This work was supported by NIH R15-HL135675-01 and NIH 2 R15-HL135675-02 to T.J.L.

1. Prepare buffers and reagents
<ol>
	<li>Prepare fresh solutions of phosphatase and protease inhibitors.
	<ol>
		<li>Add 17.4 mg of phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF)to 1 mL of 100% ethanol to prepare a 100 mM stock. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Wear protective equipment when handling PMSF as it is hazardous when ingested or inhaled and upon contact with skin or eyes. It is corrosive to eyes and skin.</li>
		<li>According to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions, prepare a commercially available protease inhibitor cocktail (100x).</li>
		<li>Add 91.9 mg of sodium orthovanadate (SOV) to 1 mL of deionized water to prepare a 500 mM stock. 
		NOTE: Wear protective equipment when handling SOV as it is hazardous if ingested, inhaled, or upon contact with eyes. Severe overexposure may result in death.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare lysis buffer A, cytoplasmic isolation (CI) buffer, cell solubilization (CS) buffer, nuclear lysis (NL) buffer, lysis buffer B, cell homogenization (CH) buffer, iodixanol diluent, and detergents.
	<ol>
		<li>Add 8.7 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and 50 mL of 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES, 1 M, pH 7.4) to 950 mL of deionized water to prepare lysis buffer A (final concentrations of 150 mM NaCl and 50 mM HEPES).</li>
		<li>Prepare stock solutions of detergents as follows: add 0.1 g of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to 10 mL of lysis buffer A (final concentration of 1% SDS), add 0.1 g of sodium deoxycholate to 10 mL of lysis buffer A (final concentration of 1%), add 2.5 mg of digitonin to 10 mL of lysis buffer A (final concentration of 250 &#181;g/mL), and add 1 mL of non-ionic, non-denaturing detergent (see the Table of Materials) to 9 mL of lysis buffer A (final concentration of 10% (v/v)).</li>
		<li>Prepare CI buffer by adding 10 &#181;L of PMSF stock (100 mM), 10 &#181;L of protease inhibitor (100x), 2 &#181;L of SOV stock (500 mM), and 100 &#181;L of stock digitonin (250 &#181;g/mL) to 878 &#181;L of lysis buffer A (final concentrations of 1 mM PMSF, 1x protease inhibitor, 1 mM SOV, and 25 &#181;g/mL digitonin). Keep the solution on ice until addition to cell pellet.</li>
		<li>Prepare CS buffer by adding 10 &#181;L of PMSF stock (100 mM), 10 &#181;L of protease inhibitor (100x), 2 &#181;L of SOV stock (500 mM), 100 &#181;L of non-ionic, non-denaturing detergent stock (see the Table of Materials) (10%), and 118 &#181;L of hexylene glycol stock (8.44 M) to 760 &#181;L of lysis buffer A (final concentrations of 1 mM PMSF, 1x protease inhibitor, 1 mM SOV, 1% non-ionic, non-denaturing detergent, and 1 M hexylene glycol). Keep the solution on ice until addition to cell pellet.</li>
		<li>Prepare NL buffer by adding 10 &#181;L of PMSF stock (100 mM), 10 &#181;L of protease inhibitor (100x), 2 &#181;L of SOV stock (500 mM), 50 &#181;L of sodium deoxycholate stock (10%), 100 &#181;L of SDS stock (1%), and 118 &#181;L of hexylene glycol stock (8.44 M) to 710 &#181;L of lysis buffer A (final concentrations of 1 mM PMSF, 1x protease inhibitor, 1 mM SOV, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate (v/v), 0.1% SDS (w/v), and 1 M hexylene glycol). Keep the solution on ice until addition to nuclear pellet.</li>
		<li>Add 20 mL of HEPES (1 M, pH 7.4), 0.74 g of potassium chloride (KCl), 0.19 g of magnesium chloride (MgCl2), 2 mL of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (0.5 M EDTA), 2 mL of ethylene glycol-bis(&#946;-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N&#39;,N&#39;-tetraacetic acid (0.5 M EGTA), 38.3 g of mannitol, and 23.9 g of sucrose to 980 mL of deionized water to prepare lysis buffer B (final concentrations of 20 mM HEPES, 10 mM KCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 210 mM mannitol, and 70 mM sucrose).</li>
		<li>Prepare CH buffer by adding 10 &#181;L of PMSF stock (100 mM) and 2 &#181;L of SOV stock (500 mM) to 988 &#181;L of lysis buffer B (final concentrations of 1 mM PMSF and 1 mM SOV; adjust the final volume to accommodate the number of cells being lysed). Keep the solution on ice until addition to cell pellet.</li>
		<li>Prepare iodixanol diluent by addition of 12 mL of HEPES (1 M, pH 7.4), 447 mg of KCl, 114 g of MgCl2, 1.2 mL of 0.5 M EDTA, 1.2 mL of 0.5 M EGTA, 21.3 g of mannitol, and 14.4 g of sucrose to 88 mL of deionized water (final concentrations of 120 mM HEPES, 60 mM KCl, 12 mM MgCl2, 6 mM EDTA, 6 mM EGTA, 1200 mM mannitol, and 420 mM sucrose).</li>
		<li>Store buffers at 4 &#176;C and digitonin at -20 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Cytosolic protein isolation
NOTE: The following steps will allow for the growth and expansion of U937 cells followed by extraction of cytosolic proteins. At the concentration used, digitonin will permeabilize the plasma membrane without disrupting it, allowing for the release of cytosolic proteins and retention of other cellular proteins.
<ol>
	<li>Culture the cells in RPMI 1640 with 10% fetal bovine serum at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2. Ensure that the cells are grown to a final total of 6 x 108 cells. 
	NOTE: In this protocol, cells were counted using a standard hemocytometer and microscope.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cultured cells at 400 &#215; g for 10 min. After discarding the supernatant, resuspend the cell pellet in room temperature phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at a final concentration of 4 &#215; 106 cells/mL, and pipette gently to break up clumps.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cell suspension at 400 &#215; g for 10 min to pellet the cells. Discard the supernatant, and resuspend the cell pellet in ice-cold lysis buffer A (prepared in step 1.2.1) at a final concentration of 2 &#215; 107 cells/mL.</li>
	<li>Remove 7.5 mL of the cells suspended in lysis buffer A (3 &#215; 107 cells), and keep on ice for nuclear protein extraction (section 6). Centrifuge the cell suspension at 4 &#176;C, 400 &#215; g for 10 min to pellet the cells. 
	NOTE: Perform all subsequent steps at 4 &#176;C or on ice, and prechill all buffers.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant, resuspend the cell pellet in CI buffer at a final concentration of 2 &#215; 107 cells/mL, and pipette gently to break up clumps. Rotate the cell suspension end-over-end at 4 &#176;C for 20 min.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cell suspension at 4 &#176;C, 400 &#215; g for 10 min, and transfer the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube. Save the cell pellet, and store on ice. Centrifuge the collected supernatant at 4 &#176;C, 18,000 &#215; g for 20 min to pellet cellular debris. 
	NOTE: This high-speed centrifugation step is critical for preventing contamination of the cytosolic fraction with organelle and membrane-bound proteins.</li>
	<li>Discard the pellet after transferring the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube. Repeat both centrifugation steps in step 2.6 until no pellet is obtained following centrifugation.</li>
	<li>Collect the supernatant, which is the cytosolic fraction. For short-term storage (1 month), ensure that the supernatant is stored at 4 &#176;C. For long-term storage (&#62;1 month), combine the supernatant with 1x Laemmli buffer containing 1x reducing agent, heat at 95 &#176;C for 7 min, and store at -20 or -80&#176;C.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet (from step 2.6) in lysis buffer A at a final concentration of 4 &#215; 106 cells/mL; pipette gently to break up clumps.</li>
</ol>
3. Cell homogenization
NOTE: The following steps will allow for the mechanical homogenization of digitonin-treated cells (from step 2.9), which is necessary for the isolation of the mitochondrial and membrane protein fractions.
<ol>
	<li>Centrifuge the cell suspension in lysis buffer A (prepared in step 2.9), save the pellet, and discard the supernatant to remove excess digitonin and cytosolic contaminants from the cell pellet. 
	NOTE: Repeated washes in lysis buffer A may be performed to remove excess cytosolic contaminants.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in ice-cold CH buffer (prepared in step 1.2.7) at a final concentration of 4 &#215; 106 cells/mL. Incubate the cell suspension on ice for 30 min.</li>
	<li>If using a bead-based method for mechanical lysis, place 30 g of prewashed stainless steel 3.2 mm beads into a 50 mL skirted tube, fill with 15 mL of lysis buffer B, and place on ice to chill. If using a Dounce homogenizer (with a tight-fitting B pestle), fill with an appropriate volume of lysis buffer B, insert the pestle, and place on ice to chill.</li>
	<li>Following incubation (step 3.2), discard lysis buffer B from the bead tubes (or Dounce homogenizer), and transfer 15 mL of the cell suspension to the bead tube (or an appropriate volume to the homogenizer).</li>
	<li>If using the bead-based method, place the skirted bead tubes containing the cell suspension in the blender device, and configure to run for 5 min at speed 8. If using a Dounce homogenizer, keep it on ice, and perform 40 passes with the pestle using slow, even strokes (or utilize an alternative method of mechanical cell lysis as detailed in the discussion section). 
	NOTE: If using a blender device different from the one used here, speed and time may need to be determined empirically.</li>
	<li>Transfer the homogenate to a clean centrifuge tube, and centrifuge it at 400 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C. Transfer the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube and save; discard the pellet. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The protocol may be paused here and the homogenate stored at 4 &#176;C for the short term (24 h).</li>
</ol>
4. Debris removal and isolation of crude mitochondrial and membrane fractions
NOTE: The following steps will allow for the removal of cellular debris by centrifuging the homogenate at increasing speeds. This is followed by differential centrifugation for the isolation of crude mitochondrial and membrane fractions.
<ol>
	<li>Centrifuge the homogenate (from step 3.6) at 500 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C. Transfer the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube, and discard any pellet.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the supernatant (from step 4.1) at 1,000 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C. Transfer the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube, and discard any pellet.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the supernatant (from step 4.2) at 2,000 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C. Transfer the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube, and discard any pellet.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the supernatant (from step 4.3) at 4,000 &#215; g for 20 min at 4 &#176;C. Transfer the supernatant to a clean centrifuge tube, and save the pellet, which is the crude mitochondrial fraction.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the supernatant (from step 4.4) at 18,000 &#215; g for 1 h at 4 &#176;C. Discard the supernatant, and save the pellet, which is the crude membrane fraction. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The protocol may be paused here, and the pelleted samples stored at 4 &#176;C for the short-term (24 h).</li>
</ol>
5. Isopycnic density gradient purification
NOTE: The following steps utilize isopycnic density gradient centrifugation to purify the crude mitochondrial and membrane fractions.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 50% (v/v) working solution of iodixanol by mixing 1 part diluent (prepared in step 1.1.3) to 5 parts iodixanol (60% stock solution (w/v)). Prepare 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, and 35% iodixanol solutions (v/v) by mixing 50% working solution (v/v) with lysis buffer B in appropriate quantities.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the crude mitochondrial and membrane pellets (from steps 4.4 and 4.5) each in 200 &#181;L of lysis buffer B. Adjust to 45% iodixanol (v/v) by adding 1800 &#181;L of working iodixanol solution (50% (v/v)) to 200 &#181;L of the resuspended pellet.</li>
	<li>Create an iodixanol discontinuous gradient as follows (adjust the volumes as appropriate for the capacity of the ultracentrifuge tube): Add 1 mL of 15% iodixanol (v/v) to the bottom of an 8 mL, open-top, thin-walled ultracentrifuge tube, place 1 mL of 20% iodixanol (v/v) below the first layer (by the underlaying technique), followed by underlaying 1 mL of 25%, 1 mL of 30%, and 1 mL of 35% iodixanol (v/v). 
	NOTE: There should be 2 gradients created at this step, 1 for the mitochondrial fraction and 1 for the membrane fraction.</li>
	<li>In 1 gradient, add the 2 mL of the crude mitochondrial pellet (suspended in 45% iodixanol (v/v)) using the underlay technique to the bottom of the tube below the 35% iodixanol (v/v). In the other gradient, add the 2 mL of the crude membrane pellet (suspended in 45% iodixanol (v/v)) using the underlay technique to the bottom of the tube below the 35% iodixanol (v/v).</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of 10% iodixanol (v/v) to the top of each gradient tube by overlaying it on top of the 15% layer. Balance the tubes within 0.1 g of each other by the addition of 10% iodixanol (v/v).</li>
	<li>Spin the density gradient tubes at 4 &#176;C for 18 h at 100,000 &#215; g. Be sure to set acceleration and deceleration to the minimum values for the ultracentrifuge being used. 
	NOTE: In the mitochondrial gradient, there will be a visible band at the interface between 25% and 30% iodixanol (v/v). This is the pure mitochondrial fraction. In the membrane gradient, there will be a visible band in the 15% iodixanol (v/v) fraction. This is the pure membrane fraction. There may be additional bands in the 25% and 30% iodixanol (v/v) fractions in the membrane gradient. This is mitochondrial contamination.</li>
	<li>Collect fractions from the top of the tube in 1 mL aliquots, being careful to minimize the volume of the fraction containing the visible bands and changing the pipette tip after each layer is collected. Alternatively, puncture the side of the thin-walled tube with a needle, and collect the visible bands.</li>
	<li>Store the samples as described in step 2.8 until verification by protein assay and western blot.</li>
</ol>
6. Nuclear protein isolation
NOTE: Using ionic and non-ionic detergents as well as techniques such as sonication and centrifugation, the following steps will solubilize all cellular membranes and allow for the isolation of nuclear proteins.
<ol>
	<li>Centrifuge the 7.5 mL aliquot of cells suspended in lysis buffer A (from step 2.4), and discard the supernatant. Add 800 &#181;L of ice-cold CS buffer (prepared in step 1.2.4), and resuspend the pellet by pipetting and vortexing. Incubate the samples on ice (or at 4 &#176;C) for 30 min to disrupt the plasma and organelle membranes while protecting the nuclear proteins.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cell suspension at 7,000 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C, and discard the supernatant. Add 800 &#181;L of ice-cold NL buffer (prepared in step 1.2.5) to the nuclear pellet after inclusion of 1U/&#181;L benzonase. Resuspend the pellet by gently pipetting. Incubate on an end-over-end rotator for 30 min at 4 &#176;C to disrupt the nuclear membrane.</li>
	<li>Sonicate for 5 s at 20% power with sample tubes cooled in an ice bath (3x, with 5 s pauses in between pulses), which along with benzonase (added in step 6.2), will shear the nucleic acids.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the sonicate at 7,800 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C. Collect and save the supernatant, which is the nuclear fraction. Be sure to not disturb the insoluble pellet while collecting the supernatant. For storage, samples can be prepared as described in step 2.8.</li>
</ol>
7. Protein quantification and western blot analysis
NOTE: The following steps will quantify total protein in each fraction and confirm the purity of the subcellular fractions.
<ol>
	<li>Perform a standard Bradford assay to quantify total protein in each fraction. Refer to Table 1 for expected protein yields. 
	NOTE: Other protein assays such as bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay or absorbance at 280 nm may be used to measure total protein in place of a Bradford assay.</li>
	<li>Combine fractions with 1x Laemmli buffer containing 1x reducing agent, and heat at 95 &#176;C for 7 min. Load 10 &#181;g of each fraction into a standard SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) gel, and run the gel at 20 mA for 1 h.</li>
	<li>Transfer the resolved proteins to a polyvinyldifluoride (PVDF) membrane by performing a standard immunoblot transfer at 100 V for 30 min. Block the PVDF membrane with 5% milk in 1x Tris-buffered saline (TBS) containing 0.1% of a non-ionic detergent (v/v) for 30 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Add the appropriate primary antibodies to detect housekeeping proteins specific to each subcellular fraction, and incubate overnight at 4 &#176;C. Wash the membrane with 5% milk in 1x TBS containing 0.1% of the non-ionic detergent (v/v) for 10 min at room temperature. 
	NOTE: For this protocol, antibodies against glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH, 1:10000), histone H3 (1:2000), voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC, 1:1000), and Na,K+-ATPase were used for cytosolic, nuclear, mitochondrial, and membrane fractions, respectively.</li>
	<li>Add the appropriate horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated secondary antibodies to the membrane (dilute according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions), and incubate at room temperature for 1 h. Wash the membrane with 5% milk in 1x TBS containing 0.1% of the non-ionic detergent (v/v) for 10 min at room temperature. Develop the blot using standard chemiluminescence.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Baghirova, S., Hughes, B. G., Hendzel, M. J., Schulz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+fractionation+and+isolation+of+subcellular+proteins+from+tissue+or+cultured+cells.">Sequential fractionation and isolation of subcellular proteins from tissue or cultured cells.</a> MethodsX. 2, 440-445 (2015).</li><li>Il Hwang, S., Han, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Subcellular+fractionation+for+identification+of+biomarkers:+Serial+detergent+extraction+by+subcellular+accessibility+and+solubility.">Subcellular fractionation for identification of biomarkers: Serial detergent extraction by subcellular accessibility and solubility.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1002, 25-35 (2013).</li><li>Clayton, D. A., Shadel, G. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+mitochondria+from+cells+and+tissues.">Isolation of mitochondria from cells and tissues.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2014 (10), 1040-1041 (2014).</li><li>Stimpson, S. E., Coorssen, J. R., Myers, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimal+isolation+of+mitochondria+for+proteomic+analyses.">Optimal isolation of mitochondria for proteomic analyses.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 475, 1-3 (2015).</li><li>Sundstr&#246;m, C., Nilsson, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Establishment+and+characterization+of+a+human+histiocytic+lymphoma+cell+line+(U-937).">Establishment and characterization of a human histiocytic lymphoma cell line (U-937).</a> International Journal of Cancer. 17 (5), 565-577 (1976).</li><li>Hodge, T., Colombini, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+metabolite+flux+through+voltage-gating+of+VDAC+channels.">Regulation of metabolite flux through voltage-gating of VDAC channels.</a> Journal of Membrane Biology. 157 (3), 271-279 (1997).</li><li>Therien, A. G., Blostein, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+sodium+pump+regulation.+American+journal+of+physiology.">Mechanisms of sodium pump regulation. American journal of physiology.</a> Cell physiology. 279 (3), 541-566 (2000).</li><li>Towbin, H., Staehelin, T., Gordon, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophoretic+transfer+of+proteins+from+polyacrylamide+gels+to+nitrocellulose+sheets:+procedure+and+some+applications.">Electrophoretic transfer of proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose sheets: procedure and some applications.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of the America. 76 (9), 4350-4354 (1979).</li><li>Barber, R. D., Harmer, D. W., Coleman, R. A., Clark, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GAPDH+as+a+housekeeping+gene:+analysis+of+GAPDH+mRNA+expression+in+a+panel+of+72+human+tissues.">GAPDH as a housekeeping gene: analysis of GAPDH mRNA expression in a panel of 72 human tissues.</a> Physiological Genomics. 21 (3), 389-395 (2005).</li><li>Bradbury, E. M., Cary, P. D., Crane-Robinson, C., Rattle, H. W. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conformations+and+interactions+of+histones+and+their+role+in+chromosome+structure.">Conformations and interactions of histones and their role in chromosome structure.</a> Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 222, 266-289 (1973).</li><li>McCaig, W. D., Deragon, M. A., Haluska, R. J., Hodges, A. L., Patel, P. S., LaRocca, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+fractionation+of+U937+cells+in+the+absence+of+high-speed+centrifugation.">Cell fractionation of U937 cells in the absence of high-speed centrifugation.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (143), e59022 (2019).</li><li>McCaig, W. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperglycemia+potentiates+a+shift+from+apoptosis+to+RIP1-dependent+necroptosis.">Hyperglycemia potentiates a shift from apoptosis to RIP1-dependent necroptosis.</a> Cell Death Discovery. 4, 55 (2018).</li></ol>

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

This method is a modified version of a previously published approach to subcellular fractionation without the use of high-speed centrifugation11. This modified method requires more specialized equipment to achieve the best results, but is more comprehensive and consistently reproducible.
The development of the initial protocol was necessary due to an inability to separate mitochondrial and membrane samples for the analysis of protein localization during necroptosis<sup ...

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/62119">Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification</a>. The Authors section was&#160;updated.
The Authors section was updated from:
William McCaig1 
Timothy LaRocca1 
1Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences
to:
William D. McCaig1 
Matthew A. Deragon1 
Phillip V. Truong1 
Angeleigh R. Knapp1 
Keven J. Hughes1 
Timothy J. LaRocca1 
1Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/62119">Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification</a>. The Authors section was&#160;updated.

Erratum: Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/62119">Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification</a>. The Authors section was&#160;updated.
The Authors section was updated from:
William D. McCaig1 
Matthew A. Deragon1 
Phillip V. Truong1 
Angeleigh R. Knapp1 
Keven J. Hughes1 
Timothy J. LaRocca1 
1Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences
to:
William D. McCaig1 
Matthew A. Deragon1 
Phillip V. Truong1 
Angeleigh R. Knapp1 
Timothy J. LaRocca1 
1Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences

Subcellular fractionation is a procedure in which cells are lysed and separated into their constituent components through several methods. This technique can be used by researchers to determine protein localization in mammalian cells or for enrichment of low-abundance proteins that would otherwise be undetectable. While methods for subcellular fractionation currently exist, as do commercial kits that can be purchased, they suffer from several limitations that this procedure attempts to overcome. Most cell fractionation methods are exclusively detergent-based1,2, relying on the use of buffers containing increasing amounts of detergent to solubilize different cellular components. While this method is rapid and convenient, it results in impure fractions. These are designed to allow researchers to easily isolate one or two components of the cell, but are not complex enough to isolate multiple subcellular fractions from a sample at the same time. Relying solely on detergents usually results in membrane-enclosed organelles and the plasma membrane being indiscriminately solubilized, making separation of these components difficult. An additional complication from the use of these kits is the inability of researchers to alter/optimize them for specific applications, as most of the components are proprietary formulations. Finally, these kits can be prohibitively expensive, with limitations in the number of uses that make them less than ideal for larger samples. 
Despite the availability of kits for the isolation of mitochondria that do not rely on detergents, they are not designed to isolate the plasma membrane and yield significantly lower amounts of sample than standard isolation protocols3,4. While differential centrifugation methods are more time-consuming, they often result in distinct fractions that cannot be obtained with exclusively detergent-based kits1. Separation without the sole use of solubilizing detergents also allows further purification using ultracentrifugation and isopycnic density gradients, resulting in less cross-contamination. This fractionation protocol demonstrates the isolation of subcellular fractions from U937 monocytes using a combination of detergent- and high-speed centrifugation-based approaches. This method will facilitate the isolation of the nuclear, cytoplasmic, mitochondrial, and plasma membrane components of a mammalian cell with minimal contamination between the fractions.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Benzonase Nuclease</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>E1014</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bullet Blender Tissue Homogenizer</td><td>Next Advance</td><td>61-BB50-DX</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>digitonin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D141</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>end-over-end rotator</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>E9884</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ethylene glycol-bis(&amp;beta;-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N&#039;,N&#039;-tetraacetic acid (EGTA)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>E3889</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>GAPDH (14C10)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Cell Signalling Technologies</td><td>2118</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES</td><td>VWR</td><td>97064-360</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hexylene glycol</td><td>Sigma</td><td>68340</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Igepal</td><td>Sigma</td><td>I7771</td><td>Non-ionic, non-denaturing detergent</td></tr><tr><td>KCl</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P9333</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mannitol</td><td>Sigma</td><td>M9647</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MgCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Sigma</td><td>M8266</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaCl</td><td>Sigma</td><td>S9888</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Na, K-ATPase a1 (D4Y7E)</td><td>Cell Signalling Technologies</td><td>23565</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Open-Top Polyclear Tubes, 16 x 52 mm</td><td>Seton Scientific</td><td>7048</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OptiPrep (Iodixanol)&amp;nbsp;Density Gradient Medium</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D1556-250ML</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P7626</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Protease Inhibitor Cocktail, General Use</td><td>VWR</td><td>M221-1ML</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>refrigerated centrifuge</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>S50-ST Swinging Bucket Rotor</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>436143</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium deoxycholate</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D6750</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sodium orthovanadate (SOV)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>567540</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sonicator</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sorvall MX120 Plus Micro-Ultracentrifuge</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stainless Steel Beads 3.2 mm</td><td>Next Advance</td><td>SSB32</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sucrose</td><td>Sigma</td><td>S0389</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tris-buffered Saline (TBS)</td><td>VWR</td><td>97062-370</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tween 20</td><td></td><td></td><td>non-ionic detergent in western blotting buffers</td></tr><tr><td>VDAC (D73D12)</td><td>Cell Signalling Technologies</td><td>4661</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

cell fractionation of u937 cells by isopycnic density gradient purification

This protocol describes a method to obtain subcellular protein fractions from mammalian cells using a combination of detergents, mechanical lysis, and isopycnic density gradient centrifugation. The major advantage of this procedure is that it does not rely on the sole use of solubilizing detergents to obtain subcellular fractions. This makes it possible to separate the plasma membrane from other membrane-bound organelles of the cell. This procedure will facilitate the determination of protein localization in cells with a reproducible, scalable, and selective method. This method has been successfully used to isolate cytosolic, nuclear, mitochondrial, and plasma membrane proteins from the human monocyte cell line, U937. Although optimized for this cell line, this procedure may serve as a suitable starting point for the subcellular fractionation of other cell lines. Potential pitfalls of the procedure and how to avoid them are discussed as are alterations that may need to be considered for other cell lines.

A schematic flow chart of this procedure (Figure 1) visually summarizes the steps that were taken to successfully fractionate U9375 cells grown in suspension. Fractions collected from the top of the isopycnic density gradient in equal volumes (1 mL) show the purification of the mitochondrial and membrane fractions (Figure 2). Utilizing an antibody against VDAC, a protein localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane6</su...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification at JoVE.com

Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification

This fractionation protocol will allow researchers to isolate cytoplasmic, nuclear, mitochondrial, and membrane proteins from mammalian cells. The latter two subcellular fractions are further purified via isopycnic density gradient.

This protocol describes a method to obtain subcellular protein fractions from mammalian cells using a combination of detergents, mechanical lysis, and ...

cell-fractionation-u937-cells-isopycnic-density-gradient

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

3.8K Views.  Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. Dit protocol is belangrijk, omdat het een methode biedt om vier cellulaire compartimenten van elkaar te scheiden, het cytoplasma, de kern, de mitochondriën en het membraan. Niet alleen dat, maar het is een schaalbare, reproduceerbare procedure met betrouwbare resultaten. Het grote voordeel van deze techniek is de scheiding van vier cellulaire compartimenten met minimaal gebruik van detergentia, wat een veel reproduceerbaarder, betrouwbaarder fractioneringsproces mogelijk maakt.Voor cy...

Video: Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification

Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells in the Absence of High-speed Centrifugation

In this protocol we detail a method to obtain subcellular fractions of U937 cells without the use of ultracentrifugation or indiscriminate detergents. This method utilizes hypotonic buffers, digitonin, mechanical lysis and differential centrifugation to isolate the cytoplasm, mitochondria and plasma membrane. The process can be scaled to accommodate the needs of researchers, is inexpensive and straightforward. This method will allow researchers to determine protein localization in cells without specialized centrifuges and without the use of commercial kits, both of which can be prohibitively expensive. We have successfully used this method to separate cytosolic, plasma membrane and mitochondrial proteins in the human monocyte cell line U937.

Here, we present a protocol to isolate the plasma membrane, cytoplasm and mitochondria of U937 cells without the use of high-speed centrifugation. This technique can be used to purify subcellular fractions for subsequent examination of protein localization via immunoblotting.

In this protocol we detail a method to obtain subcellular fractions of U937 cells without the use of ultracentrifugation or indiscriminate detergents. ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation for Investigating Endocytic Recycling in Mammalian Cells

Endosomal trafficking is an essential cellular process that regulates a broad range of biological events. Proteins are internalized from the plasma membrane and then transported to the early endosomes. The internalized proteins could be transited to the lysosome for degradation or recycled back to the plasma membrane. A robust endocytic recycling pathway is required to balance the removal of membrane materials from endocytosis. Various proteins are reported to regulate the pathway, including ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6). Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a classical method for cell fractionation. After the centrifugation, organelles are sedimented at their isopycnic surface. The fractions are collected and used for other downstream applications. Described here is a protocol to obtain a recycling endosome-containing fraction from transfected mammalian cells using density gradient ultracentrifugation. The isolated fractions were subjected to standard Western blotting for analyzing their protein contents. By employing this method, we identified that the plasma membrane targeting of engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1), a Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) guanine nucleotide exchange factor, is through ARF6-mediated endocytic recycling.

This paper aims to present a protocol for preparing recycling endosomes from mammalian cells using sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation.

Endosomal trafficking is an essential cellular process that regulates a broad range of biological events. Proteins are internalized from the plasma ...

Isolating Lymphocytes from the Mouse Small Intestinal Immune System

The intestinal immune system plays an essential role in maintaining the barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract by generating tolerant responses to dietary antigens and commensal bacteria while mounting effective immune responses to enteropathogenic microbes. In addition, it has become clear that local intestinal immunity has a profound impact on distant and systemic immunity. Therefore, it is important to study how an intestinal immune response is induced and what the immunologic outcome of the response is. Here, a detailed protocol is described for the isolation of lymphocytes from small intestine inductive sites like the gut-associated lymphoid tissue Peyer&#39;s patches and the draining mesenteric lymph nodes and effector sites like the lamina propria and the intestinal epithelium. This technique ensures isolation of a large numbers of lymphocytes from small intestinal tissues with optimal purity and viability and minimal cross compartmental contamination within acceptable time constraints. The technical capability to isolate lymphocytes and other immune cells from intestinal tissues enables the understanding of immune responses to gastrointestinal infections, cancers, and inflammatory diseases.

Here we describe a detailed protocol for the isolation of lymphocytes from the inductive sites including the gut-associated lymphoid tissue Peyer&#39;s patches and the draining mesenteric lymph nodes, and the effector sites including the lamina propria and the intestinal epithelium of the small intestinal immune system.

The intestinal immune system plays an essential role in maintaining the barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract by generating tolerant responses to ...

Immunology and Infection

Isolation of Human Neutrophils from Whole Blood and Buffy Coats

Neutrophils (PMNs) are the most abundant leukocytes in human circulation, ranging from 40 to 70% of total blood leukocytes. They are the first cells recruited at the site of inflammation via rapid extravasation through vessels. There, neutrophils perform an array of functions to kill invading pathogens and mediate immune signaling. Freshly purified neutrophils from human blood are the model of choice for study, as no cell line fully replicates PMN functions and biology. However, neutrophils are short-lived, terminally differentiated cells and are highly susceptible to activation in response to physical (temperature, centrifugation speed) and biological (endotoxin, chemo- and cytokines) stimuli. Therefore, it is crucial to follow a standardized, reliable, and fast method to obtain pure and non-activated cells. This protocol presents an updated protocol combining density gradient centrifugation, red blood cell (RBC) sedimentation, and RBC lysis to obtain high PMN purity and minimize cell activation. Furthermore, methods to assess neutrophil isolation quality, viability, and purity are also discussed.

This protocol details a method for the isolation of neutrophils from whole blood, buffy coats, or leukapheresis membranes, achieving good yield, high purity, and minimal cell activation. We utilize gradient purification, red blood cell (RBC) sedimentation, and RBC lysis to obtain a high-quality/purity neutrophil preparation.

Neutrophils (PMNs) are the most abundant leukocytes in human circulation, ranging from 40 to 70% of total blood leukocytes. They are the first cells ...

Biology

Advancements in Cooling Cell Processors for Enhanced Viability in Cell Therapy

Evaluation of the Impact of a New Cooling Cell Processor System on Islet Cell Isolation Facility

Standard cell therapy equipment, including the gold standard cell processor to purify human islets for clinical transplantation, is rarely refrigerated, potentially exposing cells to elevated temperatures during the centrifugation step. Custom cooling systems have a direct benefit on human islet viability and function. The current study was designed to test the effectiveness of a newly developed, readily available cooled cell processor system requiring minimal modifications and to evaluate its impact on human cell viability and the GMP cleanroom environment.&#160;The cooler system, a mechanically refrigerated heat exchanger set at -30 &#176;C was used to deliver cooled medical grade dry air to the cell processor bowl through a hole drilled in the centrifuge cover. With the limited availability of pancreas donors in Qatar, system validation was done with continuous density gradient purification of pooled human bone marrow buffy coat. Sterility, turbulence, and particle count were measured in class C and class B clean room environments. No turbulence developed around the cooled cell processor, and no excess 0.5 &#181;m and 5 &#181;m airborne particulates were generated as per cleanroom GMP standards. At the beginning and end of the collection steps, the temperature rose respectively to 21.50 &#176;C &#177; 0.34 &#176;C and 21.93 &#176;C &#177; 0.20 &#176;C in the non-cooled cell processor and to only 10.9 &#176;C &#177; 0.17 &#176;C and 11.16 &#176;C &#177; 0.35 &#176;C in the cooled- cell processor (p &#60;0.05). The cooled cell processor led to both improved recovery (98%) of the mononuclear cell fraction and viability (100% &#177; 2%) post-processing. The new cooling system effectively reduces the heat produced by the cell processor while having no particulate impact on the GMP clean room environment. The cooled cell processor described here is an inexpensive ($16,000 without including taxes, customs clearance, and transportation) and minimally invasive method to provide robust cooling. Currently, this technology in the GMP cell therapy facility&#160;is being applied to human islet cell isolation and transplantation for the clinical program.

The protocol here describes a custom cooling cell processor system that is compatible with a good manufacturing practices (GMP) cleanroom to improve cell viability post-processing.

Standard cell therapy equipment, including the gold standard cell processor to purify human islets for clinical transplantation, is rarely refrigerated, ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact that, in suspension, particles that are more dense than the solvent will sediment, while those that are less dense will float. A high-speed ultracentrifuge is used to accelerate this process in order to separate biomolecules within a density gradient, which can be established by layering liquids of decreasing density in a centrifuge tube.
The video will cover the principles of density gradient ultracentrifugation, including a procedure that demonstrates sample preparation, creation of a sucrose gradient, ultracentrifugation, and collection of fractionated analytes. The applications section discusses isolation of multi-protein complexes, isolation of nucleic acid complexes, and separation using cesium chloride density gradients.
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common approach to isolate and purify cell structures for biochemical experiments. The technique uses a high-speed, or ultra, centrifuge to nondestructively separate cellular components in a density gradient. This video describes the principles of density gradient ultracentrifugation, provides a general procedure using a sucrose gradient, and discusses some applications.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
Let&#39;s start by examining the principles of ultracentrifuges and density gradients. A suspension contains particles in a liquid solvent. Because of gravity, particles denser than the solvent sediment out while those less dense than the solvent float. The greater the difference in density between the particle and the solvent, the faster the separation.
An ultracentrifuge contains a unit called a rotor, which rotates at highly controlled speeds, simulating a strong gravitational field. Within this field, the differences in density between particles and the solvent are magnified.
The strength of the field depends on the speed of rotation. Even a small rotor at a relatively low rotational speed can create a force thousands of times stronger than the earth&#39;s gravitational field.
If a tube contains several liquids of different densities, centrifugation will keep them in separate layers in order of density, with the densest liquid closest to the base. Such a layering of multiple liquids is called a &#34;density gradient.&#34; There are two types. In step gradients, liquids of decreasing density are carefully layered on top one another. In continuous gradients, the liquids are mixed in varying proportions, so the density decreases smoothly from the base upwards.
Cellular organelles can be separated using a step gradient, through &#34;isopycnic density-gradient centrifugation.&#34; This is the simplest and most common centrifugation procedure.
This procedure is used to separate the cellular structures. The more dense the organelle, the further it descends-with mitochondria at the top and nucleic acids towards the bottom.
Now that you know the principles behind the technique, let&#39;s see it in the lab.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
Before the procedure is started, the manufacturer&#39;s speed and density ratings should be noted, and the ultracentrifuge checked for corrosion. This procedure uses a swinging-bucket rotor.
First, the cellular material is prepared by homogenizing the cells, which nondestructively releases their organelles. The homogenate may be fractionated through preliminary low-speed centrifugation, to remove low-density components. Next, the sucrose solutions are prepared.
Sucrose is added in increasing amounts so each solution is more concentrated, and therefore denser, than the preceding one. The exact densities of the solutions will depend on the components to be separated, which vary between organisms. The solutions should have densities between those of the components to be separated, with the last solution denser than the densest component of the analyte. Techniques for separating components denser than sucrose, like nucleic acids, are described in the applications.
The sucrose gradient is now created in a clean centrifuge tube. A pipette is used to draw up the most concentrated sucrose solution. With the tube held upright, the pipette tip is placed high against the wall, and the liquid dispensed steadily down. It&#39;s important that the working area is kept free of vibrations and other disturbances.
After replacing the tip, the remaining solutions are added in order of decreasing density. They are dispensed carefully to form distinct layers and avoid mixing. Finally, about half a milliliter of the cellular sample is added atop the gradient, and the tube is weighed. This is used to balance the weight distribution, the next step of the process.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
Centrifugation should begin as soon as possible. The tube is placed in the rotor, which is then balanced by placing blank solutions of equal weight in opposing slots. The rotor is placed in the ultracentrifuge and the system sealed. The temperature and rotation speed and time are set. Typical values are 4 &#176;C with a force of over 100,000 x g for 16 h.
After centrifugation, the tube is withdrawn from the rotor, taking care to keep it upright and undisturbed. The different cellular components have fractionated into discrete bands between the solution layers. The fractions can be collected with a syringe. Alternately, the bottom of the tube can be punctured with a fine, sterilized needle and the outflow collected in sterile tubes. The cellular components have now been isolated. They can be stored at -80 &#176;C.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4">
Now that we&#39;ve seen the basic procedure, let&#39;s look at some applications.
A typical application is the isolation of multi-protein complexes in plant cells. In this example, complexes responsible for cyclic electron flow are being isolated from the thylakoid, the site of the light reaction in photosynthesis. This procedure uses discrete solutions of 14 to 45% sucrose. Centrifugation occurs over 100,000 x g for 14 h at 4 &#176;C.
Because nucleic acids are denser than sucrose, isopycnic centrifugation cannot separate them from organelles nondestructively.
A different technique, known as &#34;rate-zonal centrifugation&#34; is used. It separates organelles based on their sedimentation rates, which depend not only on their densities, but also on their conformations. A continuous gradient is used to separate the components based on this property.
The procedural steps are similar to those for isopycnic cases. In this example, RNA-ribosome complexes are isolated using a continuous gradient of 5% to 20%, centrifuged at 230,000 x g. Centrifugation is interrupted after a few hours to prevent co-precipitation.
Nucleic acid strands can be separated from each other on the basis of density.
This is because strands rich in guanine and cytosine are denser than those rich in adenine and thiamine. In this case, the gradient cannot be made of sucrose, because sucrose is less dense than nucleic acids. Instead, cesium chloride gradients, typically from 1.65 to 1.75 g/mL are used, as they have sufficient density and a low viscosity.
Here we see plankton DNA being purified using a continuous cesium chloride gradient. Centrifugation occurs at over 1,000,000 x g for 18 h under vacuum.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_5">
You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s video on ultracentrifugation with a sucrose density gradient. You should now understand how a density gradient works, how to construct a step gradient, and how to load and operate an ultracentrifuge. Thanks for watching!
</div>

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation: Principle and Applications

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact ...

Education

JoVE Science Education

Chemistry

Density Gradient Centrifugation: A Method to Isolate CLL Cells from Peripheral Blood

Source: Hay, J. et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/t/60426">Subcellular Fractionation of Primary Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Cells to Monitor Nuclear/Cytoplasmic Protein Trafficking.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2019).
This video describes the technique of isolating chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells from peripheral blood. With this protocol, we will isolate CLL cells from human patient blood sample for subsequent efficient generation of nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions.

Source: Hay, J. et al. Subcellular Fractionation of Primary Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Cells to Monitor Nuclear/Cytoplasmic Protein Trafficking. J. Vis. ...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Cancer Research

Leukemia

Cell isolation & characterization

Isolating Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells from a Murine Brain

Source: Baker, G. J., et al., Lowenstein, P. R. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/53676">Isolation and Flow Cytometric Analysis of Glioma-infiltrating Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2015)
The video demonstrates the isolation of tumor-infiltrating peripheral blood mononuclear cells from a mouse brain using mechanical dissociation and enzymatic digestion. This is followed by density gradient centrifugation to collect the immune cells for further analysis.

All procedures involving sample collection have been performed in accordance with the institute&#39;s IRB guidelines.
Prepare density centrifugation media ...

Neuroscience

Neuronal Culture Techniques

Co-culture and Interaction Studies

Gradient Centrifugation Based Purification of Nuclei: A Technique to Obtain Ultrapure Fraction of Intact Nuclei Using Density Gradient Centrifugation

Source: Narayanan, A. et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/v/61542/nuclei-isolation-from-fresh-frozen-brain-tumors-for-single-nucleus">Nuclei Isolation from Fresh Frozen Brain Tumors for Single-Nucleus RNA-seq and ATAC-seq.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2020)
In this video, we describe a simple and efficient protocol using gradient centrifugation to isolate single nuclei. Once isolated, these nuclei can be used for sequencing and genome analysis.

Source: Narayanan, A. et al. Nuclei Isolation from Fresh Frozen Brain Tumors for Single-Nucleus RNA-seq and ATAC-seq. J. Vis. Exp. (2020)
In this video, ...

Cancers of the Nervous System

In vitro studies

Purification of Subpopulations of Extracellular Vesicles: A Technique to Purify Subpopulations of Extracellular Vesicles Using Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Source: Urwitz, S. N. et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/v/59143/extraction-of-extracellular-vesicles-from-whole-tissue">Extraction of Extracellular Vesicles from Whole Tissue.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2019)
This video demonstrates the density gradient ultracentrifugation-based purification method to isolate subpopulations of extracellular vesicles suitable for characterization studies.

Source: Urwitz, S. N. et al. Extraction of Extracellular Vesicles from Whole Tissue. J. Vis. Exp. (2019)
This video demonstrates the density gradient ...

Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification

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