We would like to acknowledge George Cross for general advice on trypanosome biology. This work was also supported by a Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation GCE grant to DS, a NSF Graduate Research Fellowship (DGE-1325261) to MRM and an NIH/NIAID (grant #AI085973) to FNP. We thank Galadriel Hovel-Miner for use of the strain containing the I-SCEI gene and recognition site.

NOTE: Throughout the procedure, it is necessary to keep cells on ice. Cold media should also be used throughout.
1. Sample Harvesting
<ol>
	<li>Grow Lister 427 strain bloodstream trypanosomes to a density of 0.5 - 1 million/ml. It is best to start cultures with a small number of parasites. Spin down 50 x 106 cells/sample for 10 min at 1,500 x g. Be sure to leave 1 x 106 cells in culture for later use as positive and negative antibody controls. 
	NOTE: This protocol can also be used on trypanosomes isolated from animal blood (see discussion for details).</li>
	<li>Pipette or pour off most of the supernatant (leave about 750 &#181;l). Transfer the cells to a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Spin cells at 4 &#176;C for 4 min at 5,200 x g in a microcentrifuge and remove supernatant.</li>
</ol>
2. Magnetic Labeling
<ol>
	<li>Resuspend cells in 150 &#181;l culture medium (HMI-9 with serum for example) + primary anti-VSG antibody at the appropriate dilution. 
	NOTE: The anti-VSG antibody is made in house and used at a dilution of 1:50. It is important to use a primary anti-VSG antibody that is not labeled with a fluorophore.</li>
	<li>Vortex cells using a vortex adapter-60 at speed 6 - 8 in a cold room at 4 &#176;C for 10 min. Wash with 800 - 1,000 &#181;l cold HMI-9 with serum.</li>
	<li>Spin at 4 &#176;C for 4 min at 5,200 x g and aspirate the supernatant. Wash with 1 ml HMI-9 with serum and spin as above. Aspirate the supernatant. Resuspend pellet in 100 &#181;l of HMI-9 with serum.</li>
	<li>Add 110 &#181;l of magnetic-activated cell sorting (MSC) microbeads. Use anti-mouse, anti-rabbit, or anti-biotin beads as appropriate for the primary anti-VSG antibody. Mix well. Vortex cells in a cold room at 4 &#176;C for 10 min.</li>
	<li>While cells are vortexing, set up one magnetic-activated separation column/sample on a separation magnet. Be sure to have a receptacle (we use a 15 ml centrifuge tube) under the column to collect the flow-through. Set up the apparatus in a cold room.</li>
	<li>Add 2 ml of HMI-9 with serum to prime column. After priming place a 15 ml centrifuge tube under the column to collect flow-through from each sample.</li>
	<li>After the 10 min incubation in step 2.4, add 800-1,000 &#181;l cold HMI-9 with serum. Spin at 4 &#176;C for 4 min at 5,200 x g and remove supernatant to remove unbound antibody. Wash with 1 ml of HMI-9 with serum and repeat leaving 100 &#181;l of the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Flick the centrifuge tube vigorously and visually inspect the tube to make sure that the pellet is completely resuspended. Add 1 ml of HMI-9 with serum and pipette up and down to make sure that cells are well resuspended.</li>
</ol>
3. Magnetic Separation
<ol>
	<li>Ensure that the columns are primed as described above. Apply cells to column. Collect flow-through with cells expressing the non-dominant VSG. 1 ml of medium + trypanosomes typically takes 6 - 7 min to flow through the column.</li>
	<li>Wash 2x with 1 ml of HMI-9 with serum and collect flow-through in the same tube as in step 3.1.</li>
	<li>Divide flow-through (3 ml) into two 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes. 
	NOTE: These can be combined later or half can be used to isolate RNA, etc.</li>
	<li>Remove column from magnet. Add 3 ml of HMI-9 with serum to column and plunge column into a 15 ml centrifuge tube to obtain cells that express the starting, dominant VSG. Remove 300 &#181;l of eluted material for later analysis. Keep these cells on ice.</li>
	<li>For use as a positive and a negative control, take approximately 1 million cells from the starting culture of control cells growing at 37 &#176;C (those not expected to switch frequently) and pipette them into a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube. 
	NOTE: Positive control cells will be stained with fluorophore-labeled antibody in step 4.1. Negative control cells remain unstained throughout the rest of the protocol.</li>
	<li>Spin flow-through samples and positive antibody control sample at 4 &#176;C for 4 min at 5,200 x g and remove supernatant. 
	NOTE: Another 300 &#181;l aliquot of eluted cells can be used as a positive control for anti-VSG staining.</li>
</ol>
4. Staining to Identify Contaminants and Switchers
<ol>
	<li>Resuspend flow-through samples and positive control cells in 100 &#181;l of HMI-9 with serum + primary, fluorophore-labeled, anti-VSG antibody at the appropriate dilution. 
	NOTE: The labeled anti-VSG antibody is made in house and used at a dilution of 1:1,000. The fluorophore-labeled, anti-VSG can be from the same source as the unlabeled antibody in the MACS separation step.There should be 3 ml of flow-through sample in two microcentrifuge tubes following step 3.5.</li>
	<li>To analyze all of the flow-through by flow cytometry, combine the pellets in the two microcentrifuge tubes while re-suspending the samples in 100 &#181;l of HMI-9 with serum + anti-VSG antibody. Mix well.</li>
	<li>Vortex cells in a cold room at 4 &#176;C for 10 min. Add 800 - 1,000 &#181;l cold HMI-9 with serum. Spin samples at 4 &#176;C for 4 min at 5,200 x g and remove supernatant to remove unbound antibody.</li>
	<li>Wash cells with 1 ml of HMI-9 with serum. Spin samples at 4 &#176;C for 4 min at 5,200 x g and remove supernatant. During this last spin, spin down the eluted-samples from step 3.4 and the negative control sample.</li>
	<li>Resuspend all flow-through and eluted samples in: 148.5 &#181;l HMI-9 with serum, 25 &#181;l absolute counting beads and 1.5 &#181;l Propidium Iodide staining solution (175 &#181;l total). Resuspend positive and negative antibody control samples in 175 &#181;l HMI-9 with serum. Be sure to record the number of absolute counting beads/25 &#181;l for the particular lot used.</li>
	<li>Run all samples through a flow cytometer and collect data. Dead cells stain as PI+. Contaminants stain as PI-VSG+. Switchers stain as PI-VSG- 8.</li>
	<li>Calculate switching frequencies using flow cytometry data. 
	NOTE: For instructions on how to calculate switching frequencies, please refer to the supplemental file <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54715/Flow_Cytometry_Calculations.docx" target="_blank">Flow Cytometry Calculations.docx</a> and Table 1.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Horn, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antigenic+variation+in+African+trypanosomes.">Antigenic variation in African trypanosomes.</a> Molecular &amp; Biochemical Parasitology. 195 (2), 123-129 (2014).</li><li>Lamont, G. S., Tucker, R. S., Cross, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+antigen+switching+rates+in+Trypanosoma+brucei.">Analysis of antigen switching rates in Trypanosoma brucei.</a> Parasitology. 92 (Pt 2), 355-367 (1986).</li><li>Rudenko, G., McCulloch, R., Dirks-Mulder, A., Borst, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Telomere+exchange+can+be+an+important+mechanism+of+variant+surface+glycoprotein+gene+switching+in+Trypanosoma+brucei.">Telomere exchange can be an important mechanism of variant surface glycoprotein gene switching in Trypanosoma brucei.</a> Mol Biochem Parasitol. 80 (1), 65-75 (1996).</li><li>Turner, C. M., Barry, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+frequency+of+antigenic+variation+in+Trypanosoma+brucei+rhodesiense+infections.">High frequency of antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infections.</a> Parasitology. 99 (Pt 1), 67-75 (1989).</li><li>Miller, E. N., Turner, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+antigenic+types+appearing+in+first+relapse+populations+of+clones+of+Trypanosoma+brucei.">Analysis of antigenic types appearing in first relapse populations of clones of Trypanosoma brucei.</a> Parasitology. 82 (1), 63-80 (1981).</li><li>Horn, D., Cross, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+Trypanosoma+brucei+vsg+expression+site+switching+in+vitro.">Analysis of Trypanosoma brucei vsg expression site switching in vitro.</a> Mol Biochem Parasitol. 84 (2), 189-201 (1997).</li><li>Figueiredo, L. M., Janzen, C. J., Cross, G. A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+histone+methyltransferase+modulates+antigenic+variation+in+African+trypanosomes.">A histone methyltransferase modulates antigenic variation in African trypanosomes.</a> PLoS Biol. 6 (7), e161 (2008).</li><li>Boothroyd, C. E., Dreesen, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+yeast-endonuclease-generated+DNA+break+induces+antigenic+switching+in+Trypanosoma+brucei.">A yeast-endonuclease-generated DNA break induces antigenic switching in Trypanosoma brucei.</a> Nature. 459 (7244), 278-281 (2009).</li><li>Engstler, M., Pfohl, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrodynamic+Flow-Mediated+Protein+Sorting+on+the+Cell+Surface+of+Trypanosomes.">Hydrodynamic Flow-Mediated Protein Sorting on the Cell Surface of Trypanosomes.</a> Cell. 131 (3), 505-515 (2007).</li><li>Mugnier, M. R., Cross, G. A. M., Papavasiliou, F. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+in+vivo+dynamics+of+antigenic+variation+in+Trypanosoma+brucei.">The in vivo dynamics of antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei.</a> Science. 347 (6229), 1470-1473 (2015).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

With respect to experimental technique, the most critical component of the protocol is keeping all the samples cold. Trypanosomes very rapidly internalize antibody bound to their surface9, but this process is motility dependent, and does not influence the assay as long as the cells are kept at 4 &#176;C. All samples should always be kept on ice, and pipetting should be done quickly to minimize exposure to the 25 &#176;C lab environment. Cold HMI-9 with serum should be available at the start of the experiment a...

The protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma brucei, is a causative agent of diseases that affect humans (via Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense) and animals (via Trypanosoma brucei brucei) throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. It is transmitted to the mammalian host through the saliva of the tsetse fly vector. Both Human and Animal African Trypanosomiasis cause a severe economic burden in endemic regions, and few drugs are available or in development to treat either disease. Understanding mechanisms of immune evasion is critical for the development of drugs for trypanosomiasis. Antigenic variation of the dense, Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) coat that covers the parasite is one of the primary means by which T. brucei evades the mammalian antibody response. Approximately 2,000 variants of the VSG gene exist in the trypanosome genome, but only one is transcribed at any given time from one of ~15 expression sites. &#39;Switching&#39; of the expressed VSG can occur either by copying a VSG gene into the active expression site, or by transcriptional activation of a previously silent expression site (reviewed in1).
Though much work has been devoted to understanding antigenic variation in T. brucei, the factors that influence switching frequency are still poorly understood. Studies to date have been hampered by the fact that while switching occurs stochastically in vitro, switching frequencies are very low, on the order of 1 in around 106 cells2. This makes it difficult to measure whether a given factor increases or decreases switching frequency, since switching is hard to detect in the first place. Prior to 2009, methods for isolating switchers in a given population were lengthy and labor intensive. These included passaging trypanosomes through mice immunized against the dominant VSG and then harvesting cells a day later3, or counting hundreds of cells by immunofluorescence4,5. Another strategy relies on selection for drug resistance to isolate switchers6. Because African trypanosomes grown in vitro are typically made up of a large population expressing one major variant, and a much smaller population of switchers expressing alternate variants, we refer to the major variant throughout this paper as the dominant, starting VSG. In doing so, we in no way wish to imply that this major variant has greater fitness than other variants in the population.
Here we describe a method that can reliably measure the number of trypanosomes expressing a non-dominant VSG in a given population in 3 - 4 hr. This method is particularly useful for when one wants to ascertain whether a given genetic manipulation or drug treatment increases the number of switched cells in a population. Instead of ridding the population of cells expressing the dominant, starting VSG through drugs or by immunological means, these cells are eliminated by first coating them with magnetic beads coupled to antibody against the dominant VSG and then isolating them on a magnetic column. The switched population is then collected in the flow-through and stained again with a fluorophore labeled anti-VSG antibody to identify contaminants. Quantification is achieved by adding a defined number of absolute counting beads to each sample so that the ratio of beads to cells can be determined and used to quantify the number of switchers in the population7.

<table><tbody><tr><td>unlabeled anti-VSG antibody</td><td>n/a</td><td>n/a</td><td>VSG antibody is made in house</td></tr><tr><td>fluorophore labeled anti-VSG antibody</td><td>n/a</td><td>n/a</td><td>VSG antibody is made in house</td></tr><tr><td>HMI-9 media</td><td>n/a</td><td>n/a</td><td>HMI-9 is made in house</td></tr><tr><td>Propidium Iodide</td><td>BD Pharmingen</td><td>556463</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CountBright absolute counting beads</td><td>Thermofisher Scientific</td><td>C36950</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LD columns</td><td>Miltenyi Biotech</td><td>130-042-901</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MACS magnet</td><td>Miltenyi Biotech</td><td>130-042-303</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MACS magnetic separator</td><td>Miltenyi Biotech</td><td>130-042-302</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>vortex adapter-60</td><td>ThermoFisher scientific</td><td>AM10014</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>flow cytometer</td><td>Coulter</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>flow cytometer analysis software</td><td>FloJo</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

detection of trypanosoma brucei variant surface glycoprotein switching by magnetic activated cell sorting and flow cytometry

Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite that causes both Human and Animal African Trypanosomiasis (known as sleeping sickness and nagana, respectively) cycles between a tsetse vector and a mammalian host. It evades the mammalian host immune system by periodically switching the dense, variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) that covers its surface. The detection of antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei can be both cumbersome and labor intensive. Here, we present a method for quantifying the number of parasites that have 'switched' to express a new VSG in a given population. The parasites are first stained with an antibody against the starting VSG, and then stained with a secondary antibody attached to a magnetic bead. Parasites expressing the starting VSG are then separated from the rest of the population by running the parasites over a column attached to a magnet. Parasites expressing the dominant, starting VSG are retained on the column, while the flow-through contains parasites that express a new VSG as well as some contaminants expressing the starting VSG. This flow-through population is stained again with a fluorescently labeled antibody against the starting VSG to label contaminants, and propidium iodide (PI), which labels dead cells. A known number of absolute counting beads that are visible by flow cytometry are added to the flow-through population. The ratio of beads to number of cells collected can then be used to extrapolate the number of cells in the entire sample. Flow cytometry is used to quantify the population of switchers by counting the number of PI negative cells that do not stain positively for the starting, dominant VSG. The proportion of switchers in the population can then be calculated using the flow cytometry data.

The method described here was used to demonstrate that double-strand breaks within the VSG expression site increased the number of switchers in a population8. Here, we show representative results from a population of trypanosomes that have been similarly induced to generate a double-strand break at the expression site. We compare these trypanosomes to those that have not been induced to generate a double-strand break. Figure 1 shows representative flow cytometr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Detection of Trypanosoma brucei Variant Surface Glycoprotein Switching by Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting and Flow Cytometry at JoVE.com

Detection of Trypanosoma brucei Variant Surface Glycoprotein Switching by Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting and Flow Cytometry

African trypanosomes grown in vitro undergo antigenic variation at a low rate, such that populations are made up of parasites expressing a dominant variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) type and a small population of "switched" variants. This protocol describes a fast method for detecting and quantifying these populations.

Detection of Trypanosoma brucei Variant Surface Glycoprotein Switching by Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting and Flow Cytometry

Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite that causes both Human and Animal African Trypanosomiasis (known as sleeping sickness and nagana, respectively) ...

detection-trypanosoma-brucei-variant-surface-glycoprotein-switching

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

8.7K Views.  Rockefeller University. African trypanosomes grown in vitro undergo antigenic variation at a low rate, such that populations are made up of parasites expressing a dominant variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) type and a small population of "switched" variants. This protocol describes a fast method for detecting and quantifying these populations.

Video: Detection of Trypanosoma brucei Variant Surface Glycoprotein Switching by Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting and Flow Cytometry

Preparation of Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC) from Naive and Pancreatic Tumor-bearing Mice using Flow Cytometry and Automated Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting (AutoMACS)

MDSC are a heterogeneous population of immature macrophages, dendritic cells and granulocytes that accumulate in lymphoid organs in pathological conditions including parasitic infection, inflammation, traumatic stress, graft-versus-host disease, diabetes and cancer1-7. In mice, MDSC express Mac-1 (CD11b) and Gr-1 (Ly6G and Ly6C) surface antigens7. It is important to note that MDSC are well studied in various tumor-bearing hosts where they are significantly expanded and suppress anti-tumor immune responses compared to na&iuml;ve counterparts7-10. However, depending on the pathological condition, there are different subpopulations of MDSC with distinct mechanisms and targets of suppression11,12. Therefore, effective methods to isolate viable MDSC populations are important in elucidating their different molecular mechanisms of suppression in vitro and in vivo.
Recently, the Ghansah group has reported the expansion of MDSC in a murine pancreatic cancer model. Our tumor-bearing MDSC display a loss of homeostasis and increased suppressive function compared to na&iuml;ve MDSC 13. MDSC percentages are significantly less in lymphoid compartments of na&iuml;ve vs. tumor-bearing mice. This is a major caveat, which often hinders accurate comparative analyses of these MDSC. Therefore, enriching Gr-1+ leukocytes from na&iuml;ve mice prior to Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) enhances purity, viability and significantly reduces sort time. However, enrichment of Gr-1+ leukocytes from tumor-bearing mice is optional as these are in abundance for quick FACS sorting. Therefore, in this protocol, we describe a highly efficient method of immunophenotyping MDSC and enriching Gr-1+ leukocytes from spleens of na&iuml;ve mice for sorting MDSC in a timely manner. Immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice are inoculated with murine Panc02 cells subcutaneously whereas na&iuml;ve mice receive 1XPBS. Approximately 30 days post inoculation; spleens are harvested and processed into single-cell suspensions using a cell dissociation sieve. Splenocytes are then Red Blood Cell (RBC) lysed and an aliquot of these leukocytes are stained using fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies against Mac-1 and Gr-1 to immunophenotype MDSC percentages using Flow Cytometry. In a parallel experiment, whole leukocytes from na&iuml;ve mice are stained with fluorescent-conjugated Gr-1 antibodies, incubated with PE-MicroBeads and positively selected using an automated Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting (autoMACS) Pro Separator. Next, an aliquot of Gr-1+ leukocytes are stained with Mac-1 antibodies to identify the increase in MDSC percentages using Flow Cytometry. Now, these Gr1+ enriched leukocytes are ready for FACS sorting of MDSC to be used in comparative analyses (na&iuml;ve vs. tumor- bearing) in in vivo and in vitro assays.

Preparation of Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells MDSC from Naive and Pancreatic Tumor-bearing Mice using Flow Cytometry and Automated Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting AutoMACS

This is a rapid and comprehensive method of immunophenotyping Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC) and enriching Gr-1+ leukocytes from mouse spleens. This method uses flow cytometry and AutoMACS Cell Sorting to enrich for viable Gr-1+ leukocytes prior to FACS sorting of MDSC for use in vivo and in vitro assays.

MDSC are a heterogeneous population of immature macrophages, dendritic cells and granulocytes that accumulate in lymphoid organs in pathological ...

Medicine

Using Fluorescent Proteins to Monitor Glycosome Dynamics in the African Trypanosome

Trypanosoma brucei is a kinetoplastid parasite that causes human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, and a wasting disease, nagana, in cattle1. The parasite alternates between the bloodstream of the mammalian host and the tsetse fly vector. The composition of many cellular organelles changes in response to these different extracellular conditions2-5.
Glycosomes are highly specialized peroxisomes in which many of the enzymes involved in glycolysis are compartmentalized. Glycosome composition changes in a developmental and environmentally regulated manner4-11. Currently, the most common techniques used to study glycosome dynamics are electron and fluorescence microscopy; techniques that are expensive, time and labor intensive, and not easily adapted to high throughput analyses.
To overcome these limitations, a fluorescent-glycosome reporter system in which enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (eYFP) is fused to a peroxisome targeting sequence (PTS2), which directs the fusion protein to glycosomes12, has been established. Upon import of the PTS2eYFP fusion protein, glycosomes become fluorescent. Organelle degradation and recycling results in the loss of fluorescence that can be measured by flow cytometry. Large numbers of cells (5,000 cells/sec) can be analyzed in real-time without extensive sample preparation such as fixation and mounting. This method offers a rapid way of detecting changes in organelle composition in response to fluctuating environmental conditions.

Glycosome dynamics in African trypanosomes are difficult to study by traditional cell biology techniques such as electron and fluorescence microscopy. As a means of observing dynamic organelle behavior, a fluorescent-organelle reporter system has been used in conjunction with flow cytometry to monitor real-time glycosome dynamics in live parasites.

Trypanosoma brucei is a kinetoplastid parasite that causes human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, and a wasting disease, nagana, in ...

In Vivo Assessment of Rodent Plasmodium Parasitemia and Merozoite Invasion by Flow Cytometry

During blood stage infection, malaria parasites invade, mature, and replicate within red blood cells (RBCs). This results in a regular growth cycle and an exponential increase in the proportion of malaria infected RBCs, known as parasitemia. We describe a flow cytometry based protocol which utilizes a combination of the DNA dye Hoechst, and the mitochondrial membrane potential dye, JC-1, to identify RBCs which contain parasites and therefore the parasitemia, of in vivo blood samples from Plasmodium chabaudi adami DS infected mice. Using this approach, in combination with fluorescently conjugated antibodies, parasitized RBCs can be distinguished from leukocytes, RBC progenitors, and RBCs containing Howell-Jolly bodies (HJ-RBCs), with a limit of detection of 0.007% parasitemia. Additionally, we outline a method for the comparative assessment of merozoite invasion into two different RBC populations. In this assay RBCs, labeled with two distinct compounds identifiable by flow cytometry, are transfused into infected mice. The relative rate of invasion into the two populations can then be assessed by flow cytometry based on the proportion of parasitized RBCs in each population over time. This combined approach allows the accurate measurement of both parasitemia and merozoite invasion in an in vivo model of malaria infection.

In Vivo Assessment of Rodent Plasmodium Parasitemia and Merozoite Invasion by Flow Cytometry

The malaria parasite invades and replicates within red blood cells. The accurate assessment of merozoite invasion and parasitemia is therefore crucial in assessing the course of malaria infection. Here we describe a flow cytometry based protocol for the measurement of these parameters in a mouse model of malaria.

During blood stage infection, malaria parasites invade, mature, and replicate within red blood cells (RBCs). This results in a regular growth cycle and an ...

Rapid Homogeneous Detection of Biological Assays Using Magnetic Modulation Biosensing System

A magnetic modulation biosensing system (MMB) [1,2] rapidly and homogeneously detected biological targets at low concentrations without any washing or separation step. When the IL-8 target was present, a 'sandwich'-based assay attached magnetic beads with IL-8 capture antibody to streptavidin coupled fluorescent protein via the IL-8 target and a biotinylated IL-8 antibody. The magnetic beads are maneuvered into oscillatory motion by applying an alternating magnetic field gradient through two electromagnetic poles. The fluorescent proteins, which are attached to the magnetic beads are condensed into the detection area and their movement in and out of an orthogonal laser beam produces a periodic fluorescent signal that is demodulated using synchronous detection. The magnetic modulation biosensing system was previously used to detect the coding sequences of the non-structural Ibaraki virus protein 3 (NS3) complementary DNA (cDNA) [2]. The techniques that are demonstrated in this work for external manipulation and condensation of particles may be used for other applications, e.g. delivery of magnetically-coupled drugs in-vivo or enhancing the contrast for in-vivo imaging applications.

Magnetic modulation biosensing system is utilized to rapidly, sensitively and simply detect biological assays, such as DNA molecules and proteins.

A magnetic modulation biosensing system (MMB) [1,2] rapidly and homogeneously detected biological targets at low concentrations without any washing or ...

Biology

High-throughput Gene Tagging in Trypanosoma brucei

Improvements in mass spectrometry, sequencing and bioinformatics have generated large datasets of potentially interesting genes. Tagging these proteins can give insights into their function by determining their localization within the cell and enabling interaction partner identification. We recently published a fast and scalable method to generate Trypanosoma brucei cell lines that express a tagged protein from the endogenous locus. The method was based on a plasmid we generated that, when coupled with long primer PCR, can be used to modify a gene to encode a protein tagged at either terminus. This allows the tagging of dozens of trypanosome proteins in parallel, facilitating the large-scale validation of candidate genes of interest. This system can be used to tag proteins for localization (using a fluorescent protein, epitope tag or electron microscopy tag) or biochemistry (using tags for purification, such as the TAP (tandem affinity purification) tag). Here, we describe a protocol to perform the long primer PCR and the electroporation in 96-well plates, with the recovery and selection of transgenic trypanosomes occurring in 24-well plates. With this workflow, hundreds of proteins can be tagged in parallel; this is an order of magnitude improvement to our previous protocol and genome scale tagging is now possible.

High-throughput Gene Tagging in Trypanosoma brucei

Addition of a tag to a protein is a powerful way of gaining insight into its function. Here, we describe a protocol to endogenously tag hundreds of Trypanosoma brucei proteins in parallel such that genome scale tagging is achievable.

Improvements in mass spectrometry, sequencing and bioinformatics have generated large datasets of potentially interesting genes. Tagging these proteins ...

Flow Virometry to Analyze Antigenic Spectra of Virions and Extracellular Vesicles

Cells release small extracellular vesicles (EVs) into the surrounding media. Upon virus infection cells also release virions that have the same size of some of the EVs. Both virions and EVs carry proteins of the cells that generated them and are antigenically heterogeneous. In spite of their diversity, both viruses and EVs were characterized predominantly by bulk analysis. Here, we describe an original nanotechnology-based high throughput method that allows the characterization of antigens on individual small particles using regular flow cytometers. Viruses or extracellular vesicles were immunocaptured with 15 nm magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) coupled to antibodies recognizing one of the surface antigens. The captured virions or vesicles were incubated with fluorescent antibodies against other surface antigens. The resultant complexes were separated on magnetic columns from unbound antibodies and analyzed with conventional flow cytometers triggered on fluorescence. This method has wide applications and can be used to characterize the antigenic composition of any viral- and non-viral small particles generated by cells in vivo and in vitro. Here, we provide examples of the usage of this method to evaluate the distribution of host cell markers on individual HIV-1 particles, to study the maturation of individual Dengue virions (DENV), and to investigate extracellular vesicles released into the bloodstream.

Viruses or extracellular vesicles were immunocaptured with 15 nm magnetic nanoparticles coupled to antibodies recognizing surface antigens. The captured virions or vesicles were labeled with fluorescent antibodies against other surface antigens. The resultant complexes were separated in high magnetic field and analyzed with conventional flow cytometers triggered on fluorescence.

Cells release small extracellular vesicles (EVs) into the surrounding media. Upon virus infection cells also release virions that have the same size of ...

Detection and Enrichment of Rare Antigen-specific B Cells for Analysis of Phenotype and Function

B cells reactive with a specific antigen usually occur at a frequency of &lt;0.05% of lymphocytes. For decades researchers have sought methods to isolate and enrich these rare cells for studies of their phenotype and biology. Approaches are inevitably based on the principle that B cells recognize native antigen by virtue of cell surface receptors that are representative in specificity of antibodies that will eventually be secreted by their differentiated daughters. Perhaps the most obvious approach to the problem involves use of fluorochrome-conjugated antigens in conjunction with fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). However, the utility of these methods is limited by cell frequency and the achievable rate of analysis and isolation by electronic sorting. A novel method to enrich rare antigen-specific B cells using magnetic nanoparticles that results in high yield enrichment of antigen-reactive B cells from large starting cell populations is described. This method enables improved monitoring of the phenotype and biology of antigen reactive cells before and following in vivo antigen encounter, such as after immunization or during development of autoimmunity.

A simple yet effective method that employs magnetic nanoparticles to detect and enrich antigen-reactive B cells for functional and phenotypic analysis is described.

B cells reactive with a specific antigen usually occur at a frequency of &lt;0.05% of lymphocytes. For decades researchers have sought methods to isolate ...

Purification of Extracellular Trypanosomes, Including African, from Blood by Anion-Exchangers (Diethylaminoethyl-cellulose Columns)

This method allows the separation of trypanosomes, parasites responsible for animal and human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), from infected blood. This is the best method for diagnosis of first stage HAT and furthermore this parasite purification method permits serological and research investigations.
HAT is caused by Tsetse fly transmitted Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense. Related trypanosomes are the causative agents of animal trypanosomiasis. Trypanosome detection is essential for HAT diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. The technique described here is the most sensitive parasite detection technique, adapted to field conditions for the diagnosis of T. b. gambiense HAT and can be completed within one hour. Blood is layered onto an anion-exchanger column (DEAE cellulose) previously adjusted to pH 8, and elution buffer is added. Highly negatively charged blood cells are adsorbed onto the column whereas the less negatively charged trypanosomes pass through. Collected trypanosomes are pelleted by centrifugation and observed by microscopy. Moreover, parasites are prepared without cellular damage whilst maintaining their infectivity.
Purified trypanosomes are required for immunological testing; they are used in the trypanolysis assay, the gold standard in HAT serology. Stained parasites are utilized in the card agglutination test (CATT) for field serology. Antigens from purified trypanosomes, such as variant surface glycoprotein, exoantigens, are also used in various immunoassays. The procedure described here is designed for African trypanosomes; consequently, chromatography conditions have to be adapted to each trypanosome strain, and more generally, to the blood of each species of host mammal.
These fascinating pathogens are easily purified and available to use in biochemical, molecular and cell biology studies including co-culture with host cells to investigate host-parasite relationships at the level of membrane receptors, signaling, and gene expression; drug testing in vitro; investigation of gene deletion, mutation, or overexpression on metabolic processes, cytoskeletal biogenesis and parasite survival.

Purification of Extracellular Trypanosomes, Including African, from Blood by Anion-Exchangers Diethylaminoethyl-cellulose Columns

This method of trypanosome separation from blood depends on their surface charge being less negative than mammalian blood cells. Infected blood is placed and treated on an anion-exchanger column. This method, the most fitting diagnostic for African trypanosomiasis, provides purified parasites for immunological, biological, biochemical, pharmaceutical and molecular biology investigations.

This method allows the separation of trypanosomes, parasites responsible for animal and human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), from infected blood. This is ...

Detection of Extravascular Trypanosoma Parasites by Fine Needle Aspiration

Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA) is a routine diagnostic procedure essential to both medical and veterinary practices. It consists of the percutaneous aspiration of cells and/or microorganisms from palpable masses, organs or effusions (fluid accumulation in a body cavity) using a thin needle similar to the regular needle used for the venous puncture. The material collected by FNA is in general highly cellular, and the retrieved aspirate is then smeared, air dried, wet-fixed, stained and observed under a microscope. In the clinical context, FNA is an important diagnostic tool that serves as a guide to the appropriate therapeutic management. Because it is simple, fast, minimally invasive and requires limited investment in the laboratory and human resources, it is extensively used by veterinary practitioners, mostly in domestic, but also in farm animals. In studies using animal models, FNA has the advantage that it can be performed repeatedly in the same animal, enabling longitudinal studies through the collection of cells from tumors and organs/tissues over the course of the disease. In addition to routine microscopy, retrieved material can also be used for immunocytochemistry, electron microscopy, biochemical analysis, flow cytometry, molecular biology or in vitro assays. FNA has been used to identify the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei in the gonads of infected mice, opening the possibility for a future diagnosis in cattle.

Detection of Extravascular Trypanosoma Parasites by Fine Needle Aspiration

Fine Needle Aspiration is a technique, whereby cells are obtained from a lesion or organ using a thin needle. Aspirated material is smeared, stained and examined under a microscope for diagnosis or used for molecular biology, cytometry or in vitro analysis. It is cheap, simple, quick and causes minimal trauma.

Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA) is a routine diagnostic procedure essential to both medical and veterinary practices. It consists of the percutaneous ...

Measuring Naturally Acquired Phagocytosis-Inducing Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum Parasites by a Flow Cytometry-Based Assay

The protocol describes how to set up and run a flow cytometry-based phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) opsonized by naturally acquired IgG antibodies specific for VAR2CSA. VAR2CSA is the parasite antigen that mediates the selective sequestration of IEs in the placenta that can cause a severe form of malaria in pregnant women, called placental malaria (PM). Protection from PM is mediated by VAR2CSA-specific antibodies that are believed to function by inhibiting placental sequestration and/or by opsonizing IEs for phagocytosis. The assay employs late-stage-synchronized IEs that have been selected in vitro to express VAR2CSA, plasma/serum-antibodies from women with naturally acquired PM-specific immunity, and the phagocytic cell line THP-1. However, the protocol can easily be modified to assay the functionality of antibodies to any parasite antigen present on the IE surface, whether induced by natural exposure or by vaccination. The assay offers simple and high-throughput evaluation, with good reproducibility, of an important functional aspect of antibody-mediated immunity in malaria. It is, therefore, useful when evaluating clinical immunity to P. falciparum malaria, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the tropics, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Measuring Naturally Acquired Phagocytosis-Inducing Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum Parasites by a Flow Cytometry-Based Assay

The overall goal of this protocol is to provide instruction on how to measure the capacity of antibodies present in sera or plasma of individuals, naturally exposed to Plasmodium falciparum infection, to opsonize and induce phagocytosis of the parasite-infected erythrocytes (IEs).

The protocol describes how to set up and run a flow cytometry-based phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) opsonized by ...

Detection of Trypanosoma brucei Variant Surface Glycoprotein Switching by Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting and Flow Cytometry

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