Name: human circadian phenotyping and diurnal performance testing in the real world
Uploaded: 2020-04-07T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 10 min 16 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Human Circadian Phenotyping and Diurnal Performance Testing in the Real World at JoVE.com

This work was supported by funding from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC, BB/J014532/1) and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, EP/J002909/1). E.R.F.C was supported by a Wellcome Trust Institutional Strategic Support Fund (ISSF) Scheme accelerator fellowship (Wellcome 204846/Z/16/Z) and an Australian Government, Department of Industry, Innovation and Science grant (ICG000899/19/0602). Our sincere thanks are to all participants and Stockgrand Ltd for assay reagents.

All methods described here have been approved by the University of Birmingham Research Ethics Committee.
1. Participant screening and experimental design
<ol>
	<li>Perform all methods following the appropriate ethical approvals, in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and gain written informed consent from all participants before any involvement.</li>
	<li>Recruit participants with no prior diagnoses of sleep, neurological or psychiatric disorders, and without taking any medications that affect sleep, melatonin or cortisol rhythms.</li>
	<li>Ensure that no participants are shift workers, participants have not travelled more than two time zones within the past month and they are free to take part in the study&#160;(i.e., able to commit to wearing the actiwatch, give saliva samples on a &#39;free day&#39; and be present for performance testing at specific times (see section 2.1)).</li>
	<li>Invite participants who pass inclusion criteria to attend an initial set up meeting to gain consent, collect questionnaire data, receive training in collecting saliva samples at home and be set up with an actigraphic device and sleep diary. At this meeting, familiarize the participants with the physiological sampling protocols to make sure they understand what is required (see section 3).</li>
	<li>Ask the participants to complete the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire (MCTQ), which assesses individual differences in sleep/wake variables and light exposure on work and free days3. This allows the calculation of corrected mid-sleep times on free days (MSFsc), used as a marker of chronotype.</li>
</ol>
2. Actigraphy and sleep diaries
<ol>
	<li>For at least two-weeks19 (can be longer time periods depending on the study aims), ask the participants to wear a wrist activity monitor or &#39;actigraph&#39;, to gather rest/activity patterns, and light (1-32,000 lux) data throughout the study period.</li>
	<li>Give each participant details of how to use the actigraphs, including removing for bathing/showering (if not waterproof) and preventing sleeves covering them to allow light data to be gathered. Ensure actigraphs are worn on the non-dominant wrist.</li>
	<li>In combination with actigraphy and to facilitate sleep/wake analysis derived from the actigraphic data, give each participant a sleep diary to complete on a daily basis. Ensure that questions asked include bedtimes, sleep times, night time awakenings, wake up times, sleep quality, naps and times when actigraphs were removed.</li>
	<li>Collect actigraphy data for rest/activity analysis etting the parameters according to what is required (this study used a 30Hz sampling frequency and medium sensitivity setting). Extract details of daily bedtime and get up times from sleep diaries and input to the manufacturer&#39;s software or alternative (e.g., open source validated code in order to obtain actigraphic variables relevant for the study).</li>
</ol>
3. Physiological sampling
<ol>
	<li>Pre-prepare sampling packs by labelling polypropylene collection tubes or salivettes (use 7 mL plastic bijous in this study). Label the tubes with participant ID number, morning or evening and individual sampling numbers. Include a &#39;spare&#39; tube to use in case of mistakes.</li>
	<li>Prepare a sample collection record sheet for both morning and evening protocols to allow the participants to time stamp when samples are taken (e.g., Morning Sample 1, Time taken = hh:mm, Morning Sample 2, Time taken = hh:mm). Include participant ID number, date for seasonal information and location for calculating photoperiod. 
	NOTE: It is crucial that military time is used to ensure that there are no issues with AM/PM. Different colored labels for morning vs. evening sampling tubes can also be used to distinguish between samples.</li>
	<li>Give the participants the relevant protocols for physiological sampling and pre-made packs during training of how to take saliva samples in their home/work environment.</li>
	<li>Inform the participant that samples must be collected on a free day when the participants are able to go to bed and wake up at preferred times (i.e., without the need for an alarm). To ensure reliable calculation of DLMO, participants should not perform the evening saliva sampling protocol the day before the performance testing due to the need to stay awake past habitual bedtime.</li>
	<li>Ask the participants to allocate one morning and one evening (on the same day) during week two of the study when they are able to commit to giving the saliva samples. Advise the participants to collect morning samples followed by evening samples on the same day. 
	NOTE: The order of sampling (morning then evening) must be followed to ensure any changes in sleep timing do not impact the results (if evening samples are taken first requiring staying awake past habitual bedtime, this could influence the mornings samples if taken the following day).</li>
	<li>Morning sampling protocol for cortisol awakening response
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that saliva samples are collected at point of first wake up (whilst still in bed), every 15 min for the first hour and then every 30 min for the next 1 to 2 h. Collect saliva samples by spitting into the appropriately labelled vial (starting with No. 1, 2, 3, etc.).</li>
		<li>During this period, ensure that the participants: abstain from alcoholic drinks, drinks containing artificial coloring and food for the period of testing and refrain from cleaning teeth, with or without toothpaste during the sampling period.</li>
		<li>Once all samples have been provided, ensure that the participants store their samples in their freezer at -20 &#176;C until collection by the research team. 
		NOTE: It is best to store the samples frozen if possible, but they will remain viable if stored in the fridge until collection the next day. Under the Human Tissue Act (HTA) 2004, samples must be collected and processed within seven days of collection to render them acellular, unless an HTA license is held by the Institution performing the analysis.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Evening sampling protocol for dim light melatonin onset
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that saliva samples are collected every 30 min from 3 to 4 h before habitual bedtime until 1 to 2 h after habitual bedtime (e.g., if habitual bedtime is 22:00 h, the participant would start at 18:00/19:00 h until 23:00/00:00 h). Collect saliva samples by spitting into in the appropriately labelled vial (starting with No. 1 then 2, 3, etc.).</li>
		<li>During this period, ensure that participants: abstain from caffeinated drinks (e.g., tea, coffee, coca-cola) from 6 h prior to habitual bedtime (e.g., if habitual bedtime is 22:00 h, caffeine consumption should stop at 16:00 h on the day of collection).</li>
		<li>Ensure that the participants remain seated indoors in dim light (&#60; 10 lux, e.g., a single table lamp preferably red light, on the other side of the room, no overhead lights, no electronic screens, curtains closed). Ensure that the participants avoid drinking beverages containing alcohol or artificial coloring and refrain from cleaning teeth, with or without toothpaste, during the sampling period.</li>
		<li>If the participants wish to eat something, go to the toilet or make a non-caffeinated drink, ensure that they do so immediately after collection of a sample and try to be seated again for 15 min before the next sample is due to be collected. If food is consumed between samples, ensure the participants wash their mouths out with water 15 min prior to collection of the next sample.</li>
		<li>Ensure that all other rooms have the same light conditions so that the participant remains in dim light (preferably red light) for the duration of the sampling period.</li>
		<li>Once all samples have been provided, ensure that the participants store their samples in their freezer at -20 &#176;C until collection by the research team. 
		NOTE: It is critical that participants adhere to dim light protocol. Where possible, researchers should measure the light conditions in order to monitor intensity and spectral composition.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Radioimmunoassay
<ol>
	<li>Perform RIA or ELISA of melatonin and cortisol in human saliva to determine relative concentrations at each time point. 
	NOTE: The procedure in these representative results used RIA with an Iodine (125I) radioactive labelled tracer and solid phase separation. This protocol is employed routinely in the Chronobiology Laboratory, University of Surrey, UK20.</li>
	<li>Calculate individual DLMOs as the timepoint at which melatonin concentration exceeds two standard deviations of the three baseline measures (the first three samples). 
	NOTE: This method adjusts for individual baseline differences compared to using a flat rate concentration14. Other methods can be used depending on the time points used in the sampling (e.g., over a 24 h period for a full profile14).</li>
	<li>Calculate the cortisol peak as the time of highest cortisol concentration recorded during the morning cortisol awakening response.</li>
</ol>
5. Diurnal performance testing
NOTE: The measures that were used in this protocol are the Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT)21, and the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS)22. However, other tests could be used keeping the same design depending on the aim of the study (e.g., if the study was investigating the impact of circadian phenotype on working memory, a memory task would be required).
<ol>
	<li>Ask the participants to perform at least one (depending on the task) practice trial during the week prior to testing to familiarize themselves with the set up. 
	NOTE: Practice trials can be done remotely if monitored. The number of practice tests should be tailored based on the task(s) being used in the study. For example, a more complex executive function task may require a number of practice tests to reach a plateau compared to a simpler task.</li>
	<li>Arrange testing sessions according to the study hypotheses based on number of time points being investigated at specific clock times. 
	NOTE: Depending on the study design, performance testing can be conducted at home or in the laboratory. Due to the time sensitive nature of the protocol, if performance testing is done in the home environment, compliance must be monitored to ensure participants are conducting it themselves, as well as being time and date stamped.</li>
	<li>Conduct testing on a relevant device (this study used a DQ67OW, i7-2600 processor, 4GB RAM, 32-bit desktop with a standard keyboard and mouse). 
	NOTE: If a laptop, iPad or other device is required for testing, ensure the same device and settings are used throughout the study for all participants and each testing session due to potential variability in responses from a mouse vs. track pad vs. touch screen.</li>
</ol>
6. Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Categorize circadian phenotype groups based on their value for the five variables collected: MSFsc, wake up time, peak time of cortisol awakening response, DLMO and sleep onset (cut offs are given in Table 1).</li>
	<li>Allocate a score per variable for each participant. A variable is allocated 0 if it is in the ECP category, 1 if it is in the ICP category and 2 if it is in the LCP category. For example, if a participant is in the LCP category for all variables, they would accumulate a score of 10. Out of a total score from 0-10 identify participants as ECPs (0-3), ICPs (4-6) and LCPs (7-10).</li>
	<li>From the total score, subcategories of circadian phenotypes can be determined as follows: 0 = extreme ECP, 1 = definite ECP, 2 = moderate ECP, 3 = mild ECP, 4 = early ICP, 5 = ICP, 6 = late ICP, 7 = mild LCP, 8 = moderate LCP, 9 = definite. 
	NOTE: Statistical analysis should be determined based on the research questions for individual studies. Non-parametric tests should be used where data do not follow a normal distribution. Post hoc tests should be run to determine time of day effects. When measuring a number of parameters, further corrections of multiple comparisons should be done (e.g., FDR correction of p-values).</li>
</ol>

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B.M. and D.J.S. are co-directors of Stockgrand Ltd. The authors declare no other competing financial interests.

Due to the complex interaction of circadian- and sleep-dependent influences on behavior, exploring the relative contributions of each is challenging. Laboratory based protocols are largely unrealistic and expensive, thus hold poorer external validity when relating results to everyday functioning25. Therefore, there is increasing need to study individuals in their home environment to promote generalizability to real-world contexts. Although field studies do not allow for the control of exogenous influences, an integrated approach may help to shed light on how both biological and environmental factors affect health, physiology and performance23,26,27. This protocol was designed specifically to be able to monitor individuals in their home environment whilst following their habitual routines. These saliva sampling protocols have been successfully undertaken in challenging settings such as the Amazon28 and the Antarctic29 supporting the ease of conducting this protocol.
Questionnaires are a useful tool in sleep and circadian studies as they allow a quick and simple way to gather a wide range of information. However, discrepancies between subjective and objective measures can create difficulties when attempting to study individual differences. Therefore, being able to collect multiple subjective and objective measures can strengthen the categorization of circadian phenotype groups. This combination of methods - MCTQ, actigraphy, physiological sampling and performance testing - has highlighted how results can be misinterpreted if individual differences in circadian phenotypes are not considered. Measuring all of these variables provides the most reliable categorization of circadian phenotype groups, however, there is potential for developing the method further to allow fewer requirements. For example, although the reliability remains to be investigated, to reduce the cost, researchers could remove the cortisol sampling step or use a different questionnaire. It would be worth noting, however, that since DLMO is a current gold standard marker for circadian timing and actigraphy is a standard method for monitoring rest/activity patterns, this would be essential variables to include in assessments.
Scheduling performance tests based on clock times instead of basing timings relative to the individual (internal biological time) increases the feasibility and allows the protocol to be applied in real world settings. A limitation of this design, however, is the inability to determine the influence of the circadian system vs. homeostatic influences. This becomes a challenge as there is no way of confirming specific mechanisms contributing to the results. However, since the purpose of this protocol is to investigate these groups in a real-world scenario, reducing the sleep dependent mechanisms would minimize the external validity of the results. It could be argued, therefore, that using an integrated method is more applicable and more feasible for field studies.
Direct measures of performance are highly relevant to society, but it seems that without taking into consideration the multiple influencing factors, especially the need to group individuals according to their circadian phenotype and sleep pressure, studies could be missing key results.
As discussed, the PVT and KSS have been widely used in many fields of research. The simplicity of the PVT and flexibility in task duration makes it an attractive test to use in circadian and sleep restriction studies requiring multiple testing times, and has been shown to be a sensitive marker of sleep deprivation30,31. Although test accuracy and overall reaction times increase with task duration, the 2 min, 5 min and 10 min PVT tasks all show similar time of day relationships32.
Our protocol design could be implemented using a range of different performance tasks and at more frequent time points if required. Previous studies have shown time of day effects in both physical and cognitive performance metrics such as aerobic capacity15 and executive function25. Implementing this protocol and accounting for individual differences will increase understanding of how to study the mechanisms contributing to performance, especially in more niche settings such as elite sports. In summary, this protocol allows a real-world assessment of circadian phenotype and provides an insight into how to measure the impact of time of day on performance.

At the behavioral level, assessing individual rest/activity patterns can be done using subjective questionnaire-based methods or objective monitoring through wrist actigraphy. Actigraphic data have been validated against polysomnography (PSG) for various sleep parameters including: total sleep time, sleep efficiency and wake after sleep onset1. Although PSG is known as the gold standard for measuring sleep, it is challenging to use for prolonged periods outside of the sleep laboratory2. Therefore, actigraphs are intended to provide a simple, more cost-effective alternative to PSG and allow monitoring of 24 h rest/activity pattern. Subjective self-report measures can define one&#39;s &#39;chronotype&#39; using the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire (MCTQ)3, or diurnal preference using the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ)4. The groups at either end of this spectrum can be referred to as Early circadian phenotypes (ECPs) and Late circadian phenotypes (LCPs) with those in between as Intermediate circadian phenotypes (ICPs).
Although ECPs and LCPs are clearly distinguishable through their behavior (i.e., sleep/wake patterns), these individual differences are also partly driven by variations in physiology5 and genetic predisposition6,7. Physiological biomarkers are often used to determine the circadian phase/timing of an individual. Two of the main hormones indicative of circadian timing are melatonin, which rises in the evening to reach a peak in the middle of the night, and cortisol, which peaks in the morning8. Using these circadian phase markers, individual differences in sleep-wake patterns are able to be identified. For example, dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)9,10 and the time of cortisol awakening response11,12 peak earlier in ECPs, which is mirrored by the circadian rhythm of core body temperature13. Saliva allows easy, safe and noninvasive collection from which these hormones can be analyzed by radioimmunoassay (RIA) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) without the need to extract any cellular material. RIA and ELISA are sensitive and specific assays that detect concentrations of antigens in biological samples (e.g., blood, plasma or saliva), through antigen-antibody reactions involving radiolabeled isotopes (e.g., iodine (125I) or enzyme-linked antibodies14).
Strictly controlled laboratory protocols such as constant routine (CR) and forced desynchrony (FD) are the gold standard in the field of chronobiology to study endogenous circadian rhythms15. However, there is an increasing need to study individuals in their home environment outside of artificial laboratory settings to gather contextual data and increase the external validity of results. Hence, we require better ways to categorize, measure and assess individual differences in the field. In addition, diurnal variations in various measures of physical (aerobic capacity, muscle strength) and cognitive (reaction time, sustained attention, executive function) performance have been uncovered with ECPs performing better earlier in the day and LCPs in the evening16,17. This emphasizes that time of day and circadian phenotype should be factors that are considered when carrying out performance testing in research studies.
The number of different measures and protocols used in laboratory studies allow highly controlled conditions to be implemented. Field studies tend to be more challenging due to the number of influencing factors. Therefore, using a more holistic approach by combining multiple techniques may provide more accuracy when monitoring an individual&#39;s behavior, psychology and performance in their home environment18. Here, we discuss a method that can easily be implemented in the field to identify individual differences in circadian phenotypes using the MCTQ, actigraphy and physiological biomarkers. We hypothesize that these variables will differ significantly between circadian phenotype groups and will be significantly correlated with chronotype (= corrected mid-sleep on free days (MSFsc) gathered from the MCTQ). Furthermore, we suggest ways to measure diurnal performance, highlighting the need to analyze data separately for each circadian phenotype group. We hypothesize that differences in diurnal performance rhythms will be obscured if data are only analyzed at the whole population level.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Actiwatch Light</td><td>Cambridge Neurotech Ltd</td><td></td><td>Various different validated actigraph devices can be used depending on what is required</td></tr><tr><td>Sleep Analysis 7 Software</td><td>Cambridge Neurotech Ltd</td><td></td><td>Various different validated software can be used depending on what is required</td></tr><tr><td>7 ml plastic bijous</td><td></td><td></td><td>Various different tubes or salivettes can be used depending on what is required</td></tr><tr><td>DQ67OW, Intel Core i7-2600 processor, 4GB RAM, 32-bit Windows 7</td><td></td><td></td><td>Various different devices can be used depending on what is required</td></tr></tbody></table>

human circadian phenotyping and diurnal performance testing in the real world

In our continuously developing &#39;around the clock&#39; society, there is a need to increase our understanding of how changes in biology, physiology and psychology influence our health and performance. Embedded within this challenge, is the increasing need to account for individual differences in sleep and circadian rhythms, as well as to explore the impact of time of day on performance in the real world. There are a number of ways to measure sleep and circadian rhythms from subjective questionnaire-based methods to objective sleep/wake monitoring, actigraphy and analysis of biological samples. This paper proposes a protocol that combines multiple techniques to categorize individuals into Early, Intermediate or Late circadian phenotype groups (ECPs/ICPs/LCPs) and recommends how to conduct diurnal performance testing in the field. Representative results show large differences in rest-activity patterns derived from actigraphy, circadian phase (dim light melatonin onset and peak time of cortisol awakening response) between circadian phenotypes. In addition, significant differences in diurnal performance rhythms between ECPs and LCPs emphasizes the need to account for circadian phenotype. In summary, despite the difficulties in controlling influencing factors, this protocol allows a real-world assessment of the impact of circadian phenotype on performance. This paper presents a simple method to assess circadian phenotype in the field and supports the need to consider time of day when designing performance studies.

These results in ECPs and LCPs have previously been published by Facer-Childs, Campos, et al.23. All permissions have been obtained from the publisher. For studies requiring an investigation of all three groups (Early, Intermediate and Late), the same methods and cut offs can be used.
Circadian Phenotyping (Table 1, Table 2 and Figure 1) 
The first hypothesis presented in this paper is that the groups would differ significantly in sleep and circadian variables. From the participants (n = 22) that took part in this study, those that were categorized as ECPs had a score between 0-1 and all LCPs between 8-10 (cuts off given in Table 1). To confirm these results, group averages were compared for each variable. MSFsc was 02:24 &#177; 00:10 h for ECPs compared to 06:52 &#177; 00:17 h in LCPs (t(36) = 12.2, p &#60; 0.0001). Physiological markers also differed significantly between the two groups. DLMO occurred at 20:27 &#177; 00:16 h in ECPs and at 23:55 &#177; 00:26 h in LCPS (t(30) = 6.8, p &#60; 0.0001). Peak time of the cortisol awakening response occurred at 07:04 &#177; 00:16 h in ECPs and 11:13 &#177; 00:23 h in LCPs (t(36) = 8.0, p &#60; 0.0001). The same relationships were observed with actigraphic variables for sleep onset and wake up timings with average sleep onset occurring at 22:57 &#177; 00:10 h in ECPs and 02:27 &#177; 00:19 h in LCPs (t(34) = 8.9, p &#60; 0.0001) and wake up time occurring at 06:33 &#177; 0.10 h in ECPs and 10:13 &#177; 00:18 h in LCPs (t(34) = 9.9, p &#60; 0.0001). Other sleep variables including duration, efficiency and latency did not differ significantly between the groups (Table 2).
The second hypothesis is that MSFsc gathered from the MCTQ would be significantly correlated with the gold standard actigraphic and circadian phase biomarkers. Figure 1 shows that MSFsc was significantly correlated with DLMO (R2 = 0.65, p &#60; 0.0001), peak time of cortisol awakening response (R2 = 0.75, p &#60; 0.0001), sleep onset (R2 = 0.80, p &#60; 0.0001) and wake up time (R2 = 0.86, p &#60; 0.0001).
These representative results show that the different circadian phenotype groups have clear differences in sleep onset/offset (i.e., wake up time), as well as in physiological variables (DLMO and peak time of morning cortisol).
Diurnal Testing (Figure 2) 
It was hypothesized that by testing multiple times over the course of the day, diurnal rhythms in subjective sleepiness and performance would be able to be identified in each group (ECPs/LCPs). In addition, it was hypothesized that if circadian phenotypes were not considered and data were analyzed at a whole group level only, then diurnal variations would be misrepresented.
Significant diurnal variations were found at the whole group level for the PVT and KSS. PVT performance at the 08:00 h testing session was significantly slower than the 14:00 h test (p = 0.027), as was subjective sleepiness (p = 0.024). Significantly slower PVT performance was also found between 08:00 h and 20:00 h (p = 0.041).
When each group was analyzed separately, significant diurnal variations in PVT performance were found in LCPs but not in ECPs. LCPs were significantly worse at 08:00 h compared to 14:00 h (p = 0.0079) and better at 20:00 h compared to 08:00 h (p = 0.0006). Subjective sleepiness showed significant diurnal variations within each group. ECPs reported higher sleepiness at 20:00 h compared to 08:00 h (p = 0.0054). The opposite was observed in LCPs who reported highest sleepiness at 08:00 h and lowest at 20:00 h. Sleepiness at 08:00 h was significantly higher than 14:00 h and 20:00 h in LCPs (both p &#60; 0.0001).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60448/60448fig1a.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Linear regression analysis to show relationships between sleep/wake variables using actigraphy and physiological biomarkers. Corrected mid-sleep on free days (MSFsc) is displayed as time of day (h) on the x axis. Early circadian phenotypes (ECPs) are shown in the blue box, Late circadian phenotypes (LCPs) in the red box. (a) Peak time of cortisol awakening response (h), (b) Wake up time (h), (c) Dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) (h), (d) Sleep onset time (h). R2 value is shown in the bottom right corner with significance level displayed at **** = p &#60; 0.0001. This figure has been modified, with permission, from Facer-Childs, et al.23. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60448/60448fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60448/60448fig2a.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Diurnal variations curves in Karolinska Sleepiness Scale and Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) performance. Time of day (h) is shown on the x axis. Whole group results are shown in the first column, Early circadian phenotypes (ECPs) in the second column and Late circadian phenotypes (LCPs) in the third column. (a) Subjective sleepiness (KSS) score, (b) Reaction time from PVT (s). Second order polynomial non-linear regression curves have been fitted. Significance level is shown as ns (not significant), * (p &#60; 0.05), ** (p &#60; 0.01), *** (p &#60; 0.001) and **** (p &#60; 0.0001). This figure has been modified, with permission, from Facer-Childs, et al.23. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60448/60448fig2alarge.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Variable measured</td>
			<td>ECP Category</td>
			<td>ICP Category</td>
			<td>LCP Category</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Actigraphic wake up time</td>
			<td>&#60; 07:30 h</td>
			<td>07:31 - 08:29 h</td>
			<td>&#62; 08:30 h</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peak time of morning cortisol</td>
			<td>&#60; 08:00</td>
			<td>08:01 - 08:59 h</td>
			<td>&#62; 09:00 h</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)</td>
			<td>&#60; 21:30 h</td>
			<td>21:31 - 22:29 h</td>
			<td>&#62; 22.30 h</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Actigraphic sleep onset</td>
			<td>&#60; 23:30 h</td>
			<td>23:31 - 00:29 h</td>
			<td>&#62; 00:30 h</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corrected mid-sleep on free days (MSFsc)</td>
			<td>&#60; 04:00 h</td>
			<td>04:01 - 04:59 h</td>
			<td>&#62; 05:00 h</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Score per variable</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TOTAL SCORE</td>
			<td>0 - 3</td>
			<td>4 - 6</td>
			<td>7 - 10</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Subcategories</td>
			<td>0 = extreme ECP 
			1 = definite ECP 
			2 = moderate ECP 
			3 = mild ECP</td>
			<td>4 = early ICP 
			5 = ICP 
			6 = late ICP</td>
			<td>7 = mild LCP 
			8 = moderate LCP 
			9 = definite LCP 
			10 = extreme LCP</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Categorization cut offs for circadian phenotyping into Early (ECP), Intermediate (ICP) and Late (LCP) groups. Each variable is allocated a score per participant depending on their result and total scores (0-10) allow categorization into each group and each sub-category.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Variable Measured</td>
			<td>ECPs</td>
			<td>LCPs</td>
			<td>Significance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sample Size</td>
			<td>N = 16</td>
			<td>N = 22</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">Number of Males/Females</td>
			<td>M = 7</td>
			<td>M = 7</td>
			<td rowspan="2">p = 0.51c</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>F = 9</td>
			<td>F = 15</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Age (years)</td>
			<td>24.69 &#177; 4.60</td>
			<td>21.32 &#177; 3.27 years</td>
			<td>p = 0.028a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Height (cm)</td>
			<td>171.30 &#177; 1.97</td>
			<td>171.10 &#177; 2.38</td>
			<td>p = 0.97a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Weight (kg)</td>
			<td>66.44 &#177; 2.78</td>
			<td>67.05 &#177; 2.10</td>
			<td>p = 0.88a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MSFsc (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>02:24 &#177; 00:10</td>
			<td>06:52 &#177; 00:17</td>
			<td>p &#60; 0.0001a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sleep Onset (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>22:57 &#177; 00:10</td>
			<td>02:27 &#177; 00:19</td>
			<td>p &#60; 0.0001a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wake Up Time (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>06:33 &#177; 0.10</td>
			<td>10:13 &#177; 00:18</td>
			<td>p &#60; 0.0001a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sleep Duration (h)</td>
			<td>7.59 &#177; 0.18</td>
			<td>7.70 &#177; 0.14</td>
			<td>p = 0.72a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sleep Efficiency (%)</td>
			<td>79.29 &#177; 1.96</td>
			<td>77.23 &#177; 1.14</td>
			<td>p = 0.46a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sleep Onset Latency (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>00:25 &#177; 00:06</td>
			<td>00:25 &#177; 00:03</td>
			<td>p = 0.30b</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phase Angle (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>02:28 &#177; 00:16</td>
			<td>02:34 &#177; 00:18</td>
			<td>p = 0.84a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dim Light Melatonin Onset (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>20:27 &#177; 00:16</td>
			<td>23:55 &#177; 00:26</td>
			<td>p &#60; 0.0001a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cortisol Peak Time (hh:mm)</td>
			<td>07:04 &#177; 00:16</td>
			<td>11:13 &#177; 00:23</td>
			<td>p &#60; 0.0001a</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2: Study variables for circadian phenotype groups; Early (ECPs) and Late (LCPs). Values are shown as mean &#177; SEM apart from age which is shown as mean &#177; SD. Corrected mid-sleep on free days (MSFsc) is calculated from the MCTQ. Type of statistical tests used are shown in superscript; parametric testsa, non-parametric testsb and Fisher&#39;s exact testc. Phase angle is determined by the difference (h) between dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) and sleep onset. All p values are FDR corrected24. This Table has been modified, with permission, from Facer-Childs, et al.23.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Human Circadian Phenotyping and Diurnal Performance Testing in the Real World at JoVE.com

Human Circadian Phenotyping and Diurnal Performance Testing in the Real World

Here, we present a method to investigate diurnal rhythms in performance following accurate categorization of participants into circadian phenotype groups based on the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire, gold standard circadian phase biomarkers and actigraphic measures.

In our continuously developing &#39;around the clock&#39; society, there is a need to increase our understanding of how changes in biology, physiology and ...

human-circadian-phenotyping-diurnal-performance-testing-real

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

8.4K Views.  University of Surrey. Er is inconsistente terminologie en methodologie bij het meten van individuele verschillen in circadiane timing, voorkeur en gedrag. Dit protocol combineert gouden standaardtechnieken voor het categoriseren van circadiane fenotypes en het uitvoeren van dagprestatietesten. Nou, het belangrijkste voordeel van dit protocol is dat we circadiane fenotypes nauwkeurig kunnen beoordelen door te kijken naar zowel circadiane fase als slaapgedrag, en dit kan worden gedaan met individuen in hun thuisomge...

Video: Human Circadian Phenotyping and Diurnal Performance Testing in the Real World

Parallel Measurement of Circadian Clock Gene Expression and Hormone Secretion in Human Primary Cell Cultures

Circadian clocks are functional in all light-sensitive organisms, allowing for an adaptation to the external world by anticipating daily environmental changes. Considerable progress in our understanding of the tight connection between the circadian clock and most aspects of physiology has been made in the field over the last decade. However, unraveling the molecular basis that underlies the function of the circadian oscillator in humans stays of highest technical challenge. Here, we provide a detailed description of an experimental approach for long-term (2-5 days) bioluminescence recording and outflow medium collection in cultured human primary cells. For this purpose, we have transduced primary cells with a lentiviral luciferase reporter that is under control of a core clock gene promoter, which allows for the parallel assessment of hormone secretion and circadian bioluminescence. Furthermore, we describe the conditions for disrupting the circadian clock in primary human cells by transfecting siRNA targeting CLOCK. Our results on the circadian regulation of insulin secretion by human pancreatic islets, and myokine secretion by human skeletal muscle cells, are presented here to illustrate the application of this methodology. These settings can be used to study the molecular makeup of human peripheral clocks and to analyze their functional impact on primary cells under physiological or pathophysiological conditions.

Here, we describe settings to monitor in parallel circadian bioluminescence and the secretory activity of human islet cells and primary myotubes. For this, we employed lentiviral gene delivery of a luciferase core clock reporter, followed by in vitro synchronization and collection of outflow medium by continuous cell perifusion.

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Automated, Quantitative Cognitive/Behavioral Screening of Mice: For Genetics, Pharmacology, Animal Cognition and Undergraduate Instruction

We describe a high-throughput, high-volume, fully automated, live-in 24/7 behavioral testing system for assessing the effects of genetic and pharmacological manipulations on basic mechanisms of cognition and learning in mice. A standard polypropylene mouse housing tub is connected through an acrylic tube to a standard commercial mouse test box. The test box has 3 hoppers, 2 of which are connected to pellet feeders. All are internally illuminable with an LED and monitored for head entries by infrared (IR) beams. Mice live in the environment, which eliminates handling during screening. They obtain their food during two or more daily feeding periods by performing in operant (instrumental) and Pavlovian (classical) protocols, for which we have written protocol-control software and quasi-real-time data analysis and graphing software. The data analysis and graphing routines are written in a MATLAB-based language created to simplify greatly the analysis of large time-stamped behavioral and physiological event records and to preserve a full data trail from raw data through all intermediate analyses to the published graphs and statistics within a single data structure. The data-analysis code harvests the data several times a day and subjects it to statistical and graphical analyses, which are automatically stored in the &#34;cloud&#34; and on in-lab computers. Thus, the progress of individual mice is visualized and quantified daily. The data-analysis code talks to the protocol-control code, permitting the automated advance from protocol to protocol of individual subjects. The behavioral protocols implemented are matching, autoshaping, timed hopper-switching, risk assessment in timed hopper-switching, impulsivity measurement, and the circadian anticipation of food availability. Open-source protocol-control and data-analysis code makes the addition of new protocols simple. Eight test environments fit in a 48 in x 24 in x 78 in&#160;cabinet; two such cabinets (16 environments) may be controlled by one computer.

Fully automated system for measuring physiologically meaningful properties of the mechanisms mediating spatial localization, temporal localization, duration, rate&#160;and probability estimation, risk assessment, impulsivity, and the accuracy and precision of memory, in order to assess the effects of genetic and pharmacological manipulations on foundational mechanisms of cognition in mice.

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Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) pacemakers or clocks. Malfunctions in the human circadian system are associated with numerous diseases or disorders. Much progress towards our understanding of the mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms has emerged from genetic screens whereby an easily measured behavioral rhythm is used as a read-out of clock function. Studies using Drosophila have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the cellular and biochemical bases underlying circadian rhythms. The standard circadian behavioral read-out measured in Drosophila is locomotor activity. In general, the monitoring system involves specially designed devices that can measure the locomotor movement of Drosophila. These devices are housed in environmentally controlled incubators located in a darkroom and are based on using the interruption of a beam of infrared light to record the locomotor activity of individual flies contained inside small tubes. When measured over many days, Drosophila exhibit daily cycles of activity and inactivity, a behavioral rhythm that is governed by the animal's endogenous circadian system. The overall procedure has been simplified with the advent of commercially available locomotor activity monitoring devices and the development of software programs for data analysis. We use the system from Trikinetics Inc., which is the procedure described here and is currently the most popular system used worldwide. More recently, the same monitoring devices have been used to study sleep behavior in Drosophila. Because the daily wake-sleep cycles of many flies can be measured simultaneously and only 1 to 2 weeks worth of continuous locomotor activity data is usually sufficient, this system is ideal for large-scale screens to identify Drosophila manifesting altered circadian or sleep properties.

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

We describe procedures for recording daily locomotor activity rhythms of Drosophila and subsequent data analysis. Locomotor activity rhythms are a reliable behavioral output of animal circadian clocks and are used as the standard readout of clock function when studying circadian mutants or examining how the environment regulates the circadian system.

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Neuroscience

In Vitro Bioluminescence Assay to Characterize Circadian Rhythm in Mammary Epithelial Cells

The circadian rhythm is a fundamental physiological process present in all organisms that regulates biological processes ranging from gene expression to sleep behavior. In vertebrates, circadian rhythm is controlled by a molecular oscillator that functions in both the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN; central pacemaker) and individual cells comprising most peripheral tissues. More importantly, disruption of circadian rhythm by exposure to light-at-night, environmental stressors and/or toxicants is associated with increased risk of chronic diseases and aging. The ability to identify agents that can disrupt central and/or peripheral biological clocks, and agents that can prevent or mitigate the effects of circadian disruption, has significant implications for prevention of chronic diseases. Although rodent models can be used to identify exposures and agents that induce or prevent/mitigate circadian disruption, these experiments require large numbers of animals. In vivo studies also require significant resources and infrastructure, and require researchers to work all night. Thus, there is an urgent need for a cell-type appropriate in vitro system to screen for environmental circadian disruptors and enhancers in cell types from different organs and disease states. We constructed a vector that drives transcription of the destabilized luciferase in eukaryotic cells under the control of the human PERIOD 2 gene promoter. This circadian reporter construct was stably transfected into human mammary epithelial cells, and circadian responsive reporter cells were selected to develop the in vitro bioluminescence assay. Here, we present a detailed protocol to establish and validate the assay. We further provide details for proof of concept experiments demonstrating the ability of our in vitro assay to recapitulate the in vivo effects of various chemicals on the cellular biological clock. The results indicate that the assay can be adapted to a variety of cell types to screen for both environmental disruptors and chemopreventive enhancers of circadian clocks.

In Vitro Bioluminescence Assay to Characterize Circadian Rhythm in Mammary Epithelial Cells

An in vitro bioluminescence assay to determine cellular circadian rhythm in mammary epithelial cells is presented. This method utilizes mammalian cell reporter plasmids expressing destabilized luciferase under the control of the PERIOD 2 gene promoter. It can be adapted to other cell types to evaluate organ-specific effects on circadian rhythm.

The circadian rhythm is a fundamental physiological process present in all organisms that regulates biological processes ranging from gene expression to ...

Measuring Circadian and Acute Light Responses in Mice using Wheel Running Activity

Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2. They are responsible for timing our sleep/wake cycles and hormone secretion. Since this timing is not precisely 24-hours, it is synchronized to the solar day by light input. This is accomplished via photic input from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which serves as the master pacemaker synchronizing peripheral clocks in other regions of the brain and peripheral tissues to the environmental light dark cycle3-7. The alignment of rhythms to this environmental light dark cycle organizes particular physiological events to the correct temporal niche, which is crucial for survival8. For example, mice sleep during the day and are active at night. This ability to consolidate activity to either the light or dark portion of the day is referred to as circadian photoentrainment and requires light input to the circadian clock9. Activity of mice at night is robust particularly in the presence of a running wheel. Measuring this behavior is a minimally invasive method that can be used to evaluate the functionality of the circadian system as well as light input to this system. Methods that will covered here are used to examine the circadian clock, light input to this system, as well as the direct influence of light on wheel running behavior.

This article will review methods that can be used to determine circadian function and light responsiveness in mice.

Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2.  They ...

A Computational Method to Quantify Fly Circadian Activity

In most animals and plants, circadian clocks orchestrate behavioral and molecular processes and synchronize them to the daily light-dark cycle. Fundamental mechanisms that underlie this temporal control are widely studied using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism. In flies, the clock is typically studied by analyzing multiday locomotor recording. Such a recording shows a complex bimodal pattern with two peaks of activity: a morning peak that happens around dawn, and an evening peak that happens around dusk. These two peaks together form a waveform that is very different from sinusoidal oscillations observed in clock genes, suggesting that mechanisms in addition to the clock have profound effects in producing the observed patterns in behavioral data. Here we provide instructions on using a recently developed computational method that mathematically describes temporal patterns in fly activity. The method fits activity data with a model waveform that consists of four exponential terms and nine independent parameters that fully describe the shape and size of the morning and evening peaks of activity. The extracted parameters can help elucidate the kinetic mechanisms of substrates that underlie the commonly observed bimodal activity patterns in fly locomotor rhythms.

A method to quantify the main temporal features seen in fly circadian locomotor rhythms is presented. The quantification is achieved by fitting fly activity with a multi-parametric model waveform. The model parameters describe the shape and size of the morning and evening peaks of daily activity.

In most animals and plants, circadian clocks orchestrate behavioral and molecular processes and synchronize them to the daily light-dark cycle. ...

Recording and Analysis of Circadian Rhythms in Running-wheel Activity in Rodents

When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5. Nocturnal rodents, including rats, hamsters, and mice, are active during the night and relatively inactive during the day. Many other behavioral and physiological measures also exhibit daily rhythms, but in rodents, running-wheel activity serves as a particularly reliable and convenient measure of the output of the master circadian clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. In general, through a process called entrainment, the daily pattern of running-wheel activity will naturally align with the environmental light-dark cycle (LD cycle; e.g. 12 hr-light:12 hr-dark). However circadian rhythms are endogenously generated patterns in behavior that exhibit a ~24 hr period, and persist in constant darkness. Thus, in the absence of an LD cycle, the recording and analysis of running-wheel activity can be used to determine the subjective time-of-day. Because these rhythms are directed by the circadian clock the subjective time-of-day is referred to as the circadian time (CT). In contrast, when an LD cycle is present, the time-of-day that is determined by the environmental LD cycle is called the zeitgeber time (ZT).
Although circadian rhythms in running-wheel activity are typically linked to the SCN clock6-8, circadian oscillators in many other regions of the brain and body9-14 could also be involved in the regulation of daily activity rhythms. For instance, daily rhythms in food-anticipatory activity do not require the SCN15,16 and instead, are correlated with changes in the activity of extra-SCN oscillators17-20. Thus, running-wheel activity recordings can provide important behavioral information not only about the output of the master SCN clock, but also on the activity of extra-SCN oscillators. Below we describe the equipment and methods used to record, analyze and display circadian locomotor activity rhythms in laboratory rodents.

Circadian rhythms in voluntary wheel-running activity in mammals are tightly coupled to the molecular oscillations of a master clock in the brain. As such, these daily rhythms in behavior can be used to study the influence of genetic, pharmacological, and environmental factors on the functioning of this circadian clock.

When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5. Nocturnal rodents, ...

Collecting Sleep, Circadian, Fatigue, and Performance Data in Complex Operational Environments

Sleep loss and circadian misalignment contribute to a meaningful proportion of operational accidents and incidents. Countermeasures and work scheduling designs aimed at mitigating fatigue are typically evaluated in controlled laboratory environments, but the effectiveness of translating such strategies to operational environments can be challenging to assess. This manuscript summarizes an approach for collecting sleep, circadian, fatigue, and performance data in a complex operational environment. We studied 44 airline pilots over 34 days while they flew a fixed schedule, which included a baseline data collection with 5 days of mid-morning flights, four early flights, four high-workload mid-day flights, and four late flights that landed after midnight. Each work block was separated by 3&#8211;4 days of rest. To assess sleep, participants wore a wrist-worn research-validated activity monitor continuously and completed daily sleep diaries. To assess the circadian phase, pilots were asked to collect all urine produced in four or eight hourly bins during the 24 h after each duty block for the assessment of 6-sulfatoxymelatonin (aMT6s), which is a biomarker of the circadian rhythm. To assess subjective fatigue and objective performance, participants were provided with a touch-screen device used to complete the Samn-Perelli Fatigue Scale and Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) during and after each flight, and at waketime, mid-day, and bedtime. Using these methods, it was found that sleep duration was reduced during early starts and late finishes relative to baseline. Circadian phase shifted according to duty schedule, but there was a wide range in the aMT6s peak between individuals on each schedule. PVT performance was worse on the early, high-workload, and late schedules relative to baseline. Overall, the combination of these methods was practical and effective for assessing the influence of sleep loss and circadian phase on fatigue and performance in a complex operational environment.

Sleep loss and circadian misalignment contribute to numerous operational accidents and incidents. The effectiveness of countermeasures and work scheduling designs aimed at mitigating fatigue can be challenging to evaluate in operational environments. This manuscript summarizes an approach for collecting sleep, circadian, fatigue, and performance data in complex operational environments.

Sleep loss and circadian misalignment contribute to a meaningful proportion of operational accidents and incidents. Countermeasures and work scheduling ...

Analysis of Circadian Photoresponses in Drosophila Using Locomotor Activity

Circadian rhythms are only beneficial to animals if they can be synchronized by changes of ambient conditions. Light and temperature are two dominant environmental parameters that synchronize animal circadian clocks. In Drosophila circadian photo-responses are mediated by a solely blue light photoreceptor named CRYPTOCHROME (CRY). Upon photoreception, CRY changes its conformation and initiates the proteosomal dependent degradation of TIMELESS (TIM). TIM is an important pacemaker protein, thus degradation of TIM will reset the circadian clock. Under constant light conditions (LL), wild type flies quickly become arrhythmic because of the constant degradation of TIM, while flies bearing defects with circadian photo-responses will still be rhythmic. Thus LL triggered arrhythmicity has been used for screening of components in circadian light input pathways. A brief short light pulse in the night can also dramatically shift phases of circadian rhythms. As expected, this phase shift response is reduced in flied with defects in circadian photoresponse. Thus analyzing locomotion behavior rhythmicity under LL or phase changes after short light pulse in constant darkness (DD) are two major methods to study circadian photoresponse. Here we describe how to design and analyze LL and phase response experiments. LL arrhythmicity is suitable for screening light input pathways mutants, whereas phase response validates the results and provide further information for light sensitivity.

Drosophila locomotor activity is a robust and quantitative measurement of circadian photo-responses. We describe protocols for designing behavior experiments for circadian photo-responses and analyzing the data. Studying the circadian photo-responses is important for dissecting the neuronal and molecular mechanisms of light entrainment.

Circadian rhythms are only beneficial to animals if they can be synchronized by changes of ambient conditions. Light and temperature are two dominant ...

Biology

Use of Minimally Invasive Methods to Assess Fuel Utilization and Circadian Rhythms in Older Adults

Aging is associated with multiple physiological changes that contribute synergistically and independently to physical disability and the risk of chronic disease. Although the etiology of age-related physical disability is complex and multifactorial, the decline in mitochondrial function appears to coincide with the progression of functional decline in many older adults. The reason why there is a decrease in mitochondrial function with aging remains elusive, but emerging science indicates that both fuel metabolism and circadian rhythms can influence mitochondrial function.
Recent studies have established that circadian rhythms become disturbed with aging, and that disrupted circadian rhythms have pathological consequences that impact mitochondrial function and overlap with many age-associated chronic diseases. Current quantitative methods for direct assessment of mitochondrial function are invasive and typically require a muscle biopsy, which can pose difficulties with participant recruitment and study adherence, given the perceived levels of potential pain and risk. Thus, an innovative and relatively noninvasive protocol to assess changes in mitochondrial function at the cellular level and circadian patterns in older adults was adapted. Specifically, a real-time metabolic flux analyzer is used to assess the mitochondrial bioenergetic function of white blood cells under differential substrate availability.
The expression of circadian clock genes in white blood cells to cross-correlate with the mitochondrial bioenergetics and circadian rhythm outcomes are also analyzed. It is believed that these innovative methodological approaches will aid future clinical trials by providing minimally invasive methods for studying mitochondrial substrate preference and circadian rhythms in older adults.

A novel and minimally invasive protocol is presented to evaluate the synergistic impact of fuel utilization and circadian rhythms on aging individuals, utilizing peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Aging is associated with multiple physiological changes that contribute synergistically and independently to physical disability and the risk of chronic ...

Human Circadian Phenotyping and Diurnal Performance Testing in the Real World

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