stiff (~25 kPa) substrates promote osteogenic differentiation1. Similarly, an increase in the stromal matrix rigidity has been shown to promote mammary epithelial cell tumorigenesis and invasion into the surrounding tissue2,3.
A particularly interesting aspect of this mechanosignaling activity results in a process known as durotaxis, in which cells migrate preferentially towards a more rigid substrate4,5. Cells constantly sense the physical characteristics of their extracellular environment through integrin receptor binding to the ECM. This, in turn, promotes the accumulation of numerous structural and signaling proteins to their cytoplasmic domains to drive the formation of adhesive structures known as focal adhesions or focal contacts6,7. Since integrins have no inherent enzymatic activity, signals are relayed from the ECM through these accessory proteins to coordinate the cell&#8217;s response to their changing environment8. Accordingly, the identification and characterization of the key proteins involved in regulating mechanosignaling and durotaxis is an important area of investigation.
Various model systems have been developed to study durotaxis in vitro, but most have utilized collagen-coated polyacrylamide substrates4. However, the preparation of the polyacrylamide substrates can be technically challenging and the collagen used in these assays must be chemically crosslinked to the substrate9. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates have been shown to exhibit comparable mechanical properties to the polyacrylamide substrates10. However, PDMS substrates are prepared by simply mixing a ratio of the base to crosslinker and these substrates can be coated with ECM proteins without the need for chemical crosslinking, thus making PDMS an easier tool to study the effects of rigidity on cell behavior. Herein, we describe how to prepare a simple durotaxis chamber in which a soft PDMS substrate is integrated with a rigid glass coverslip.
The assay, as outlined below, provides a quick and simple method to study durotaxis. For this study we used human U2OS osteosarcoma cells combined with siRNA-mediated knockdown of cdGAP to study the role of this focal adhesion protein in durotaxis11. Importantly, this protocol may be readily adapted to individual requirements. Other cell types may be substituted for the U2OS cells and any protein may be knocked down or overexpressed to determine the effects on cell behavior during durotaxis. Furthermore, this protocol may be adapted to incorporate fluorescently tagged proteins to analyze their dynamics and behavior using FRAP or FRET approaches.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)</td><td>Dow Corning</td><td>3097358-1004</td><td>Sylgard 184 Silicone Elastomer Kit</td></tr><tr><td>#1 Cover glass 12 mm</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-545-82</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6-well plate</td><td>Celltreat</td><td>229106</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMEM</td><td>Cellgro</td><td>15-017-CM</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>L-Glutamine</td><td>Cellgro</td><td>25-005-CI</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Pyruvate</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP356-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin/Streptomycin</td><td>Cellgro</td><td>30-002-CI</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fibronectin</td><td>BD Biosciences</td><td>610077</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>21600-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Falcon tubes</td><td>Celltreat</td><td>229456</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td><td>Atlanta Biologicals</td><td>S11150</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine Serum Albumin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A7906</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>U2OS cells</td><td>ATCC</td><td>HTB-96</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a simplified system for evaluating cell mechanosensing and durotaxis in vitro

The composition and mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix are highly variable between tissue types. This connective tissue stroma diversity greatly impacts cell behavior to regulate normal and pathologic processes including cell proliferation, differentiation, adhesion signaling and directional migration. In this regard, the innate ability of certain cell types to migrate towards a stiffer, or less compliant matrix substrate is referred to as durotaxis. This phenomenon plays an important role during embryonic development, wound repair and cancer cell invasion. Here, we describe a straightforward assay to study durotaxis, in vitro, using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates. Preparation of the described durotaxis chambers creates a rigidity interface between the relatively soft PDMS gel and a rigid glass coverslip. In the example provided, we have used these durotaxis chambers to demonstrate a role for the cdc42/Rac1 GTPase activating protein, cdGAP, in mechanosensing and durotaxis regulation in human U2OS osteosarcoma cells. This assay is readily adaptable to other cell types and/or knockdown of other proteins of interests to explore their respective roles in mechanosignaling and durotaxis.

A schematic of the durotaxis chamber is shown in Figure 1A. Soft PDMS substrate (a 90:1 mixture of PDMS base to crosslinker solutions) is spread in a 6 well dish and a glass coverslip is placed on top of the PDMS, which then partially covers the upper surface of the coverslip, thereby creating an interface between the two substrates of different compliance. The rigidity of the soft PDMS substrate is ~1 kPa, which is comparable to the typical compliance of brain tissue, while the rigidity of glass is arou...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simplified System for Evaluating Cell Mechanosensing and Durotaxis In Vitro at JoVE.com

A Simplified System for Evaluating Cell Mechanosensing and Durotaxis In Vitro

Many mammalian cells preferentially migrate towards a more rigid matrix or substrate through durotaxis. The goal of this protocol is to provide a simple in vitro system that can be used to study and manipulate cell durotaxis behaviors by incorporating polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates of defined rigidity, interfacing with glass coverslips.

A Simplified System for Evaluating Cell Mechanosensing and Durotaxis In Vitro

The composition and mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix are highly variable between tissue types. This connective tissue stroma diversity ...

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8.2K Views.  SUNY Upstate Medical University. Many mammalian cells preferentially migrate towards a more rigid matrix or substrate through durotaxis. The goal of this protocol is to provide a simple in vitro system that can be used to study and manipulate cell durotaxis behaviors by incorporating polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates of defined rigidity, interfacing with glass coverslips.

Video: A Simplified System for Evaluating Cell Mechanosensing and Durotaxis In Vitro

Probing Cell Mechanics with Bead-Free Optical Tweezers in the Drosophila Embryo

Morphogenesis requires coordination between genetic patterning and mechanical forces to robustly shape the cells and tissues. Hence, a challenge to understand morphogenetic processes is to directly measure cellular forces and mechanical properties in vivo during embryogenesis. Here, we present a setup of optical tweezers coupled to a light sheet microscope, which allows to directly apply forces on cell-cell contacts of the early Drosophila embryo, while imaging at a speed of several frames per second. This technique has the advantage that it does not require the injection of beads into the embryo, usually used as intermediate probes on which optical forces are exerted. We detail step by step the implementation of the setup, and propose tools to extract mechanical information from the experiments. By monitoring the displacements of cell-cell contacts in real time, one can perform tension measurements and investigate cell contacts&#39; rheology.

Probing Cell Mechanics with Bead-Free Optical Tweezers in the Drosophila Embryo

We present a setup of optical tweezers coupled to a light sheet microscope, and its implementation to probe cell mechanics without beads in the Drosophila embryo.

Morphogenesis requires coordination between genetic patterning and mechanical forces to robustly shape the cells and tissues. Hence, a challenge to ...

Developmental Biology

An Improved Assay and Tools for Measuring Mechanical Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Published assays for mechanical nociception in Drosophila have led to variable assessments of behavior. Here, we fabricated, for use with Drosophila larvae, customized metal nickel-titanium alloy (nitinol) filaments. These mechanical probes are similar to the von Frey filaments used in vertebrates to measure mechanical nociception. Here, we demonstrate how to make and calibrate these mechanical probes and how to generate a full behavioral dose-response from subthreshold (innocuous or non-noxious range) to suprathreshold (low to high noxious range) stimuli. To demonstrate the utility of the probes, we investigated tissue damage-induced hypersensitivity in Drosophila larvae. Mechanical allodynia (hypersensitivity to a normally innocuous mechanical stimulus) and hyperalgesia (exaggerated responsiveness to a noxious mechanical stimulus) have not yet been established in Drosophila larvae. Using mechanical probes that are normally innocuous or probes that typically elicit an aversive behavior, we found that Drosophila larvae develop mechanical hypersensitization (both allodynia and hyperalgesia) after tissue damage. Thus, the mechanical probes and assay that we illustrate here will likely be important tools to dissect the fundamental molecular/genetic mechanisms of mechanical hypersensitivity.

An Improved Assay and Tools for Measuring Mechanical Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

The goal of this protocol is to show how to perform an improved assay for mechanical nociception in Drosophila larvae. We use the assay here to demonstrate that mechanical hypersensitivity (allodynia and hyperalgesia) exists in Drosophila larvae.

Published assays for mechanical nociception in Drosophila have led to variable assessments of behavior. Here, we fabricated, for use with Drosophila ...

Behavior

Live Cell Response to Mechanical Stimulation Studied by Integrated Optical and Atomic Force Microscopy

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to investigate cells behavior at sub-cellular level with high spatial and temporal resolution was developed. Thus, an atomic force microscope (AFM) was integrated with total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy and fast-spinning disk (FSD) confocal microscopy. The integrated system is broadly applicable across a wide range of molecular dynamic studies in any adherent live cells, allowing direct optical imaging of cell responses to mechanical stimulation in real-time. Significant rearrangement of the actin filaments and focal adhesions was shown due to local mechanical stimulation at the apical cell surface that induced changes into the cellular structure throughout the cell body. These innovative techniques will provide new information for understanding live cell restructuring and dynamics in response to mechanical force. A detailed protocol and a representative data set that show live cell response to mechanical stimulation are presented.

This paper aims to instruct the reader in the operation of an integrated atomic force-optical imaging microscope for mechanical stimulation of live cells in culture. A step-by-step protocol is presented. A representative data set that shows live cell response to mechanical stimulation is presented.

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to ...

Direct Force Measurements of Subcellular Mechanics in Confinement using Optical Tweezers

During the development of a multicellular organism, a single fertilized cell divides and gives rise to multiple tissues with diverse functions. Tissue morphogenesis goes in hand with molecular and structural changes at the single cell level that result in variations of subcellular mechanical properties. As a consequence, even within the same cell, different organelles and compartments resist differently to mechanical stresses; and mechanotransduction pathways can actively regulate their mechanical properties. The ability of a cell to adapt to the microenvironment of the tissue niche thus is in part due to the ability to sense and respond to mechanical stresses. We recently proposed a new mechanosensation paradigm in which nuclear deformation and positioning enables a cell to gauge the physical 3D environment and endows the cell with a sense of proprioception to decode changes in cell shape. In this article, we describe a new method to measure the forces and material properties that shape the cell nucleus inside living cells, exemplified on adherent cells and mechanically confined cells. The measurements can be performed non-invasively with optical traps inside cells, and the forces are directly accessible through calibration-free detection of light momentum. This allows measuring the mechanics of the nucleus independently from cell surface deformations and allowing dissection of exteroceptive and interoceptive mechanotransduction pathways. Importantly, the trapping experiment can be combined with optical microscopy to investigate the cellular response and subcellular dynamics using fluorescence imaging of the cytoskeleton, calcium ions, or nuclear morphology. The presented method is straightforward to apply, compatible with commercial solutions for force measurements, and can easily be extended to investigate the mechanics of other subcellular compartments, e.g., mitochondria, stress-fibers, and endosomes.

Here, we present a protocol to investigate the intracellular mechanical properties of isolated embryonic zebrafish cells in three-dimensional confinement with direct force measurement by an optical trap.

During the development of a multicellular organism, a single fertilized cell divides and gives rise to multiple tissues with diverse functions. Tissue ...

A Behavioral Assay for Mechanosensation of MARCM-based Clones in Drosophila melanogaster

Because of the structural and functional homology to the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear, the neurons that innervate the Drosophila external sense organs provide an excellent model system for the study of mechanosensation. This protocol describes a simple touch behavior in fruit flies which can be used to identify mutations that interfere with mechanosensation. The tactile stimulation of a macrochaete bristle on the thorax of flies elicits a grooming reflex from either the first or third leg. Mutations that interfere with mechanotransduction (such as NOMPC), or with other aspects of the reflex arc, can inhibit the grooming response. A traditional screen of adult behaviors would have missed mutants that have essential roles during development. Instead, this protocol combines the touch screen with mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) to allow for only limited regions of homozygous mutant cells to be generated and marked by the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). By testing MARCM clones for abnormal behavioral responses, it is possible to screen a collection of lethal p-element mutations to search for new genes involved in mechanosensation that would have been missed by more traditional methods.

A Behavioral Assay for Mechanosensation of MARCM-based Clones in Drosophila melanogaster

In order to identify novel mutations affecting mechanosensation, we designed an assay that measures the behavioral response to tactile stimulation of fly bristles in mutant clones generated by the MARCM method. The combination of techniques allows for the identification of mechanosensitive mutations that would otherwise be lethal.

Because of the structural and functional homology to the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear, the neurons that innervate the Drosophila external sense ...

Neuroscience

Measurement of Cellular Chemotaxis with ECIS/Taxis

Cellular movement in response to external stimuli is fundamental to many cellular processes including wound healing, inflammation and the response to infection. A common method to measure chemotaxis is the Boyden chamber assay, in which cells and chemoattractant are separated by a porous membrane. As cells migrate through the membrane toward the chemoattractant, they adhere to the underside of the membrane, or fall into the underlying media, and are subsequently stained and visually counted 1. In this method, cells are exposed to a steep and transient chemoattractant gradient, which is thought to be a poor representation of gradients found in tissues 2.
Another assay system, the under-agarose chemotaxis assay, 3, 4 measures cell movement across a solid substrate in a thin aqueous film that forms under the agarose layer. The gradient that develops in the agarose is shallow and is thought to be an appropriate representation of naturally occurring gradients. Chemotaxis can be evaluated by microscopic imaging of the distance traveled. Both the Boyden chamber assay and the under-agarose assay are usually configured as endpoint assays.
The automated ECIS/Taxis system combines the under-agarose approach with Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) 5, 6. In this assay, target electrodes are located in each of 8 chambers. A large counter-electrode runs through each of the 8 chambers (Figure 2). Each chamber is filled with agarose and two small wells are the cut in the agarose on either side of the target electrode. One well is filled with the test cell population, while the other holds the sources of diffusing chemoattractant (Figure 3). Current passed through the system can be used to determine the change in resistance that occurs as cells pass over the target electrode. Cells on the target electrode increase the resistance of the system 6. In addition, rapid fluctuations in the resistance represent changes in the interactions of cells with the electrode surface and are indicative of ongoing cellular shape changes. The ECIS/Taxis system can measure movement of the cell population in real-time over extended periods of time, but is also sensitive enough to detect the arrival of a single cell at the target electrode. 
Dictyostelium discoidium is known to migrate in the presence of a folate gradient 7, 8 and its chemotactic response can be accurately measured by ECIS/Taxis 9. Leukocyte chemotaxis, in response to SDF1&alpha; and to chemotaxis antagonists has also been measured with ECIS/Taxis 10, 11. An example of the leukocyte response to SDF1&alpha; is shown in Figure 1.

The ECIS/Taxis system is an automated, real-time assay that measures cellular chemotaxis. In this assay, cells move beneath a layer of agarose to arrive at a target electrode. Cellular movement is measured by the onset of resistance to AC current 0.

Cellular movement in response to external stimuli is fundamental to many cellular processes including wound healing, inflammation and the response to ...

Mechano-Node-Pore Sensing: A Rapid, Label-Free Platform for Multi-Parameter Single-Cell Viscoelastic Measurements

Cellular mechanical properties are involved in a wide variety of biological processes and diseases, ranging from stem cell differentiation to cancer metastasis. Conventional methods for measuring these properties, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and micropipette aspiration (MA), capture rich information, reflecting a cell's full viscoelastic response; however, these methods are limited by very low throughput. High-throughput approaches, such as real-time deformability cytometry (RT-DC), can only measure limited mechanical information, as they are often restricted to single-parameter readouts that only reflect a cell's elastic properties. In contrast to these methods, mechano-node-pore sensing (mechano-NPS) is a flexible, label-free microfluidic platform that bridges the gap in achieving multi-parameter viscoelastic measurements of a cell with moderate throughput. A direct current (DC) measurement is used to monitor cells as they transit a microfluidic channel, tracking their size and velocity before, during, and after they are forced through a narrow constriction. This information (i.e., size and velocity) is used to quantify each cell's transverse deformation, resistance to deformation, and recovery from deformation. In general, this electronics-based microfluidic platform provides multiple viscoelastic cell properties, and thus a more complete picture of a cell's mechanical state. Because it requires minimal sample preparation, utilizes a straightforward electronic measurement (in contrast to a high-speed camera), and takes advantage of standard soft lithography fabrication, the implementation of this platform is simple, accessible, and adaptable to downstream analysis. This platform's flexibility, utility, and sensitivity have provided unique mechanical information on a diverse range of cells, with the potential for many more applications in basic science and clinical diagnostics.

Presented here is a method to mechanically phenotype single cells using an electronics-based microfluidic platform called mechano-node-pore sensing (mechano-NPS). This platform maintains moderate throughput of 1-10 cells/s while measuring both the elastic and viscous biophysical properties of cells.

Cellular mechanical properties are involved in a wide variety of biological processes and diseases, ranging from stem cell differentiation to cancer ...

Bioengineering

Mechanostimulation of Multicellular Organisms Through a High-Throughput Microfluidic Compression System

During embryogenesis, coordinated cell movement generates mechanical forces that regulate gene expression and activity. To study this process, tools such as aspiration or coverslip compression have been used to mechanically stimulate whole embryos. These approaches limit experimental design as they are imprecise, require manual handling, and can process only a couple of embryos simultaneously. Microfluidic systems have great potential for automating such experimental tasks while increasing throughput and precision. This article describes a microfluidic system developed to precisely compress whole Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) embryos. This system features microchannels with pneumatically actuated deformable sidewalls and enables embryo alignment, immobilization, compression, and post-stimulation collection. By parallelizing these microchannels into seven lanes, steady or dynamic compression patterns can be applied to hundreds of Drosophila embryos simultaneously. Fabricating this system on a glass coverslip facilitates the simultaneous mechanical stimulation and imaging of samples with high-resolution microscopes. Moreover, the utilization of biocompatible materials, like PDMS, and the ability to flow fluid through the system make this device capable of long-term experiments with media-dependent samples. This approach also eliminates the requirement for manual mounting which mechanically stresses samples. Furthermore, the ability to quickly collect samples from the microchannels enables post-stimulation analyses, including -omics assays which require large sample numbers unattainable using traditional mechanical stimulation approaches. The geometry of this system is readily scalable to different biological systems, enabling numerous fields to benefit from the functional features described herein including high sample throughput, mechanical stimulation or immobilization, and automated alignment.

The present protocol describes the design, fabrication, and characterization of a microfluidic system capable of aligning, immobilizing, and precisely compressing hundreds of Drosophila melanogaster embryos with minimal user intervention. This system enables high-resolution imaging and recovery of samples for post-stimulation analysis and can be scaled to accommodate other multicellular biological systems.

During embryogenesis, coordinated cell movement generates mechanical forces that regulate gene expression and activity. To study this process, tools such ...

Analyzing Cell Surface Adhesion Remodeling in Response to Mechanical Tension Using Magnetic Beads

Mechanosensitive cell surface adhesion complexes allow cells to sense the mechanical properties of their surroundings. Recent studies have identified both force-sensing molecules at adhesion sites, and force-dependent transcription factors that regulate lineage-specific gene expression and drive phenotypic outputs. However, the signaling networks converting mechanical tension into biochemical pathways have remained elusive. To explore the signaling pathways engaged upon mechanical tension applied to cell surface receptor, superparamagnetic microbeads can be used. Here we present a protocol for using magnetic beads to apply forces to cell surface adhesion proteins. Using this approach, it is possible to investigate not only force-dependent cytoplasmic signaling pathways by various biochemical approaches, but also adhesion remodeling by magnetic isolation of adhesion complexes attached to the ligand-coated beads. This protocol includes the preparation of ligand-coated superparamagnetic beads, and the application of define tensile forces followed by biochemical analyses. Additionally, we provide a representative sample of data demonstrating that tension applied to integrin-based adhesion triggers adhesion remodeling and alters protein tyrosine phosphorylation.

Cell surface adhesions are central in mechanotransduction, as they transmit mechanical tension and initiate the signaling pathways involved in tissue homeostasis and development. Here, we present a protocol for dissecting the biochemical pathways that are activated in response to tension, using ligand-coated magnetic microbeads and force application to adhesion receptors.

Mechanosensitive cell surface adhesion complexes allow cells to sense the mechanical properties of their surroundings. Recent studies have identified both ...

Assessment of Dictyostelium discoideum Response to Acute Mechanical Stimulation

Chemotaxis, or migration up a gradient of a chemoattractant, is the best understood mode of directed migration. Studies using social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum revealed that a complex signal transduction network of parallel pathways amplifies the response to chemoattractants, and leads to biased actin polymerization and protrusion of a pseudopod in the direction of a gradient. In contrast, molecular mechanisms driving other types of directed migration, for example, due to exposure to shear flow or electric fields, are not known. Many regulators of chemotaxis exhibit localization at the leading or lagging edge of a migrating cell, as well as show transient changes in localization or activation following global stimulation with a chemoattractant. To understand the molecular mechanisms of other types of directed migration we developed a method that allows examination of cellular response to acute mechanical stimulation based on brief (2 - 5 s) exposure to shear flow. This stimulation can be delivered in a channel while imaging cells expressing fluorescently-labeled biosensors to examine individual cell behavior. Additionally, cell population can be stimulated in a plate, lysed, and immunoblotted using antibodies that recognize active versions of proteins of interest. By combining both assays, one can examine a wide array of molecules activated by changes in subcellular localization and/or phosphorylation. Using this method we determined that acute mechanical stimulation triggers activation of the chemotactic signal transduction and actin cytoskeleton networks. The ability to examine cellular responses to acute mechanical stimulation is important for understanding the initiating events necessary for shear flow-induced motility. This approach also provides a tool for studying the chemotactic signal transduction network without the confounding influence of the chemoattractant receptor.

Assessment of Dictyostelium discoideum Response to Acute Mechanical Stimulation

Here we describe methods for assessing cellular response to acute mechanical stimulation. In the microscopy-based assay, we examine localization of fluorescently-labeled biosensors following brief stimulation with shear flow. We also test activation of various proteins of interest in response to acute mechanical stimulation biochemically.

Chemotaxis, or migration up a gradient of a chemoattractant, is the best understood mode of directed migration. Studies using social amoeba Dictyostelium ...

A Simplified System for Evaluating Cell Mechanosensing and Durotaxis In Vitro

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