We thank National Institute of Plant Genome Research - Phytotron Facility for plant growth, Bombay Locale for the video shoot, and the Department of Biotechnology- eLibrary Consortium for providing access to e-resources. This work was supported by the Department of Biotechnology, India through the National Institute of Plant Genome Research Core Grant, Max Planck Gesellschaft-India Partner Group program; and CSIR-Junior Research Fellowship (to D.M and S.M) and Department of Biotechnology-Junior Research Fellowship (to R.P).

1. EMS mutagenesis and single pedigree-based seed collection (1-3 months)
<ol>
	<li>Weigh 150 mg of seeds (~7500) of aequorin for EMS mutagenesis (M0 seeds). Weigh another 150 mg of seeds to be used as a control.</li>
	<li>Transfer the seeds to a 50 mL tube and add 25 mL of 0.2% EMS (v/v) (CAUTION) (for treatment) or 25 mL of autoclaved water (for control). 
	NOTE: Ethyl-methane sulfonate is a chemical agent for mutagenizing plant material.</li>
	<li>Seal the tube with parafilm and wrap it in aluminum foil. Rotate the tube end-over-end for 18 h at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Allow the seeds to settle. Remove the EMS solution carefully and discard in a waste container containing 1 M NaOH in equal volumes (NaOH helps to neutralize/inactivate EMS making it safe to discard). Discard the used plasticware in a 1 M NaOH solution. 
	NOTE:&#160;After 24 h, dispose the discards according to hazardous material laboratory practices.</li>
	<li>Wash the mutagenized seeds thoroughly with 40 mL of autoclaved water at least 8 times. Discard EMS containing water in a NaOH waste container as mentioned above.</li>
	<li>For the final wash, add 40 mL of 100 mM sodium thiosulfate and rinse 3 times to remove traces of EMS.</li>
	<li>Soak the seeds in 40 mL of autoclaved water for ~1 h to diffuse EMS out of seeds and then place them on filter paper until completely dry.</li>
	<li>Transfer the seeds to a microcentrifuge tube and stratify the seeds at 4 &#176;C in 40 mL of autoclaved water for 2-4 days. This helps in breaking seed dormancy and ensures homogenous growth.</li>
	<li>Transfer both the mutagenized seeds (M0) and the control seeds on to soil (soil composition: agropet: soilrite, 1:1) and transfer them to growth rooms with a 16 h light/8 h dark photoperiod, a light intensity of 150 &#956;mol&#8729;m&#8722;2&#8729;s&#8722;1 and ~70% relative humidity.</li>
	<li>To determine if mutagenesis was successful, look for reduced germination speed and seedling growth, and chlorophyll sectoring18 (Figure 1A). Compare the mutagenized plants to the control plants to identify these physiological and developmental differences. 
	NOTE: Different methods can be used for harvesting seeds from M1 plants. In this protocol, we have used the single pedigree-based seed collection method. Each M1 plant is given a unique number, starting from A1 to A3500.</li>
	<li>Maintain individually numbered plants as discrete plant lines (Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Upon maturation, harvest seeds from these individual mutant plants and store as individual M1 lines (Figure 2). From the single pedigree-based seed collection, we obtained around 5000 M1 lines out of which 3500 M1 lines were screened.</li>
</ol>
2. High-throughput screening to select mutants (8 months)
<ol>
	<li>Identify novel mutants based on the Ca2+ response to a selected stimulus. Here, we used H2O2 as an example.</li>
	<li>For identifying mutants, screen the M2 generation. Since recessive mutants segregate at 1/8 frequency in M2 generation upon EMS mutagenesis14, screening of 8-12 M2-segregating plants covers one M1 line and identifies a homozygous recessive mutant (using 12 seedlings increases the probability of finding a mutant). From each independent M1 line, test 12 M2 seedlings for Ca2+ response to H2O2 (12 M2 seedlings per M1 line).</li>
	<li>Use a high throughput seed sterilization and hydroponic plant growth protocol19. Place nearly 12-15 M2 seeds per M1 line in individual wells of a 24-well tissue culture plate and sterilize using chlorine gas (40 mL of 12% sodium hypochlorite and hydrochloric acid, 3:1, v/v) in a desiccator for 4 h in a fume hood. After the procedure, open the desiccator and leave overnight for chlorine gas to evaporate.</li>
	<li>After sterilization, bring plates outside and add liquid 1/2 MS media (half-strength MS without agar) to individual wells. Seal the plates with parafilm and stratify the seeds for 2-4 days at 4 &#176;C and then move seeds to a growth chamber with 10 h light/ 14 h dark photoperiod at 20-22 &#176;C with 70% relative humidity.</li>
	<li>Once the seedlings are 8-12 days old, place 12 M2 seedling from each line individually in a 96-well luminometer plate. For measuring Ca2+ response to H2O2, use a luminometer plate reader.</li>
	<li>After seedling transfer, add 150 &#181;L of 5-10 &#181;M coelentrazine solution (diluted in autoclaved water from a 5 mM stock in methanol) (CAUTION) in individual wells in a dark/low-light area and store in dark at 21 &#176;C for 8 h. 
	NOTE: Coelentrazine is a prosthetic group that binds to apo-aequorin and reconstitutes it to functional aequorin. Coelentrazine is light sensitive and is hence stored in dark colored bottles, protected from light.</li>
	<li>The next day, perform mutant screen using 10 mM H2O2 as a stimulus and measure the subsequent Ca2+ response.</li>
	<li>For simultaneous measurement of 24 wells, create an automated kinetic program that measures the background for 1 min, followed by stimuli addition (40 &#956;L) and measurement for 10 min, followed by total aequorin discharge (2 M CaCl2 in 150 &#181;L 20% ethanol) for 1-2 min. 
	NOTE: An end discharge for the total aequorin is needed to quantify the measured Ca2+ and as additional control for functional aequorin. The end discharge is a short run of 1-2 min and does not cause significant plant death. Alternatively, if the plants die after discharge step, then re-screen the specific M1 line and rescue without discharge. Such mutants can be confirmed in M3 and M4 generations using the discharge step.</li>
	<li>Use a 24-well format scanning method that measures each row in 7 s interval with 300 ms integration time per well per measurement point. Use a wild-type seedling as control in each row for comparison and evaluation of the mutant. 
	NOTE: A single 96 well plate containing M2 seedlings will cover 8 individual M1 line (8 M1*12= 96 M2) and can be screened in 2.5 h and each day 32 M1 lines would be screened, 640 M1 plants per month. The whole screening procedure after the plants are ready would take around 8 months.</li>
	<li>Identify mutants based on loss of or reduced Ca2+ response with H2O2. Rescue the selected mutants through an antibiotic-based washing process. Wash the seedling with 25 mg/L cefotaxime solution twice and then transfer to rescue medium that contains 25 mg/L cefotaxime in 1/2 MS agar.</li>
	<li>Grow the plates at a 10 h light/ 14 h dark photoperiod to obtain a mutant plant. The cefotaxime wash helps to remove any harmful micro-organisms on the seedling. Since the seedlings after reconstitution are kept un-sealed, minimize contamination when transferring back to sterile condition.</li>
	<li>Transfer the mutant plant to soil for obtaining the homozygous M3 population.</li>
</ol>
3. Data analysis and mutant identification (1-3 months)
NOTE: The readings provided from the above method are in relative light units (RLU).
<ol>
	<li>For calculating [Ca2+]cyt concentration, use the following concentration equation20. 
	pCa = 0.332588(&#8722;log (L/Lmax)) + 5.5593 
	Luminescence counts () and total remaining counts (max).</li>
	<li>Convert the obtained pCa values to [Ca2+]cyt values in &#956;M by multiplying by 106. Then graphically plot against an aequorin (transgenic Col-0 aequorin) control for identifying putative H2O2 mutants to Ca2+ response.</li>
	<li>Rescue seedlings showing a loss of or reduced response to H2O2 application rescued.</li>
	<li>Upon maturation, harvest seeds from the rescued mutant and re-screen for response to H2O2 in M3 seedlings. If all 12 M3 seedlings show a Ca2+ response similar to the mother plant, consider the population to be a homozygous M3 mutant population. If all 12 seedlings do not show such a response, then take them to M4 generation and re-screen to obtain homozygous population.</li>
	<li>Once a homozygous plant line has been obtained, identify the gene leading to altered phenotype using next generation sequencing.</li>
</ol>

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None of the authors have any conflicts of interest to declare.

EMS mutagenesis is a powerful tool to generate mutations in population. The classical forward genetic screens using EMS has been an effective tool to identify novel genes for two major reasons: firstly, they do not require any prior assumptions on gene identity and secondly, they do not introduce any bias. There are several methods to generate a screening populations like EMS, T-DNA insertions, radiations etc. Out of all the methods, EMS-based mutagenesis has few advantages over the other methods. First, it is easier to ...

A change in cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) concentration upon perception of biotic or abiotic stimulus is a well-studied early signaling event that activates many signaling pathways1,2,3,4. A cell in its basal resting state maintains a lower Ca2+ concentration in the cytosol and sequesters excess Ca2+ in various intracellular organelles and extracellular apoplast leading to a steep Ca2+ gradient5,6. Upon signal perception, Ca2+ levels rise in the cytosol due to an influx of Ca2+ from extracellular and/or intracellular sources and generate a stimuli specific calcium signature7,8,9. Ca2+ elevations in the cytosol are activated by many stimuli, but specificity is maintained by distinct stores releasing Ca2+, a unique Ca2+ signature and appropriate sensor proteins10,11.
The use of alkylating agent, ethyl-methane sulfonate (EMS) for mutagenesis is a powerful tool in classical forward genetic screens to identify multiple independent genes involved in a process. EMS is a chemical mutagen predominantly inducing C to T and G to A transitions randomly throughout the genome and produces a 1 bp change in every 125 kb of the genome. EMS mutagenesis will induce &#8776;1000 single base pair changes, either insertion/deletions (InDel) or single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) per genome12. EMS-induced mutations are multiple point mutations with a mutation frequency ranging from 1/300 to 1/30000 per locus. This reduces the number of M1 plants needed to find a mutation in a given gene. A M1 seed population range of 2000-3000 is typically used to obtain mutations of interest in Arabidopsis thaliana13,14.
Aequorin transgenics are Arabidopsis Columbia-0 (Col-0) ecotype plants expressing p35S-apoaequorin (pMAQ2) in the cytosol15. Aequorin is a Ca2+ binding protein composed of apoprotein and a prosthetic group consisting of luciferin molecule, coelenterazine.&#160;The binding of Ca2+ to aequorin, which has three Ca2+ binding EF-hands sites, results in coelenterazine being oxidized and cyclized to give the dioxetanone intermediate, followed by a conformational change of the protein accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide and singlet-excited coelenteramide16. The coelenteramide so produced emits a blue light (&#955;max, 470 nm) that can be detected by the luminometer17. The extremely fast Ca2+ elevations can thus be measured in real time, and exploited for rapid forward genetic screens. This protocol aims to use the specificity of calcium response to identify novel key players that are involved in the Ca2+ signature. To achieve this task, we use EMS mutagenesis in transgenic aequorin and identify the SNPs associated with altered Ca2+ signaling. The protocol identifies mutants that show no or reduced Ca2+ elevations upon stimuli addition. These mutants can then be mapped to identify the genes responsible for the Ca2+ response. The method is applicable to any kind of liquid stimuli in plants that results in a Ca2+ elevation. Since Ca2+ elevation is one of the first responses in the plant defense signaling pathway, the identification of upstream response components can provide candidates for genetic engineering to develop resilient plants.

<table><tbody><tr><td>24 well tissue culture plate</td><td>Jetbiofil</td><td>11024</td><td>for growing seedlings</td></tr><tr><td>96 well white cliniplate</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>9502887</td><td>for luminometer measurements</td></tr><tr><td>Aequorin</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Agropet</td><td>Lab Chem India</td><td></td><td>for plant growth</td></tr><tr><td>Calcium chloride</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12135</td><td>for discharge solution</td></tr><tr><td>Coelenterazine</td><td>PJK</td><td>55779-48-1</td><td>prosthetic group for aequorin</td></tr><tr><td>Ehtylmethane sulfonate</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>M0880-5G</td><td>for seed mutagenesis</td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol</td><td>Analytical reagent</td><td>1170</td><td>for discharge solution</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrochloric acid</td><td>Merck Life Sciences</td><td>1.93001.0521</td><td>sterlization solution</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrogen peroxide</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>15465</td><td>as stimulus for Calcium elevation</td></tr><tr><td>Luminoskan ascent</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>5300172</td><td>aequorin luminescence measurement</td></tr><tr><td>MES buffer</td><td>Himedia</td><td>RM1128-100G</td><td>plant growth</td></tr><tr><td>Murashige and skoog media</td><td>Himedia</td><td>PT021-25L</td><td>plant growth</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium hydroxide</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>27805</td><td>for neutralizing EMS</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium hypochlorite</td><td>Merck Life Sciences</td><td>1.93607.5021</td><td>sterlization solution</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium thiosulfate</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>28005</td><td>for seed washing in step 1.6</td></tr><tr><td>soilrite</td><td>Lab Chem India</td><td></td><td>for plant growth</td></tr><tr><td>Square pots</td><td>Lab Chem India</td><td></td><td>for plant growth</td></tr><tr><td>Sucrose</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>S0389</td><td>plant growth</td></tr><tr><td>Taxim</td><td>Alkem</td><td>7180720</td><td>for seedling rescue</td></tr></tbody></table>

forward genetic screen using transgenic calcium reporter aequorin to identify novel targets in calcium signaling

Forward genetic screens have been important tools in the unbiased identification of genetic components involved in several biological pathways. The basis of the screen is to generate a mutant population that can be screened with a phenotype of interest. EMS (ethyl methane sulfonate) is a commonly used alkylating agent for inducing random mutation in a classical forward genetic screen to identify multiple genes involved in any given process. Cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) elevation is a key early signaling pathway that is activated upon stress perception. However the identity of receptors, channels, pumps and transporters of Ca2+ is still elusive in many study systems. Aequorin is a cellular calcium reporter protein isolated from Aequorea victoria and stably expressed in Arabidopsis. Exploiting this, we designed a forward genetic screen in which we EMS-mutagenized the aequorin transgenic. The seeds from the mutant plants were collected (M1) and screening for the phenotype of interest was carried out in the segregating (M2) population. Using a 96-well high-throughput Ca2+ measurement protocol, several novel mutants can be identified that have a varying calcium response and are measured in real time. The mutants with the phenotype of interest are rescued and propagated till a homozygous mutant plant population is obtained. This protocol provides a method for forward genetic screens in Ca2+ reporter background and identify novel Ca2+ regulated targets.

The EMS population was screened for H2O2 induced Ca2+ elevation. As discussed earlier, 12 individual M2 seedlings were screened from each M1 line. In Figure 3, one such M1 line is plotted with each panel showing 12 individual M2 seedlings. A wild-type aequorin is used as control for comparing and evaluating the mutant response. A recessive mutant segregates in the ratio of 1:7 (mutant: non mutant). When screening 12...

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Forward Genetic Screen Using Transgenic Calcium Reporter Aequorin to Identify Novel Targets in Calcium Signaling

A forward genetic screen based on Ca2+ elevation as a read-out leads to identification of genetic components involved in calcium dependent signaling pathways in plants.

Forward genetic screens have been important tools in the unbiased identification of genetic components involved in several biological pathways. The basis ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

8.1K Views.  National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India. Het doel van dit protocol is het identificeren van een methode die kan worden gebruikt voor het identificeren van nieuwe genen die betrokken zijn bij calciumsignalering. Hiervoor gebruiken we het klassieke voorwaartse genetische scherm. Calcium signalering is een belangrijke verdediging reactie traject in verschillende plant systemen.Om de genen die betrokken zijn bij dit traject te identificeren, hebben we het klassieke voorwaartse genetische scherm gebruikt. Bij deze methode zou EMS ...

Video: Forward Genetic Screen Using Transgenic Calcium Reporter Aequorin to Identify Novel Targets in Calcium Signaling

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, well-characterized nervous system allows identification and fluorescence imaging of any neuron within the intact animal. Simple immobilization techniques with minimal impact on the animal's physiology allow extended time-lapse imaging. The development of genetically-encoded calcium sensitive fluorophores such as cameleon 1 and GCaMP 2 allow in vivo imaging of neuronal calcium relating both cell physiology and neuronal activity. Numerous transgenic strains expressing these fluorophores in specific neurons are readily available or can be constructed using well-established techniques. Here, we describe detailed procedures for measuring calcium dynamics within a single neuron in vivo using both GCaMP and cameleon. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of both as well as various methods of sample preparation (animal immobilization) and image analysis. Finally, we present results from two experiments: 1) Using GCaMP to measure the sensory response of a specific neuron to an external electrical field and 2) Using cameleon to measure the physiological calcium response of a neuron to traumatic laser damage. Calcium imaging techniques such as these are used extensively in C. elegans and have been extended to measurements in freely moving animals, multiple neurons simultaneously and comparison across genetic backgrounds. C. elegans presents a robust and flexible system for in vivo neuronal imaging with advantages over other model systems in technical simplicity and cost.

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

With its small transparent body, well-documented neuroanatomy and a host of amenable genetic techniques and reagents, C. elegans makes an ideal model organism for in vivo neuronal imaging using relatively simple, low-cost techniques. Here we describe single neuron imaging within intact adult animals using genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicators.

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism  for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, ...

Neuroscience

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

Spontaneous intracellular calcium activity can be observed in a variety of cell types and is proposed to play critical roles in a variety of physiological processes. In particular, appropriate regulation of calcium activity patterns during embryogenesis is necessary for many aspects of vertebrate neural development, including proper neural tube closure, synaptogenesis, and neurotransmitter phenotype specification. While the observation that calcium activity patterns can differ in both frequency and amplitude suggests a compelling mechanism by which these fluxes might transmit encoded signals to downstream effectors and regulate gene expression, existing population-level approaches have lacked the precision necessary to further explore this possibility. Furthermore, these approaches limit studies of the role of cell-cell interactions by precluding the ability to assay the state of neuronal determination in the absence of cell-cell contact. Therefore, we have established an experimental workflow that pairs time-lapse calcium imaging of dissociated neuronal explants with a fluorescence in situ hybridization assay, allowing the unambiguous correlation of calcium activity pattern with molecular phenotype on a single-cell level. We were successfully able to use this approach to distinguish and characterize specific calcium activity patterns associated with differentiating neural cells and neural progenitor cells, respectively; beyond this, however, the experimental framework described in this article could be readily adapted to investigate correlations between any time-series activity profile and expression of a gene or genes of interest.

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

We present a two-part protocol that combines fluorescent calcium imaging with in situ hybridization, allowing the experimenter to correlate patterns of calcium activity with gene expression profiles on a single-cell level.

Spontaneous intracellular calcium activity can be observed in a variety of cell types and is proposed to play critical roles in a variety of physiological ...

Developmental Biology

A "Dual-Addition" Calcium Fluorescence Assay for the High-Throughput Screening of Recombinant G Protein-Coupled Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest superfamily of receptors and are the targets of numerous human drugs. High-throughput screening (HTS) of random small molecule libraries against GPCRs is used by the pharmaceutical industry for target-specific drug discovery. In this study, an HTS was employed to identify novel small-molecule ligands of invertebrate-specific neuropeptide GPCRs as probes for physiological studies of vectors of deadly human and veterinary pathogens.
The invertebrate-specific kinin receptor was chosen as a target because it regulates many important physiological processes in invertebrates, including diuresis, feeding, and digestion. Furthermore, the pharmacology of many invertebrate GPCRs is poorly characterized or not characterized at all; therefore, the differential pharmacology of these groups of receptors with respect to the related GPCRs in other metazoans, especially humans, adds knowledge to the structure-activity relationships of GPCRs as a superfamily. An HTS assay was developed for cells in 384-well plates for the discovery of ligands of the kinin receptor from the cattle fever tick, or southern cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus. The tick kinin receptor was stably expressed in CHO-K1 cells.
The kinin receptor, when activated by endogenous kinin neuropeptides or other small molecule agonists, triggers Ca2+ release from calcium stores into the cytoplasm. This calcium fluorescence assay combined with a &#34;dual-addition&#34; approach can detect functional agonist and antagonist &#34;hit&#34; molecules in the same assay plate. Each assay was conducted using drug plates carrying an array of 320 random small molecules. A reliable Z&#39; factor of 0.7 was obtained, and three agonist and two antagonist hit molecules were identified when the HTS was at a 2 &#181;M final concentration. The calcium fluorescence assay reported here can be adapted to screen other GPCRs that activate the Ca2+ signaling cascade.

In this work, a high-throughput, intracellular calcium fluorescence assay for 384-well plates to screen small molecule libraries on recombinant G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is described. The target, the kinin receptor from the cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is expressed in CHO-K1 cells. This assay identifies agonists and antagonists using the same cells in one "dual-addition" assay.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest superfamily of receptors and are the targets of numerous human drugs. High-throughput screening ...

Biochemistry

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new method of Ca2+-imaging using the bioluminescent reporter GFP-aequorin (GA) has been developed. This new technique relies on the fusion of the GFP and aequorin genes, producing a molecule capable of binding calcium and&#160;&#8212; with the addition of its cofactor coelenterazine &#8212; emitting bright light that can be monitored through a photon collector. Transgenic lines carrying the GFP-aequorin gene have been generated for both mice and Drosophila. In Drosophila, the GFP-aequorin gene has been placed under the control of the GAL4/UAS binary expression system allowing for targeted expression and imaging within the brain. This method has subsequently been shown to be capable of detecting both inward Ca2+-transients and Ca2+-released from inner stores. Most importantly it allows for a greater duration in continuous recording, imaging at greater depths within the brain, and recording at high temporal resolutions (up to 8.3 msec). Here we present the basic method for using bioluminescent imaging to record and analyze Ca2+-activity within the mushroom bodies, a structure central to learning and memory in the fly brain.

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Here we present a novel Ca2+-imaging approach using a bioluminescent reporter. This approach uses a fused construct GFP-aequorin which binds to Ca2+ and emits light, eliminating the need for light excitation. Significantly this method permits long continuous imaging, access to deep brain structures and high temporal resolution.

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new ...

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized animals. Highly sensitive, genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of Ca2+ have revolutionized the recording of cell and synaptic activity using non-invasive optical approaches in behaving animals. When combined with genetic and optogenetic techniques, the molecular mechanisms that modulate cell and circuit activity during different behavior states can be identified.
Here we describe methods for ratiometric Ca2+ imaging of single neurons in freely behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. We demonstrate a simple mounting technique that gently overlays worms growing on a standard Nematode Growth Media (NGM) agar block with a glass coverslip, permitting animals to be recorded at high-resolution during unrestricted movement and behavior. With this technique, we use the sensitive Ca2+ reporter GCaMP5 to record changes in intracellular Ca2+ in the serotonergic Hermaphrodite Specific Neurons (HSNs) as they drive egg-laying behavior. By co-expressing mCherry, a Ca2+-insensitive fluorescent protein, we can track the position of the HSN within ~ 1 &#181;m and correct for fluctuations in fluorescence caused by changes in focus or movement. Simultaneous, infrared brightfield imaging allows for behavior recording and animal tracking using a motorized stage. By integrating these microscopic techniques and data streams, we can record Ca2+ activity in the C. elegans egg-laying circuit as it progresses between inactive and active behavior states over tens of minutes.

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

This protocol describes the use of genetically encoded Ca2+ reporters to record changes in neural activity in behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. &#8195;

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized ...

Characterization of G Protein-coupled Receptors by a Fluorescence-based Calcium Mobilization Assay

For more than 20 years, reverse pharmacology has been the preeminent strategy to discover the activating ligands of orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The onset of a reverse pharmacology assay is the cloning and subsequent transfection of a GPCR of interest in a cellular expression system. The heterologous expressed receptor is then challenged with a compound library of candidate ligands to identify the receptor-activating ligand(s). Receptor activation can be assessed by measuring changes in concentration of second messenger reporter molecules, like calcium or cAMP. The fluorescence-based calcium mobilization assay described here is a frequently used medium-throughput reverse pharmacology assay. The orphan GPCR is transiently expressed in human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells and a promiscuous G&#945;16 construct is co-transfected. Following ligand binding, activation of the G&#945;16 subunit induces the release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum. Prior to ligand screening, the receptor-expressing cells are loaded with a fluorescent calcium indicator, Fluo-4 acetoxymethyl. The fluorescent signal of Fluo-4 is negligible in cells under resting conditions, but can be amplified more than a 100-fold upon the interaction with calcium ions that are released after receptor activation. The described technique does not require the time-consuming establishment of stably transfected cell lines in which the transfected genetic material is integrated into the host cell genome. Instead, a transient transfection, generating temporary expression of the target gene, is sufficient to perform the screening assay. The setup allows medium-throughput screening of hundreds of compounds. Co-transfection of the promiscuous G&#945;16, which couples to most GPCRs, allows the intracellular signaling pathway to be redirected towards the release of calcium, regardless of the native signaling pathway in endogenous settings. The HEK293T cells are easy to handle and have proven their efficacy throughout the years in receptor deorphanization assays. However, optimization of the assay for specific receptors may remain necessary.

The here described fluorescence-based calcium mobilization assay is a medium-throughput reverse pharmacology screening system for the identification of functionally activating ligand(s) of orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).

For more than 20 years, reverse pharmacology has been the preeminent strategy to discover the activating ligands of orphan G protein-coupled receptors ...

In vitro Assessment of Cardiac Reprogramming by Measuring Cardiac Specific Calcium Flux with a GCaMP3 Reporter

Cardiac reprogramming has become a potentially promising therapy to repair a damaged heart. By introducing multiple transcription factors, including Mef2c, Gata4, Tbx5 (MGT), fibroblasts can be reprogrammed into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs). These iCMs, when generated in situ in an infarcted heart, integrate electrically and mechanically with the surrounding myocardium, leading to a reduction in scar size and an improvement in heart function. Because of the relatively low reprogramming efficiency, purity, and quality of the iCMs, characterization of iCMs remains a challenge. The currently used methods in this field, including flow cytometry, immunocytochemistry, and qPCR, mainly focus on cardiac-specific gene and protein expression but not on the functional maturation of iCMs. Triggered by action potentials, the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels in cardiomyocytes leads to a rapid influx of calcium into the cell. Therefore, quantifying the rate of calcium influx is a promising method to evaluate cardiomyocyte function. Here, the protocol introduces a method to evaluate iCM function by calcium (Ca2+) flux. An &#945;MHC-Cre/Rosa26A-Flox-Stop-Flox-GCaMP3 mouse strain was established by crossing Tg(Myh6-cre)1Jmk/J (referred to as Myh6-Cre below) with Gt(ROSA)26Sortm38(CAG-GCaMP3)Hze/J (referred to as Rosa26A-Flox-Stop-Flox-GCaMP3 below) mice. Neonatal cardiac fibroblasts (NCFs) from P0-P2 neonatal mice were isolated and cultured in vitro, and a polycistronic construction of MGT was introduced to NCFs, which led to their reprogramming to iCMs. Because only successfully reprogrammed iCMs will express GCaMP3 reporter, the functional maturation of iCMs can be visually assessed by Ca2+ flux with fluorescence microscopy. Compared with un-reprogrammed NCFs, NCF-iCMs showed significant calcium transient flux and spontaneous contraction, similar to CMs. This protocol describes in detail the mouse strain establishment, isolation and selection of neonatal mice hearts, NCF isolation, production of retrovirus for cardiac reprogramming, iCM induction, the evaluation of iCM Ca2+ flux using our reporter line, and related statistical analysis and data presentation. It is expected that the methods described here will provide a valuable platform to assess the functional maturation of iCMs for cardiac reprogramming studies.

We describe here, the establishment and application of an Tg(Myh6-cre)1Jmk/J /Gt(ROSA)26Sortm38(CAG-GCaMP3)Hze/J (referred to as &#945;MHC-Cre/Rosa26A-Flox-Stop-Flox-GCaMP3 below) mouse reporter line for cardiac reprogramming assessment. Neonatal cardiac fibroblasts (NCFs) isolated from the mouse strain are converted into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs), allowing for convenient and efficient evaluation of reprogramming efficiency and functional maturation of iCMs via calcium (Ca2+) flux.

Cardiac reprogramming has become a potentially promising therapy to repair a damaged heart. By introducing multiple transcription factors, including ...

Medicine

High-Throughput Optical Controlling and Recording Calcium Signal in iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes for Toxicity Testing and Phenotypic Drug Screening

Understanding how excitable cells work in health and disease and how that behavior can be altered by small molecules or genetic manipulation is important. Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) with multiple emission windows can be combined (e.g., for simultaneous observation of distinct subcellular events) or used in extended applications with other light-dependent actuators in excitable cells (e.g., combining genetically encoded optogenetic control with spectrally compatible calcium indicators). Such approaches have been used in primary or stem cell-derived neurons, cardiomyocytes, and pancreatic beta-cells. However, it has been challenging to increase the throughput, or duration of observation, of such approaches due to limitations of the instruments, analysis software, indicator performance, and gene delivery efficiency. Here, a high-performance green GECI, mNeonGreen-GECO (mNG-GECO), and red-shifted GECI, K-GECO, is combined with optogenetic control to achieve all-optical control and visualization of cellular activity in a high-throughput imaging format using a High-Content Imaging System. Applications demonstrating cardiotoxicity testing and phenotypic drug screening with healthy and patient-derived iPSC-CMs are shown. In addition, multi-parametric assessments using combinations of spectral and calcium affinity indicator variants (NIR-GECO, LAR-GECO, and mtGCEPIA or Orai1-G-GECO) are restricted to different cellular compartments are also demonstrated in the iPSC-CM model.

The present protocol describes all-optical control and observation of triggered cellular activity in iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs) for high throughput drug screening and toxicity testing. Multi-parametric quantification of phenotypic patterns in time, and space, are shown. Long-term effects of drugs over hours, or sequential measurements over days, are demonstrated.

Understanding how excitable cells work in health and disease and how that behavior can be altered by small molecules or genetic manipulation is important. ...

Evaluating Calcium Activity in Retinal Ganglion Cells Layer

Calcium Imaging In Electrically Stimulated Flat-Mounted Retinas

Retinal dystrophies are a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Extensive efforts are underway to develop advanced retinal prostheses that can bypass the impaired light-sensing photoreceptor cells in the degenerated retina, aiming to partially restore vision by inducing visual percepts. One common avenue of investigation involves the design and production of implantable devices with a flexible physical structure, housing a high number of electrodes. This enables the efficient and precise generation of visual percepts. However, with each technological advancement, there arises a need for a reliable and manageable ex vivo method to verify the functionality of the device before progressing to in vivo experiments, where factors beyond the device's performance come into play. This article presents a comprehensive protocol for studying calcium activity in the retinal ganglion cell layer (GCL) following electrical stimulation. Specifically, the following steps are outlined: (1) fluorescently labeling the rat retina using genetically encoded calcium indicators, (2) capturing the fluorescence signal using an inverted fluorescence microscope while applying distinct patterns of electrical stimulation, and (3) extracting and analyzing the calcium traces from individual cells within the GCL. By following this procedure, researchers can efficiently test new stimulation protocols prior to conducting in vivo experiments.

Author Spotlight: An Innovative Approach to Neural Electrical Stimulation Using Calcium Imaging 

Retinal prostheses have the ability to generate visual perceptions. To advance the development of new prostheses, ex vivo methods are needed to test devices before implantation. This article provides a comprehensive protocol for studying calcium activity in the retinal ganglion cell layer when subjected to electrical stimulation.

Retinal dystrophies are a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Extensive efforts are underway to develop advanced retinal prostheses that can bypass the ...

Real-time In Vivo Recording of Arabidopsis Calcium Signals During Insect Feeding Using a Fluorescent Biosensor

Calcium ions are predicted to be key signaling entities during biotic interactions, with calcium signaling forming an established part of the plant defense response to microbial elicitors and to wounding caused by chewing insects, eliciting systemic calcium signals in plants. However, the role of calcium in vivo during biotic stress is still unclear. This protocol describes the use of a genetically-encoded calcium sensor to detect calcium signals in plants during feeding by a hemipteran pest. Hemipterans such as aphids pierce a small number of cells with specialized, elongated sucking mouthparts, making them the ideal tool to study calcium dynamics when a plant is faced with a biotic stress, which is distinct from a wounding response. In addition, fluorescent biosensors are revolutionizing the measurement of signaling molecules in vivo in both animals and plants. Expressing a GFP-based calcium biosensor, GCaMP3, in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana allows for the real-time imaging of plant calcium dynamics during insect feeding, with a high spatial and temporal resolution. A repeatable and robust assay has been developed using the fluorescence microscopy of detached GCaMP3 leaves, allowing for the continuous measurement of cytosolic calcium dynamics before, during, and after insect feeding. This reveals a highly-localized rapid calcium elevation around the aphid feeding site that occurs within a few minutes. The protocol can be adapted to other biotic stresses, such as additional insect species, while the use of Arabidopsis thaliana allows for the rapid generation of mutants to facilitate the molecular analysis of the phenomenon.

Real-time In Vivo Recording of Arabidopsis Calcium Signals During Insect Feeding Using a Fluorescent Biosensor

This protocol outlines a simple method for analyzing calcium signals in plants generated by feeding hemipteran insects, such as aphids. Arabidopsis thaliana transformed with the GFP calcium biosensor GCaMP3 allow for the real-time in vivo imaging of calcium dynamics with a high temporal and spatial resolution.

Calcium ions are predicted to be key signaling entities during biotic interactions, with calcium signaling forming an established part of the plant ...

Forward Genetic Screen Using Transgenic Calcium Reporter Aequorin to Identify Novel Targets in Calcium Signaling

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