We gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the Programa de la Agencia Espa&#241;ola de Cooperaci&#243;n con Iberoam&#233;rica (AECI), enabling the adaptation of the technological tool Sicole-R-Primaria to the Spanish language variant of different countries within the Ibero-American space through the projects Evaluaci&#243;n de procesos cognitivos en la lectura mediante ayuda asistida a trav&#233;s de ordenador en poblaci&#243;n escolar de educaci&#243;n primaria (Assessment of Cognitive Processes in Reading through Computer-Assisted Aid in Primary School Student Population) in Guatemala (ref.: A/3877/05), Ecuador (ref.: C/030692/10), M&#233;xico (ref.: A/013941/07), and Chile (ref.: A/7548/07). Additionally, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) for their financial support toward the Ministry of Education (MEDUCA) of Panam&#225;, with the Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) acting as an intermediary. This funding has enabled the adaptation of the Sicole-R for use on both computers and tablets. We are also grateful for the support provided within the framework of Program PN-L1143; 4357/OC-PN, particularly the Technical Support for Facilitator Training and Review of Educational Resources. Additionally, we extend our appreciation for the External Products and Services Contract (PEC), which is aimed at offering specialized training to facilitate the detection, identification, and early intervention of Panamanian students who may be at risk of experiencing difficulties in reading, writing, and mathematics. For all the projects mentioned above, the first author served as the principal investigator.

Computerized Dyslexia Assessment for Spanish-Speaking Children Using SICOLE-R

<ol>
	<li>World Federation of Neurology. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Report of research group on Dyslexia and world illiteracy. , (1968).</li><li>Diamanti, V., Goulandris, N., Campbell, R., Protopapas, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dyslexia+profiles+across+orthographies+differing+in+transparency:+An+evaluation+of+theoretical+predictions+contrasting+English+and+Greek.">Dyslexia profiles across orthographies differing in transparency: An evaluation of theoretical predictions contrasting English and Greek.</a> Sci Stud Reading. 22 (1), 55-69 (2018).</li><li>Shaywitz, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. , (2003).</li><li>Heikki Lyytinen, H., Ronimus, H., Alanko, A., Poikkeus, N. M., Taanila, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+identification+of+dyslexia+and+the+use+of+computer+game-based+practice+to+support+reading+acquisition.">Early identification of dyslexia and the use of computer game-based practice to support reading acquisition.</a> Nordic Psychol. 59 (2), 109-126 (2007).</li><li>Tobia, V., Marzocchi, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cognitive+profiles+of+Italian+children+with+developmental+dyslexia.">Cognitive profiles of Italian children with developmental dyslexia.</a> Reading Res Quart. 49 (4), 437-452 (2014).</li><li>Rauschenberger, M., Baeza-Yates, R., Rello, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+universal+screening+tool+for+dyslexia+by+a+web-game+and+machine+learning.">A universal screening tool for dyslexia by a web-game and machine learning.</a> Front Comput Sci. 3, 628634 (2022).</li><li>Ekhsan, H. M., Ahmad, S. Z., Halim, S. A., Hamid, J. N., Mansor, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+implementation+of+interactive+multimedia+in+early+screening+of+dyslexia.">The implementation of interactive multimedia in early screening of dyslexia.</a> Int Conf Innov Mgmt Tech Res. , 566-569 (2012).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dyslexia+in+Spanish.">Dyslexia in Spanish.</a> Prevalence and cognitive, cultural, family and biological indicators. , (2012).</li><li>Hatcher, J., Snowling, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+phonological+representations+hypothesis+of+dyslexia:+From+theory+to+practice.">The phonological representations hypothesis of dyslexia: From theory to practice.</a> Dyslexia and Literacy, Theory and Practice. , (2002).</li><li>Goswami, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+temporal+sampling+framework+for+developmental+dyslexia.">A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia.</a> Trends Cogn Sci. 15 (1), 3-10 (2011).</li><li>Stein, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+magnocellular+theory+of+developmental+dyslexia.">The magnocellular theory of developmental dyslexia.</a> Dyslexia. 7 (1), 12-36 (2001).</li><li>Nicolson, R. I., Fawcett, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+Dyslexia:+The+delayed+neural+commitment+framework.">Development of Dyslexia: The delayed neural commitment framework.</a> Front Behav Neurosci. 21 (13), 112 (2001).</li><li>Pennington, B. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Individual+prediction+of+dyslexia+by+single+versus+multiple+deficit+models.">Individual prediction of dyslexia by single versus multiple deficit models.</a> J Abnorm Psychol. 121 (1), 212-224 (2012).</li><li>Ring, J., Black, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+multiple+deficit+model+of+dyslexia:+what+does+it+mean+for+identification+and+intervention.">The multiple deficit model of dyslexia: what does it mean for identification and intervention.</a> Ann Dyslexia. 68 (2), 104-125 (2018).</li><li>Soriano-Ferrer, M., Nievas-Cazorla, F., S&#225;nchez-L&#243;pez, P., F&#233;lix-Mateo, V., Gonz&#225;lez-Torre, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reading-related+cognitive+deficits+in+Spanish+developmental+Dyslexia.">Reading-related cognitive deficits in Spanish developmental Dyslexia.</a> Procedia - Social Behav Sci. 132, 3-9 (2014).</li><li>Zygouris, N. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+implementation+of+a+web+application+for+screening+children+with+Dyslexia.">The implementation of a web application for screening children with Dyslexia.</a> , (2016).</li><li>Snowling, M. J., Hulme, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Science of Reading: A Handbook. , (2021).</li><li>Politi-Georgousi, S., Drigas, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mobile+applications,+an+emerging+powerful+tool+for+Dyslexia+screening+and+intervention:+A+systematic+literature+review.">Mobile applications, an emerging powerful tool for Dyslexia screening and intervention: A systematic literature review.</a> Int J Interact Mobile Technol. 14 (18), 4-17 (2020).</li><li>Fawcett, A. J., Nicolson, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Dyslexia+early+screening+test.">The Dyslexia early screening test.</a> Irish J Psychol. 16 (3), 248-259 (1995).</li><li>Zygouris, N. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The implementation of a web application for screening children with dyslexia Interactive Collaborative Learning. , (2017).</li><li>Hautala, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+reading+difficulties+by+a+digital+game-based+assessment+technology.">Identification of reading difficulties by a digital game-based assessment technology.</a> J Edu Comput Res. 58 (5), 1003-1028 (2020).</li><li>Ahmad, N., Rehman, M. B., El Hassan, H. M., Ahmad, I., Rashid, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+efficient+machine+learning-based+feature+optimization+model+for+the+detection+of+dyslexia.">An efficient machine learning-based feature optimization model for the detection of dyslexia.</a> Comput Intell Neurosci. 9, 8491753 (2022).</li><li>Rello, L., Baeza-Yates, R., Ali, A., Bigham, J. P., Serra, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predicting+risk+of+dyslexia+with+an+online+gamified+test.">Predicting risk of dyslexia with an online gamified test.</a> PLoS One. 15 (12), e0241687 (2020).</li><li>D&#281;bska, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cognitive+basis+of+dyslexia+in+school-aged+children:+A+multiple+case+study+in+a+transparent+orthography.">The cognitive basis of dyslexia in school-aged children: A multiple case study in a transparent orthography.</a> Dev Sci. 25 (2), e13173 (2022).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discriminant+validity+of+the+Sicole-R-Primaria+Multimedia+Battery+for+the+evaluation+of+cognitive+processes+associated+with+dyslexia.">Discriminant validity of the Sicole-R-Primaria Multimedia Battery for the evaluation of cognitive processes associated with dyslexia.</a> Revista de Investigaci&#243;n Educativa. 27 (1), 49-71 (2009).</li><li>Guzm&#225;n, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+naming+speed+in+reading+learning+difficulties.">Assessment of naming speed in reading learning difficulties.</a> Psicothema. 16 (3), 442-447 (2004).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Is+the+deficit+in+phonological+awareness+better+explained+in+terms+of+task+differences+or+effects+of+syllable+structure.">Is the deficit in phonological awareness better explained in terms of task differences or effects of syllable structure.</a> Appl Psycholinguist. 26 (2), 267-283 (2005).</li><li>Ortiz, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Locus+and+nature+of+perceptual+phonological+deficit+in+Spanish+children+with+reading+disabilities.">Locus and nature of perceptual phonological deficit in Spanish children with reading disabilities.</a> J Learn Disabil. 40 (1), 80-92 (2007).</li><li>Ortiz, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+speech+perception+in+children+with+dyslexia.">Development of speech perception in children with dyslexia.</a> Psicothema. 20 (4), 678-683 (2008).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Double-deficit+hypothesis+in+Spanish+developmental+dyslexia.">The Double-deficit hypothesis in Spanish developmental dyslexia.</a> Topics Lang Disorders. 28 (1), 46-60 (2008).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., Garc&#237;a de la Cadena, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+disabilities+in+Guatemala+and+Spain:+A+cross-national+study+of+the+prevalence+and+cognitive+processes+associated+with+reading+and+spelling+disabilities.">Learning disabilities in Guatemala and Spain: A cross-national study of the prevalence and cognitive processes associated with reading and spelling disabilities.</a> Learning Disabilities Res Pract. 22, 161-169 (2007).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., de la Cadena, C. G., Siegel, L. S., O'Shanahan, I., Garc&#237;a, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gender+ratio+and+cognitive+profiles+in+dyslexia:+a+cross-national+study.">Gender ratio and cognitive profiles in dyslexia: a cross-national study.</a> Read Writ. 24, 729-747 (2011).</li><li>Rodrigo, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+orthographic+processing+in+Spanish+children+with+dyslexia:+the+role+of+lexical+and+sublexical+units.">Assessment of orthographic processing in Spanish children with dyslexia: the role of lexical and sublexical units.</a> Revista Electr&#243;nica de Investigaci&#243;n Psicoeducativa y Psicopedag&#243;gica. 2 (2), 105-126 (2004).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+syntactic-semantic+processing+in+developmental+dyslexia.">Evaluation of syntactic-semantic processing in developmental dyslexia.</a> Elect J Res Edu Psychol. 2 (2), 127-142 (2004).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., Rodr&#237;guez, C., Ram&#237;rez, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spanish+developmental+dyslexia:+prevalence,+cognitive+profile,+and+home+literacy+experiences.">Spanish developmental dyslexia: prevalence, cognitive profile, and home literacy experiences.</a> J Exp Child Psychol. 103 (2), 167-185 (2009).</li><li>Cuetos, F., Rodr&#237;guez, B., Ruano, R., Arribas, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> PROLEC-R. Primary Reading Processes Assessment Battery - Revised. , (2005).</li><li>Guzm&#225;n, R., Jim&#233;nez, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Normative+study+on+psycholinguistic+parameters+in+children+aged+6+to+8+years:+Subjective+familiarity.">Normative study on psycholinguistic parameters in children aged 6 to 8 years: Subjective familiarity.</a> Cognitiva. 2, 153-191 (2001).</li><li>Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Aiken, L., West, S. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+problem+of+units+and+the+circumstance+for+POMP.">The problem of units and the circumstance for POMP.</a> Multivariate Behav Res. 34, 315-346 (1999).</li><li>R Core Team. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=R:+A+Language+and+Environment+for+Statistical+Computing_.">R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing_.</a> R Foundation for Statistical Computing. , (2023).</li><li>Rosseel, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=lavaan:+An+R+package+for+structural+equation+modeling.">lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling.</a> J Stat Software. 48 (2), 1-36 (2012).</li><li>Jorgensen, T. D., Pornprasertmanit, S., Schoemann, A. M., Rosseel, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> semTools: Useful tools for structural equation modeling. , (2022).</li><li>Wickham, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. , (2016).</li><li>Byrne, B. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. , (2016).</li><li>Vandenberg, R. J., Lance, C. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+and+synthesis+of+the+measurement+invariance+literature:+Suggestions,+practices,+and+recommendations+for+organizational+research.">A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research.</a> Org Res Methods. 3 (1), 4-70 (2000).</li><li>Hirschfeld, G., von Brachel, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple-Group+confirmatory+factor+analysis+in+R+-+A+tutorial+in+measurement+invariance+with+continuous+and+ordinal+indicators.">Multiple-Group confirmatory factor analysis in R - A tutorial in measurement invariance with continuous and ordinal indicators.</a> Pract Assess Res Eval. 19 (7), 1-12 (2014).</li><li>Sachs, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=plotROC:+A+Tool+for+Plotting+ROC+Curves.">plotROC: A Tool for Plotting ROC Curves.</a> J Stat Softw. 79, 2 (2017).</li><li>Jing, W., Yu, E. L. X., Motevalli, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparison+between+cognitive+assessment+and+neurobiology+technology+assessment+of+dyslexia:+A+literature+review.">A comparison between cognitive assessment and neurobiology technology assessment of dyslexia: A literature review.</a> Int J Acad Res Busi Soc Sci. 13 (4), 976-986 (2023).</li></ol>

The authors listed above certify that there are no financial interests or other conflicts of interest regarding the present study.

In this study, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to evaluate the factor structure of the Sicole-R battery, comprising one second-order factor and six latent variables representing different modules. The results indicated good model fit, convergent validity, and reliability, confirming the efficacy of the battery in assessing a comprehensive set of cognitive and reading skills that are critical for individuals with dyslexia. Importantly, the consistent performance of the digital tool across diverse demograph...

Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in accurate and/or fluent word recognition and poor spelling and decoding abilities and is characterized by unexpected and persistent difficulty in acquiring efficient reading skills despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity1. This neurobiological disorder often manifests as challenges in reading, spelling, and writing, primarily due to phonological deficits2,3. &#8220;The importance of early&#160;identification of dyslexia cannot be overstated,&#160;as it allows for timely intervention and support4,5. When a student does not progress beyond&#160;Tier-3 in a response-to-intervention model, it&#160;becomes essential to conduct a&#160;more&#160;comprehensive assessment of both domain-general and domain-specific abilities associated&#160;with dyslexia, as highlighted by the scientific&#160;literature. The development of the technique&#160;presented here is grounded in the necessity of&#160;conducting thorough evaluations to ensure that&#160;appropriate interventions and support are&#160;provided.&#160;Moreover, previous studies&#160;underscore the utility of technology-based&#160;screening tools, such as web applications and&#160;computer games, in facilitating effective&#160;screening processes6,7. These studies collectively highlight the multifaceted nature of dyslexia, emphasizing the need for comprehensive assessment and intervention strategies to address the diverse cognitive profiles of individuals with dyslexia. Despite the prevalence of dyslexia among school-aged children, most available diagnostic tools lack a framework that comprehensively assesses both domain-general and domain-specific skills. Moreover, there are minimal computerized options, particularly for Spanish-speaking populations. This multimedia battery addresses these gaps by leveraging technology to facilitate a detailed assessment of cognitive skills linked to dyslexia.
Theoretical perspectives and cognitive deficits in Dyslexia 
Various theoretical models, including phonological, rapid auditory processing, visual, magnocellular, and cerebellar theories, aim to explain the causes of dyslexia and inform interventions (see for a review)8. The phonological theory attributes dyslexia to difficulties in processing language sounds9, while the rapid auditory processing theory links dyslexia to deficits in perceiving rapidly changing sounds10. Visual theory highlights the visual aspects of reading difficulties, and magnocellular theory points to impairments in visual and auditory processing pathways11. The cerebellar theory suggests that dyslexia arises from cerebellar impairments affecting motor control and cognitive functions12. Nicolson and Fawcett&#39;s Delayed Neural Commitment (DNC) framework posits that slower skill acquisition and delayed neural network development are central to dyslexia. Recent models, such as the multiple deficit model, propose that dyslexia is a complex disorder influenced by genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors13,14,15. For instance, Ring and Black14 support the multiple deficit model, showing that both phonological and cognitive processing deficits contribute to the heterogeneity of dyslexia. Soriano-Ferrer et al.15 conducted a study with Spanish-speaking children with developmental dyslexia (DD) and found significant impairments in naming speed, verbal working memory, and phonological awareness (PA). Similarly, Zygouris et al.16 and Rauschenberger et al.6 underscore the importance of cognitive screening tools in identifying these deficits, with dyslexic individuals consistently scoring lower than typically achieving peers.
Examining technological approaches in Dyslexia screening: Insights from research studies 
Research on dyslexia screening has evolved with three main approaches: early detection strategies, multifaceted screening methods combining various assessments, and integrating technology for enhanced efficiency17. Politi-Georgousi&#39;s18&#160;recent&#160;systematic review highlights a shift toward&#160;more applications for intervening in dyslexia&#160;symptoms rather than screening processes,&#160;aligning with technology integration to improve&#160;reading skills in dyslexic students. Various tools exist, such as the Dyslexia Early Screening Test (DEST) by Fawcett and Nicolson, which assesses speed, phonological skills, motor skills, cerebellar function, and knowledge19. &#8220;Computer-based tools have&#160;advanced, including a web application assessing&#160;reading and cognitive skills in Greek children20 and tools by Hautala et al.21 and Rauschenberg et al.6&#160;that use gaming and machine learning for&#160;early identification of dyslexia. Ahmad et al. integrated gaming with neural networks, achieving 95% accuracy in detection22. Studies across different orthographies underscore the importance of phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming in dyslexia identification23,24.
Insights into Dyslexia among Spanish-speaking children 
The study of dyslexia in Spanish-speaking children has been significantly advanced through the use of Sicole-R technology. Jim&#233;nez et al. demonstrated its effectiveness in assessing dyslexia across age groups, particularly in distinguishing between dyslexic and typically achieving readers based on phonological and syntactic processing during early elementary years25. Guzm&#225;n et al. investigated naming speed deficits in dyslexic children with phonological challenges, highlighting interactions between dyslexia and naming speed measured through tasks such as letter-RAN and number-RAN26. Further studies by Jim&#233;nez et al. explored phonological awareness deficits across different syllable structures27, while Ortiz et al. investigated speech perception deficits among Spanish children with dyslexia, revealing impairments in speech perception development regardless of phonetic contrast or linguistic unit28,29. Jim&#233;nez et al. investigated the double-deficit hypothesis of dyslexia30, followed by analyses of cognitive processes and gender-related disparities in dyslexia prevalence31,32. Rodrigo et al. explored lexical access among Spanish dyslexic children33, and Jim&#233;nez et al. scrutinized syntactic processing deficits34. Finally, Jim&#233;nez et al. studied phonological and orthographical processes in dyslexic subtypes, highlighting differences in orthographic route efficiency35. These studies collectively enhance our understanding of the cognitive and linguistic challenges of dyslexia in Spanish-speaking populations.
The conducted studies share several common characteristics in terms of the age and background of the participating children. The children included in these studies ranged in age from 7 to 14 years. Most studies focused on primary school children aged between 7 and 12 years, except those that included children up to 14 years old, providing a sample that spans from early school years to preadolescence31,32. The participating children were primarily from the Canary Islands in Spain. Additionally, some studies included samples from other regions of Spain and Guatemala31,32. Participants were recruited from both public and private schools whose backgrounds included urban and suburban areas. The socioeconomic levels represented in these studies range from low-middle to working and middle class.
Together, these inquiries significantly advance our understanding of dyslexia&#39;s complexities, contributing to the field of dyslexia research. Adapted for use across multiple Ibero-American countries, including Spain, Guatemala, Chile, and Mexico, the tool facilitates the assessment of diagnostic accuracy and precision in a diverse Spanish-speaking sample for this study.
This study aimed to delineate a protocol for diagnosing Spanish-speaking children with reading difficulties using a specialized multimedia battery. The primary goal is to provide a comprehensive assessment tool that evaluates both domain-general and domain-specific skills associated with dyslexia.
Experimental setup overview 
The&#160;SICOLE-R was programmed in the Java 2 Platform Standard Edition (J2SE). The HSQL database engine is used as a database. The software includes 6 main modules to be evaluated: 1) perceptual processing, which includes the tasks of voicing, placing, and manner of articulation; 2) phonological processing, which includes phoneme isolation, phoneme deletion, phoneme segmentation, and phoneme blending tasks; 3) naming speed, which includes the tasks of naming speed in numbers, letters, colors and pictures; 4) orthographic processing, which includes tasks of morphological comprehension of lexemes and suffixes and homophone comprehension; 5) syntactic processing, including gender, number, function words, and grammatical structure tasks; and 6) semantic processing, which influences reading comprehension tasks through informative and narrative text. Instructions for each task, accompanied by one or two trials (depending on the task) and a demonstration, are delivered by a pedagogical agent prior to the initiation of the testing phase. The application protocol for each task is illustrated here.
Prior to administering the multimedia battery to the study sample, adaptations were made to the Spanish language modality for each country (i.e., Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador, and Chile), including adjustments to vocabulary, images, and other relevant content. The administration conditions were the same across all Latin American countries. The administration environment had to be quiet within the school and free from noise, distractions, and interruptions. The duration of the multimedia battery administration ranged from 3-4 sessions of 30 min each, depending on the student&#39;s ability and age. Due to its database compatibility with most spreadsheet and statistical data processing systems, the evaluator can analyze the results of each child and each task. Concerning the data collection, two distinct task types were employed: 1) tasks where the examiner records students&#39; oral performance, noting successes and errors using an external mouse, and 2) tasks requiring students to independently select options by clicking on them.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sicole-R</td>
			<td>Universidad de La Laguna</td>
			<td>TF-263- 07</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

advancing dyslexia assessment in children through computerized testing

The acquisition of reading skills is an intricate process that demands the cultivation of various domain-general and domain-specific abilities. Consequently, it is unsurprising that many children grapple with maintaining proficiency at the grade level, particularly when confronted with challenges spanning multiple abilities across both domains, as observed in individuals with reading difficulties. Strikingly, despite reading difficulties being among the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders affecting school-aged children, the majority of available diagnostic tools lack a comprehensive framework for assessing the full spectrum of cognitive skills linked to dyslexia, with minimal computerized options. Notably, there are currently limited tools with these features available for Spanish-speaking children. The aim of this study was to delineate the protocol for diagnosing Spanish-speaking children with reading difficulties using the Sicole-R multimedia battery. This tool for elementary grades focuses on evaluating cognitive skills that are associated with dyslexia as prescribed by the scientific literature. Specifically, it concentrates on assessing a range of cognitive abilities that studies have demonstrated to be linked to dyslexia. This focus is based on the observation that individuals with dyslexia typically exhibit deficits in several of the cognitive areas evaluated by this digital tool. The robust internal consistency and multidimensional internal structure of the battery were demonstrated. This multimedia battery has proven to be a fitting tool for diagnosing children with reading difficulties in primary education, offering a comprehensive cognitive profile that is valuable not only for diagnostic purposes but also for tailoring individualized instructional plans.

Sample study 
The sample included 881 participants from Spain (N = 325), Mexico (N = 169), Guatemala (N = 227), and Chile (N = 160), all of whom were native Spanish speakers. The sample was divided into two groups: 451 in the reading disability (RD) group and 430 in the normally achieving readers (NAR) group. Children with special educational needs-those requiring support and specific educational attention due to sensory impairments, neurological issues, or other conditions-were excluded because the...

Author Spotlight: Validation of SICOLE-R for Assessing Cognitive and Reading Skills in Spanish-Speaking Children and Its Role in Personalized Education

The Multimedia Battery for Assessment of General-Domain and Specific-Domain Skills in Reading is a reliable and valid multimedia battery designed to assess cognitive and basic reading skills. It enables the generation of a comprehensive cognitive and reading performance profile, which is particularly beneficial for children with dyslexia.

Advancing Dyslexia Assessment in Children Through Computerized Testing

The acquisition of reading skills is an intricate process that demands the cultivation of various domain-general and domain-specific abilities. ...

advancing-dyslexia-assessment-in-children-through-computerized-testing

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

613 Views.  Universidad de La Laguna. Ons onderzoek valideert de SICOLE-R multimediabatterij voor het beoordelen van cognitieve en leesvaardigheden bij Spaanstalige kinderen, met de nadruk op de effectiviteit ervan bij het diagnosticeren van dyslexie en het begeleiden van gepersonaliseerd onderwijs. Recente ontwikkelingen in ons vakgebied zijn onder meer het toenemende gebruik van technologie voor dyslexiescreening, met name door middel van multimediatools zoals SICOLE-R. Deze tools beoordelen zo...

Video: Auteur in de schijnwerpers: validatie van SICOLE-R voor het beoordelen van cognitieve en leesvaardigheden bij Spaanstalige kinderen en de rol ervan in gepersonalis

Assessment and Evaluation of the High Risk Neonate: The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale

There has been a long-standing interest in the assessment of the neurobehavioral integrity of the newborn infant. The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was developed as an assessment for the at-risk infant. These are infants who are at increased risk for poor developmental outcome because of insults during prenatal development, such as substance exposure or prematurity or factors such as poverty, poor nutrition or lack of prenatal care that can have adverse effects on the intrauterine environment and affect the developing fetus. The NNNS assesses the full range of infant neurobehavioral performance including neurological integrity, behavioral functioning, and signs of stress/abstinence. The NNNS is a noninvasive neonatal assessment tool with demonstrated validity as a predictor, not only of medical outcomes such as cerebral palsy diagnosis, neurological abnormalities, and diseases with risks to the brain, but also of developmental outcomes such as mental and motor functioning, behavior problems, school readiness, and IQ. The NNNS can identify infants at high risk for abnormal developmental outcome and is an important clinical tool that enables medical researchers and health practitioners to identify these infants and develop intervention programs to optimize the development of these infants as early as possible. The video shows the NNNS procedures, shows examples of normal and abnormal performance and the various clinical populations in which the exam can be used.

The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was developed as an assessment for the at-risk infant. The purpose of this article is to describe the NNNS, provide video examples of the NNNS procedures and discuss the ways in which the exam has been used.

There has been a long-standing interest in the assessment of the neurobehavioral integrity of the newborn infant.  The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale ...

Quantitative Assessment of Cortical Auditory-tactile Processing in Children with Disabilities

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing children discomfort. To accomplish this we developed a dual channel, time and strength calibrated air puff stimulator that allows both tactile stimulation and sham control. We combined this with the use of event-related potential methodology to allow for high temporal resolution of signals from the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices as well as higher order processing. This methodology also allowed us to measure a multisensory response to auditory-tactile stimulation.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess infants and children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds, and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing discomfort in vulnerable patients.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology ...

Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children

EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and signal processing make it possible to exploit information from other imaging modalities like structural MRI that provide high spatial resolution to overcome this constraint1. This is especially useful for investigations that require high resolution in the temporal as well as spatial domain. In addition, due to the easy application and low cost of EEG recordings, EEG is often the method of choice when working with populations, such as young children, that do not tolerate functional MRI scans well. However, in order to investigate which neural substrates are involved, anatomical information from structural MRI is still needed. Most EEG analysis packages work with standard head models that are based on adult anatomy. The accuracy of these models when used for children is limited2, because the composition and spatial configuration of head tissues changes dramatically over development3.&#160;
In the present paper, we provide an overview of our recent work in utilizing head models based on individual structural MRI scans or age specific head models to reconstruct the cortical generators of high density EEG. This article describes how&#160;EEG recordings are acquired, processed, and analyzed with pediatric populations at the London Baby Lab, including laboratory setup, task design, EEG preprocessing, MRI processing, and EEG channel level and source analysis.&#160;

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in estimating the cortical sources of scalp measured electrical activity for cognitive neuroscience experiments. This article describes how high density EEG is acquired and how recordings are processed for cortical source estimation in children from the age of 2 years at the London Baby Lab.

EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and ...

Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this domain has focused almost exclusively on adult participants, completely ignoring the topic of threat detection over the course of development. One of the biggest reasons for the lack of developmental work in this area is likely the absence of a reliable paradigm that can measure perceptual biases for threat in children. To address this issue, we recently designed a modified visual search paradigm similar to the standard adult paradigm that is appropriate for studying threat detection in preschool-aged participants. Here we describe this new procedure. In the general paradigm, we present participants with matrices of color photographs, and ask them to find and touch a target on the screen. Latency to touch the target is recorded. Using a touch-screen monitor makes the procedure simple and easy, allowing us to collect data in participants ranging from 3 years of age to adults. Thus far, the paradigm has consistently shown that both adults and children detect threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, angry/fearful faces) more quickly than neutral stimuli (e.g., flowers, mushrooms, happy/neutral faces). Altogether, this procedure provides an important new tool for researchers interested in studying the development of attentional biases for threat.

Here we describe a touch-screen visual search paradigm that can be used to study threat detection across the lifespan. The paradigm has already been used in various studies demonstrating that both children and adults detect threatening stimuli like snakes, spiders, and angry faces faster than non-threatening stimuli.

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this ...

Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

In addition to impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, deficits in sensory processing are now recognized as a core symptom in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Our ability to perceive and interact with the external world is rooted in sensory processing. For example, listening to a conversation entails processing the auditory cues coming from the speaker (speech content, prosody, syntax) as well as the associated visual information (facial expressions, gestures). Collectively, the &#8220;integration&#8221; of these multisensory (i.e., combined audiovisual) pieces of information results in better comprehension. Such multisensory integration has been shown to be strongly dependent upon the temporal relationship of the paired stimuli. Thus, stimuli that occur in close temporal proximity are highly likely to result in behavioral and perceptual benefits &#8211; gains believed to be reflective of the perceptual system&#39;s judgment of the likelihood that these two stimuli came from the same source. Changes in this temporal integration are expected to strongly alter perceptual processes, and are likely to diminish the ability to accurately perceive and interact with our world. Here, a battery of tasks designed to characterize various aspects of sensory and multisensory temporal processing in children with ASD is described. In addition to its utility in autism, this battery has great potential for characterizing changes in sensory function in other clinical populations, as well as being used to examine changes in these processes across the lifespan.

We describe how to implement a battery of behavioral tasks to examine the processing and integration of sensory stimuli in children with ASD. The goal is to characterize individual differences in temporal processing of simple auditory and visual stimuli and relate these to higher order perceptual skills like speech perception.

In addition to impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, deficits in sensory processing are ...

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device (ALDM) Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys maintained in semi-free ranging conditions. Data accumulated during the last five years have consistently demonstrated the efficiency of this protocol to investigate individual/physical cognition in monkeys, and have further shown that this procedure reduces stress level during animal testing3. This paper demonstrates that networks of ALDM can also be used to investigate different facets of social cognition and in-group expressed behaviors in monkeys, and describes three illustrative protocols developed for that purpose. The first study demonstrates how ethological assessments of social behavior and computerized assessments of cognitive performance could be integrated to investigate the effects of socially exhibited moods on the cognitive performance of individuals. The second study shows that batteries of ALDM running in parallel can provide unique information on the influence of the presence of others on task performance. Finally, the last study shows that networks of ALDM test units can also be used to study issues related to social transmission and cultural evolution. Combined together, these three studies demonstrate clearly that ALDM testing is a highly promising experimental tool for bridging the gap in the animal literature between research on individual cognition and research on social cognition.

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device ALDM Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) aimed at testing individual cognitive abilities in semi-free ranging monkeys. The main goal of our protocol is to use a network of ALDM test units to study social cognition in non-human primates.

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys ...

Behavioral Assessment of Hearing in 2 to 4 Year-old Children: A Two-interval, Observer-based Procedure Using Conditioned Play-based Responses

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human auditory development for these age groups. This paper describes an observer-based procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity with a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm. Young children are trained to perform a play-based, motor response (e.g., putting a block in a bucket) whenever they hear a target signal. An experimenter observes the child&#39;s behavior and makes a judgment about whether the signal was presented during the first or second observation interval; the experimenter is blinded to the true signal interval, so this judgment is based solely on the child&#39;s behavior. These procedures were used to test 2 to 4 year-olds (n = 33) with no known hearing problems. The signal was a 1,000 Hz warble tone presented in quiet, and the signal level was adjusted to estimate a threshold corresponding to 71%-correct detection. A valid threshold was obtained for 82% of children. These results indicate that the two-interval procedure is both feasible and reliable for use with toddlers and preschoolers. The two-interval, observer-based procedure described in this paper is a powerful tool for evaluating hearing in young children because it guards against response bias on the part of the experimenter.

This paper describes a procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity in 2 to 4 year-old children. Children are trained to perform play-based responses when they hear a target signal. Thresholds are then estimated in a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm, based on observations of the child&#39;s behaviors.

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Classical Short-Delay Eyeblink Conditioning in One-Year-Old Children

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a puff of air to the cornea). Eyeblink conditioning is often used experimentally to detect abnormalities in cerebellar-dependent learning and memory that underlies this type of associative learning. While experiments in adults and older children are relatively simple to administer using commercial equipment, eyeblink conditioning in infants is more challenging due to their poor compliance, which makes correct positioning of the equipment difficult. To achieve conditioning in one-year-old infants, a custom-made or an adapted commercial system can be used to deliver the air puff to the infant's cornea. The main challenge lies in successfully detecting and classifying the behavioral responses. We report that automated blink detection methods are unreliable in this population, and that conditioning experiments should be analyzed using frame-by-frame analysis of supplementary video camera recordings. This method can be applied to study developmental changes in eyeblink conditioning and to examine whether this paradigm can detect children with neurological disorders.

This protocol describes an eyeblink conditioning paradigm appropriate for experiments with one-year-old infants. Commercial or custom-made equipment can be used to deliver the stimuli, and data collection and analysis should be performed on the video recordings.

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a ...

Computerized Adaptive Testing System of Functional Assessment of Stroke

The computerized adaptive testing system of the functional assessment of stroke (CAT-FAS) can simultaneously assess four functions (motor functions of the upper and lower extremities, postural control, and basic activities of daily living) with sufficient reliability and administrative efficiency. CAT, a modern measurement method, aims to provide a reliable estimate of the examinee's level of function rapidly. CAT administers only a few items whose item difficulties match an examinee's level of function and, thus, the administered items of CAT can provide sufficient information to reliably estimate the examinee's level of function in a short time. The CAT-FAS was developed through four steps: (1) determining the item bank, (2) determining the stopping rules, (3) validating the CAT-FAS, and (4) establishing a platform of online administration. The results of this study indicate that the CAT-FAS has sufficient administrative efficiency (average number of items = 8.5) and reliability (group-level Rasch reliability: 0.88 - 0.93; individual-level Rasch reliability: &#8805;70% of patients had Rasch reliability score &#8805;0.90) to simultaneously assess four functions in patients with stroke. In addition, because the CAT-FAS is a computer-based test, the CAT-FAS has three additional advantages: the automatic calculation of scores, the immediate storage of data, and the easy exporting of data. These advantages of the CAT-FAS will be beneficial to data management for clinicians and researchers.

Here, we present a protocol to develop the computerized adaptive testing system of the functional assessment of stroke (CAT-FAS). The CAT-FAS can simultaneously assess four functions (two motor functions [upper and lower extremities], postural control, and basic activities of daily living) with sufficient reliability and administrative efficiency.

The computerized adaptive testing system of the functional assessment of stroke (CAT-FAS) can simultaneously assess four functions (motor functions of the ...

Advancing Dyslexia Assessment in Children Through Computerized Testing

Samenvatting

Meer video's verkennen

Hoofdstukken in deze video