This study was supported by the Grants from the Nature Science Foundation of Hubei Province (2022CFC057).

The experimental protocol was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Jianghan University and was conducted in accordance with Experimental Animals Ethical Guidelines issued by the Center for Disease Control of China. Adult male C57BL/6J mice, 10 weeks old, weighted 24-26 g, were used in this protocol. All mice were housed under a 12-h light/dark cycle controlled environment with food and water ad libitum.
1. Preoperative preparation
NOTE: The key instruments and equipment required for this protocol are shown in Figure 1.
<ol>
	<li>Prior to the procedure, sterilize the surgical instruments by autoclaving.</li>
	<li>Administer meloxicam subcutaneously at a dose of 5 mg/kg for analgesia 60 min before surgery.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the mouse with 5% isoflurane in an induction chamber.</li>
	<li>Wipe the heating surgery board with 75% ethanol and activate the heating switch with the temperature set to 37 &#176;C. Then, position the mouse in a left lateral position on the board, with the head positioned away from the surgeon and the tail facing towards the surgeon.</li>
	<li>Attach a mask to the mouse face that provides a constant supply of 2% isoflurane and 0.3 L/min oxygen for maintenance anesthesia. Apply the eye ointment on the cornea to protect them from drying during the procedure.</li>
	<li>Shave the fur from the left orbit to the left ear canal with a shaver. Use depilatory creams to remove the remaining fur for sterilization.</li>
	<li>Prepare the surgical area by applying povidone-iodine disinfectant and 75% ethanol three times.</li>
</ol>
2. Distal MCAO model
<ol>
	<li>Check if the mouse is deeply anesthetized by assessing the reflexes of the toe pinch.</li>
	<li>Make a vertical incision between the left orbit and the left ear canal using a sterile scalpel blade.</li>
	<li>Retract the skin&#39;s soft tissue with retractors and expose the temporal muscle.</li>
	<li>Use straight microforceps to separate the apical and dorsal segments of the temporal muscle from the skull.</li>
	<li>Identify the bifurcation of the MCA, which assumes a &#34;Y&#34; shape beneath the temporal bone with a bias towards the base of the skull (Figure 2A). 
	NOTE: If the bifurcation of MCA is not visually discernible (due to an anatomically normal variation), ascertain the most rostral vessel.</li>
	<li>Use an electric cranial drill to thin out the skull to make a bone window (4 mm in diameter) until the dura mater, with its translucent texture, becomes visible. 
	NOTE: Intermittently add drops of normal saline to the skull to prevent overheating during this process.</li>
	<li>Remove the dura mater above the artery with curved micro forceps to expose the MCA branch.</li>
	<li>Set the electrocautery to 7 W. Coagulate the artery using the electric coagulation forceps at the sites of proximal and distal to the bifurcation of MCA (Figure 2A). When the bifurcation is not visible due to an anatomical variation, perform the coagulation on the accurately identified MCA branch (as mentioned above) at two separate locations approximately 1 mm apart13.</li>
	<li>Monitor the blood flow of the left MCA cortical branch utilizing a laser speckle blood flow meter. 
	NOTE: Mice exhibiting a blood flow reduction of less than 40% of the baseline value following electrocoagulation were excluded from the study.</li>
	<li>Suture the muscle and the skin separately using 5-0 polyglycolic acid sutures. Apply diclofenac sodium gel and mupirocin ointment to the skin incision using a sterile cotton swab.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse in a recovery chamber. Monitor all mice until they are fully awake. Provide meloxicam (5 mg/kg, SC) for analgesia every 24 h&#160;up to 72 h.</li>
</ol>
3. Sham Operation
<ol>
	<li>Reproduce the same procedure as those mentioned above, excluding the process of arterial coagulation.</li>
</ol>
4. Behavioral tests
NOTE: Prior to the dMCAO, the mice underwent behavioral training twice daily for 3 days. On 3rd day post-dMCAO, move the mice to the behavioral testing room for a 2 h environmental adaptation before testing.
<ol>
	<li>Grip strength test14 
	&#8203;NOTE: The grip strength meter comprises a push-pull strain gauge and a metal horizontal bar.
	<ol>
		<li>Grasp the base of the mouse tail. Gradually lower the mouse toward the metal grip bar until it grips the horizontal bar with both forepaws (Figure 2B).</li>
		<li>Pull the mouse backward at a constant speed of about 2 cm/s and keep its body horizontal.</li>
		<li>Record the peak force in grams (g) when the mouse releases its forepaws from the bar.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pole test15
	<ol>
		<li>Place the mouse on the top of a vertical wooden pole (50 cm high, 1 cm in diameter) with their head facing upwards, and allow them to climb down the pole (Figure 2B).</li>
		<li>Record the time taken by the mouse to turn around (T-turn) and the total time to climb down the pole (T-total) with a 60-s cut-off time.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Adhesive tape removal test16
	<ol>
		<li>Hold the mouse and attach a patch of adhesive tape (2 &#215; 2 mm) to the right forepaw of the mouse (Figure 2B).</li>
		<li>Put the mouse back into the rearing cage and allow it to move freely.</li>
		<li>Record the time taken by the mouse to remove adhesive with a limit of 60 s.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cylinder test17
	<ol>
		<li>Place the mouse in an open-top, clear glass cylinder (diameter: 14 cm; height: 20 cm) and record its spontaneous standing exploratory behavior for 3 min using a camera (Figure 2B). 
		NOTE: During the experimental procedure, two mirrors were positioned alongside the cylinder to ensure optimal recording of forelimb movements.</li>
		<li>Wipe the cylinder with 75% ethanol to eliminate residual olfactory cues before testing the subsequent mouse.</li>
		<li>Reduce the playback speed of the video to 1/5 of the actual speed, and count the number of wall touches with the left (L) or right forepaw (R) or simultaneous use of both forepaws (B). Calculate the usage rate of the right forepaw as (L-R)/(L + R + B) &#215; 100%.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Perfusion and sample preparation
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize the mouse by peritoneal injection overdose of pentobarbital (300 mg/kg). Position the mouse supine and immobilize the limbs.</li>
	<li>Make a midline incision on the skin, starting from the mid-abdominal cavity and extending towards the upper chest region.</li>
	<li>Open the chest using surgical scissors and fold the xiphoid upwards using a hemostat. Carefully remove the lung and the diaphragm to expose the heart.</li>
	<li>Insert the perfusion needle tip into the left ventricle and puncture the right atrium with scissors. Perfuse the heart with 20 mL of normal saline via the left ventricle.</li>
	<li>Decapitate the mouse and cut open the scalp along the midline between the eyes. Cut the bone along both sides, starting from the skull base and opening up to the eye socket.</li>
	<li>Lift the calvarium and gently detach the brain from the base of the skull by using a forceps. 
	NOTE: Brains from half of the mice were subjected to 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, while brains from the other half underwent histological examination.</li>
	<li>Soak the brains in 4% paraformaldehyde solution overnight for follow-up histological analysis.</li>
</ol>
6. Identification of infarction volume
<ol>
	<li>Place the brain in a -20 &#176;C freezer compartment of the refrigerator for 20 min.</li>
	<li>Position the brain into the 1 mm brain matrix and slice the brain into coronary sections with a thickness of 2 mm by using microtome blades.</li>
	<li>Transfer the brain sections to a 24-well culture plate and add 2% TTC to cover the brain tissue. Put the 24-well culture plate in a constant temperature oven for 30 min with the temperature set at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Carefully lift out the brain sections and fix them in 4% paraformaldehyde solution for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Perform optical scanning of these brain sections with a resolution of 1200 x 1200 dpi by a scanister.</li>
	<li>Measure the cerebral infarct volume by summing the infarct area of each section (area of the right hemisphere minus uninjured area of the left hemisphere) using Image J software (https://imagej.net/software/imagej/index)18. Calculate the infarct volume percentage as infarct volume/volume of the right hemisphere &#215; 100%.</li>
</ol>
7. Histopathological and immunofluorescent staining analysis
<ol>
	<li>Take the brain samples from the paraformaldehyde solution and flush them with running water for 1 h.</li>
	<li>Transfer the brain samples into the automation-tissue-dehydrating machine. Launch the preset program for dehydration, vitrification, and wax immersion. Embed the dehydrated brain samples in paraffin and slice them into 5-&#181;m thick sections by a microtome.</li>
	<li>Hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) staining
	<ol>
		<li>Dewax the sections with xylene 3 times for 8 min each.</li>
		<li>Rehydratethe sections by successively immersing in gradient ethanol (100%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%) and distilled water for 5 min each time.</li>
		<li>Stain the sections with the hematoxylin solution for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Rinse the sections with distilled water to wash the residue hematoxylin, then dip them in 5% hydrochloric acid alcohol for a 5-s differentiation. Wash the sections with distilled water for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Stain the sections with eosin solution for 30 s and rinse off excess staining fluid using distilled water.</li>
		<li>Immerse the sections in 90% ethanol, 95% ethanol, 100% ethanol, and xylene (2 times) successively for 5 min each time. Mount the sections with a neutral balsam mounting medium.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Immunofluorescence staining
	<ol>
		<li>Dewax the sections with xylene 3 times for 8 min each time.</li>
		<li>Rehydrate the sections by successively immersing in gradient ethanol (100%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%) and distilled water for 5 min each time.</li>
		<li>Preheat the citrate antigen retrieval solution to boil in the microwave. Immerse the sections in the antigen retrieval solution. Reheat the antigen retrieval buffer with low power (20 W) for 20 min.</li>
		<li>Turn off the microwave and let the antigen retrieval buffer cool to room temperature (RT).</li>
		<li>Wash the sections thrice with 0.1 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 5 min each time.</li>
		<li>Incubate the sections with a blocking solution (5% bovine serum albumin) at RT for 1 h to block the non-specific binding of immunoglobulin.</li>
		<li>Incubate the sections with rabbit anti-NeuN antibody (1: 300), rabbit anti-Iba-1 antibody (1: 500) and mouse anti-GFAP antibody (1: 500) at 4&#730;C overnight.</li>
		<li>Wash the sections thrice with 0.1 mM PBS for 5 min each time.</li>
		<li>Incubate the sections with goat anti-rabbit Alexa 594-conjugated IgG (1:500) or goat anti-mouse Alexa 488-conjugated IgG (1:500) for 1 h at RT.</li>
		<li>Wash the sections with 0.1 mM PBS and mount them with an antifade mounting media containing 4&#39;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI).</li>
		<li>Take images of three microscopic fields (300 &#181;m &#215; 300 &#181;m) within the ischemic penumbra using a fluorescent microscope at 594 nm and 488 nm, respectively.</li>
		<li>Using the ImageJ software (https://imagej.net/software/imagej/index), estimate the positively stained cell density by averaging counts in ischemic penumbra19.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Occlusion of Distal Middle Artery to Develop an Ischemic Stroke Mouse Model

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The authors have no conflicting interests to disclose.

In the present protocol of the craniotomy electrocoagulation dMCAO model, the surgical procedures are conducted with minimal invasiveness, wherein only a portion of the temporalis muscle is separated to mitigate the adverse effects on masticatory function. The mice all recovered well after the procedure, with no observed instances of feeding difficulties. The MCA can be easily discerned in the temporal bone of the mouse, thereby facilitating precise identification of suitable craniotomy locations. This dMCAO model-induce...

Stroke is a common acute cerebrovascular disease characterized by high incidences of disability and fatality1. Of all stroke cases, nearly 80% belong to ischemic stroke2. Up to now, intravenous thrombolysis remains one of a limited number of productive approaches for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. However, the effectiveness of thrombolytic treatment is restricted by the narrow effective time window and the occurrence of hemorrhagic transformation3. In the long-term rehabilitation phase following an ischemic stroke, a considerable number of patients are likely to experience durable neurological dysfunctions4. Further investigation is urgently required to unravel the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic stroke, as well as to facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting ischemic stroke. The establishment of a dependable and replicable model of ischemic stroke is crucial for basic research as well as subsequent translational research in the field of ischemic stroke.
In 1981, Tamura et al. developed a focal cerebral ischemia model by employing transcranial electrocoagulation at the proximal site of the middle cerebral artery (MCA)5. Since then, numerous researchers have utilized various methodologies such as ligation, compression, or clipping to induce distal MCA occlusion (dMCAO) for establishing transient or permanent ischemic stroke models6,7,8. Compared to the filament model, the dMCAO model exhibits notable advantages such as smaller infarct size and higher survival rate, rendering it more suitable for investigating long-term functional recovery subsequent to ischemic stroke9. In addition, the dMCAO model demonstrates a higher survival rate in aged rodents compared to the filament model, making it an advantageous tool for investigating ischemic stroke in elderly and comorbid animal models10. The photothrombotic (PT) stroke model has been demonstrated to possess the characteristics of less surgical invasiveness and a significantly low mortality rate. However, the PT model exhibits a greater degree of cellular necrosis and tissue edema compared to the dMCAO model, leading to the absence of collateral circulation11. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the ischemic lesions observed in the PT model predominantly arise from microvascular occlusion, which differs substantially from the cerebral ischemia induced by large vessel embolism in the dMCAO model12.
In this paper, we present the methodology for inducing the murine dMCAO model by coagulating the distal MCA via small bone window craniotomy. Additionally, we conducted histological examinations and behavioral evaluations to comprehensively characterize the ischemic insults and stroke outcomes in this experimental model. We aim to acquaint researchers with this model and facilitate further investigations into the pathologic mechanisms of ischemic stroke.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium 
			Chloride (TTC)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>108380</td>
			<td>Dye for TTC staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well culture plate</td>
			<td>Corning (USA)</td>
			<td>CLS3527</td>
			<td>Vessel for TTC staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4% paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Wuhan Servicebio Technology 
			Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>G1101</td>
			<td>Tissue fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5% bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Wuhan BOSTER Bio Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>AR004</td>
			<td>Non-specific antigen blocking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-0 Polyglycolic acid suture</td>
			<td>Jinhuan Medical Co., Ltd</td>
			<td>KCR531</td>
			<td>Material for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthesia machine</td>
			<td>Midmark Corporation</td>
			<td>VMR</td>
			<td>Anesthetized animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antifade mounting medium</td>
			<td>Beyotime Biotech</td>
			<td>P0131</td>
			<td>Seal for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automation-tissue-dehydrating&#160; 
			machine</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems (Germany)</td>
			<td>TP1020</td>
			<td>Dehydrate tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Depilatory cream</td>
			<td>Veet (France)</td>
			<td>20220328</td>
			<td>Material for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diclofenac&#160;sodium&#160;gel</td>
			<td>Wuhan Ma Yinglong Pharmaceutical 
			&#160;Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>H10950214</td>
			<td>Analgesia for animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Drill tip (0.8 mm)</td>
			<td>Rwd Life Science Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Equipment for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eosin staining solution</td>
			<td>Wuhan Servicebio Technology 
			Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>G1001</td>
			<td>Dye for H&#38;E staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eye ointment</td>
			<td>Guangzhou Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd</td>
			<td>H44023098</td>
			<td>Material for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus (Japan)</td>
			<td>BX51</td>
			<td>Image acquisition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFAP Mouse monoclonal antibody</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology Inc. 
			(Danvers, MA, USA)</td>
			<td>3670</td>
			<td>Primary antibody for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse Alexa 
			488-conjugated IgG</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology Inc. 
			(Danvers, MA, USA)</td>
			<td>4408</td>
			<td>Second antibody for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-rabbit Alexa 
			594-conjugated IgG</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology Inc. 
			(Danvers, MA, USA)</td>
			<td>8889</td>
			<td>Second antibody for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Grip strength meter</td>
			<td>Shanghai Xinruan Information Technology Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>XR501</td>
			<td>Equipment for behavioral test</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin staining solution</td>
			<td>Wuhan Servicebio Technology 
			Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>G1004</td>
			<td>Dye for H&#38;E staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iba1 Rabbit monoclonal antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab178846</td>
			<td>Primary antibody for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Rwd Life Science Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>R510-22-10</td>
			<td>Anesthetized animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser doppler blood flow meter</td>
			<td>Moor Instruments (UK)</td>
			<td>moorVMS</td>
			<td>Blood flow monitoring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Meloxicam</td>
			<td>Boehringer-Ingelheim</td>
			<td>J20160020</td>
			<td>Analgesia for animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdrill</td>
			<td>Rwd Life Science Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>78001</td>
			<td>Equipment for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsurgical instruments set</td>
			<td>Rwd Life Science Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>SP0009-R</td>
			<td>Equipment for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific (USA)</td>
			<td>HM325</td>
			<td>Tissue section production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome blade</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems (Germany)</td>
			<td>819</td>
			<td>Tissue section production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monopolar electrocoagulation generator</td>
			<td>Spring Scenery Medical Instrument 
			Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>CZ0001</td>
			<td>Equipment for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mupirocin ointment</td>
			<td>Tianjin Smith Kline &#38; French 
			Laboratories Ltd.</td>
			<td>H10930064</td>
			<td>Anti-infection for animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NeuN Rabbit monoclonal antibody</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology Inc. 
			(Danvers, MA, USA)</td>
			<td>24307</td>
			<td>Primary antibody for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neutral balsam</td>
			<td>Absin Bioscience</td>
			<td>abs9177</td>
			<td>Seal for H&#38;E staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraffin embedding center</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific (USA)</td>
			<td>EC 350</td>
			<td>Produce paraffin blocks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pentobarbital sodium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3761</td>
			<td>Euthanized animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td>Shanghai Beyotime Biotech Co., Ltd</td>
			<td>C0221A</td>
			<td>Rinsing for tissue section</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shaver</td>
			<td>Shenzhen Codos Electrical Appliances 
			Co.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>CP-9200</td>
			<td>Equipment for surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium citrate solution</td>
			<td>Shanghai Beyotime Biotech Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>P0083</td>
			<td>Antigen retrieval for IF staining</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

induction of acute ischemic stroke in mice using the distal middle artery occlusion technique

Ischemic stroke remains the predominant cause of mortality and functional impairment among the adult populations globally. Only a minority of ischemic stroke patients are eligible to receive intravascular thrombolysis or mechanical thrombectomy therapy within the optimal time window. Among those stroke survivors, around two-thirds suffer neurological dysfunctions over an extended period. Establishing a stable and repeatable experimental ischemic stroke model is extremely significant for further investigating the pathophysiological mechanisms and developing effective therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke. The middle cerebral artery (MCA) represents the predominant location of ischemic stroke in humans, with the MCA occlusion serving as the frequently employed model of focal cerebral ischemia. In this protocol, we describe the methodology of establishing the distal MCA occlusion (dMCAO) model through transcranial electrocoagulation in C57BL/6 mice. Since the occlusion site is located at the cortical branch of MCA, this model generates a moderate infarcted lesion restricted to the cortex. Neurological behavioral and histopathological characterization have demonstrated visible motor dysfunction, neuron degeneration, and pronounced activation of microglia and astrocytes in this model. Thus, this dMCAO mouse model provides a valuable tool for investigating the ischemiastroke and worth of popularization.

The key instruments used to perform the dMCAO are the microsurgical instruments set, the isoflurane vaporizer, and the monopolar microsurgical electrocoagulation generator shown in Figure 1. The experimental procedure of this study is illustrated in Figure 2.&#160;In brief, a small bone window craniotomy was employed to expose the distal MCA, which was subsequently coagulated to induce permanent focal cerebral ischemia in C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, the ischemic ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Induction of Acute Ischemic Stroke in Mice Using the Distal Middle Artery Occlusion Technique at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Establishing a Reliable Distal MCA Occlusion Model in Mice for Stroke Research

Here, we present a protocol to establish a distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO) model through transcranial electrocoagulation in C57BL/6J mice and evaluate the subsequent neurological behavior and histopathological features.

Induction of Acute Ischemic Stroke in Mice Using the Distal Middle Artery Occlusion Technique

Ischemic stroke remains the predominant cause of mortality and functional impairment among the adult populations globally. Only a minority of ischemic ...

induction-acute-ischemic-stroke-mice-using-distal-middle-artery

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

1.6K Views.  Jianghan University. Here, we present a protocol to establish a distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO) model through transcranial electrocoagulation in C57BL/6J mice and evaluate the subsequent neurological behavior and histopathological features.

Video: Author Spotlight: Establishing a Reliable Distal MCA Occlusion Model in Mice for Stroke Research

Focal Cerebral Ischemia Model by Endovascular Suture Occlusion of the Middle Cerebral Artery in the Rat

Stroke is the leading cause of disability and the third leading cause of death in adults worldwide1. In human stroke, there exists a highly variable clinical state; in the development of animal models of focal ischemia, however, achieving reproducibility of experimentally induced infarct volume is essential. The rat is a widely used animal model for stroke due to its relatively low animal husbandry costs and to the similarity of its cranial circulation to that of humans2,3. In humans, the middle cerebral artery (MCA) is most commonly affected in stroke syndromes and multiple methods of MCA occlusion (MCAO) have been described to mimic this clinical syndrome in animal models. Because recanalization commonly occurs following an acute stroke in the human, reperfusion after a period of occlusion has been included in many of these models. In this video, we demonstrate the transient endovascular suture MCAO model in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR). A filament with a silicon tip coating is placed intraluminally at the MCA origin for 60 minutes, followed by reperfusion. Note that the optimal occlusion period may vary in other rat strains, such as Wistar or Sprague-Dawley. Several behavioral indicators of stroke in the rat are shown. Focal ischemia is confirmed using T2-weighted magnetic resonance images and by staining brain sections with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) 24 hours after MCAO.

Surgical induction of ischemic brain damage in the rat is a widely used model for stroke research. Here we demonstrate the induction of focal cerebral ischemia by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Visualization of the resulting infarct by histological staining and magnetic resonance imaging is also shown.

Stroke is the leading cause of disability and the third leading cause of death in adults worldwide1. In human stroke, there exists a highly variable ...

Measuring Circadian and Acute Light Responses in Mice using Wheel Running Activity

Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2. They are responsible for timing our sleep/wake cycles and hormone secretion. Since this timing is not precisely 24-hours, it is synchronized to the solar day by light input. This is accomplished via photic input from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which serves as the master pacemaker synchronizing peripheral clocks in other regions of the brain and peripheral tissues to the environmental light dark cycle3-7. The alignment of rhythms to this environmental light dark cycle organizes particular physiological events to the correct temporal niche, which is crucial for survival8. For example, mice sleep during the day and are active at night. This ability to consolidate activity to either the light or dark portion of the day is referred to as circadian photoentrainment and requires light input to the circadian clock9. Activity of mice at night is robust particularly in the presence of a running wheel. Measuring this behavior is a minimally invasive method that can be used to evaluate the functionality of the circadian system as well as light input to this system. Methods that will covered here are used to examine the circadian clock, light input to this system, as well as the direct influence of light on wheel running behavior.

This article will review methods that can be used to determine circadian function and light responsiveness in mice.

Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2.  They ...

Lateral Chronic Cranial Window Preparation Enables In Vivo Observation Following Distal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mice

Focal cerebral ischemia (i.e., ischemic stroke) may cause major brain injury, leading to a severe loss of neuronal function and consequently to a host of motor and cognitive disabilities. Its high prevalence poses a serious health burden, as stroke is among the principal causes of long-term disability and death worldwide1. Recovery of neuronal function is, in most cases, only partial. So far, treatment options are very limited, in particular due to the narrow time window for thrombolysis2,3. Determining methods to accelerate recovery from stroke remains a prime medical goal; however, this has been hampered by insufficient mechanistic insights into the recovery process. Experimental stroke researchers frequently employ rodent models of focal cerebral ischemia. Beyond the acute phase, stroke research is increasingly focused on the sub-acute and chronic phase following cerebral ischemia. Most stroke researchers apply permanent or transient occlusion of the MCA in mice or rats. In patients, occlusions of the MCA are among the most frequent causes of ischemic stroke4. Besides proximal occlusion of the MCA using the filament model, surgical occlusion of the distal MCA is probably the most frequently used model in experimental stroke research5. Occlusion of a distal (to the branching of the lenticulo-striate arteries) MCA branch typically spares the striatum and primarily affects the neocortex. Vessel occlusion can be permanent or transient. High reproducibility of lesion volume and very low mortality rates with respect to the long-term outcome are the main advantages of this model. Here, we demonstrate how to perform a chronic cranial window (CW) preparation lateral to the sagittal sinus, and afterwards how to surgically induce a distal stroke underneath the window using a craniotomy approach. This approach can be applied for sequential imaging of acute and chronic changes following ischemia via epi-illuminating, confocal laser scanning, and two-photon intravital microscopy.

Lateral Chronic Cranial Window Preparation Enables In Vivo Observation Following Distal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mice

Surgical occlusion of a distal middle cerebral artery branch (MCAo) is a frequently used model in experimental stroke research. This manuscript describes the basic technique of permanent MCAo, combined with the insertion of a lateral cranial window, which offers the opportunity for longitudinal intravital microscopy in mice.

Focal cerebral ischemia (i.e., ischemic stroke) may cause major brain injury, leading to a severe loss of neuronal function and consequently to a host of ...

Optimized Management of Endovascular Treatment for Acute Ischemic Stroke

This manuscript describes a streamlined protocol for the management of patients with acute ischemic stroke, which aims at the minimization of time from hospital admission to reperfusion. Rapid restoration of cerebral blood flow is essential for the outcomes of patients with acute ischemic stroke. Endovascular treatment (EVT) has become the standard of care to accomplish this in patients with acute stroke due to large vessel occlusion (LVO). To achieve reperfusion of ischemic brain regions as fast as possible, all in-hospital time delays have to be carefully avoided. Therefore, management of patients with acute ischemic stroke was optimized with an interdisciplinary standard operating procedure (SOP). Stroke neurologists, diagnostic as well as interventional neuroradiologists, and anesthesiologists streamlined all necessary processes from patient admission and diagnosis to EVT of eligible patients. Target times for every step were established. Actually achieved times were prospectively recorded along with clinical data and imaging scores for all endovascularly treated stroke patients. These data were regularly analyzed and discussed in interdisciplinary team meetings. Potential issues were evaluated and all staff involved was trained to adhere to the SOP. This streamlined patient management approach and enhanced interdisciplinary collaboration reduced time from patient admission to reperfusion significantly and was accompanied by a beneficial effect on clinical outcomes.

The outcome of patients with acute ischemic stroke depends on swift restoration of cerebral blood flow. This protocol aims at optimizing the management of such patients by minimizing peri-procedural timings and rendering the time from hospital admission to reperfusion as short as possible.

This manuscript describes a streamlined protocol for the management of patients with acute ischemic stroke, which aims at the minimization of time from ...

An In Vivo Assessment of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in a Rat Model of Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke leads to vasogenic cerebral edema and subsequent primary brain injury, which is mediated through destruction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Rats with induced ischemic stroke were established and used as in vivo models to investigate the functional integrity of the BBB. Spectrophotometric detection of Evans blue (EB) in the brain samples with ischemic injury could provide reliable justification for the research and development of novel therapeutic modalities. This method generates reproducible results, and is applicable in any laboratory without a need for special equipment. Here, we present a visualized and technical guideline on the detection of the extravasation of EB following induction of ischemic stroke in rats.

An In Vivo Assessment of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in a Rat Model of Ischemic Stroke

The overall goal of this procedure is to provide a highly reproducible technique for in vivo assessment of the blood-brain barrier disruption in rat models of ischemic stroke.

Ischemic stroke leads to vasogenic cerebral edema and subsequent primary brain injury, which is mediated through destruction of the blood-brain barrier ...

Direct Intrathecal Injection of Recombinant Adeno-associated Viruses in Adult Mice

Intrathecal (IT) injection of adeno-associated virus (AAV) has drawn considerable interest in CNS gene therapy by virtue of its safety, noninvasiveness, and excellent transduction efficacy in the CNS.&#160;Previous studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potency of AAV-delivered gene therapy in neurodegenerative disorders by IT administration. However, high rates of unpredictable failure due to the technical limitation of IT administration in small animals have been reported. Here, we established a scoring system to indicate the success extent of lumbar puncture in small animals by adding 1% lidocaine hydrochloride into the injection solution. We further show that the extent of transient weakness following injection can predict the transduction efficiency of AAV. Thus, this IT injection method can be used to optimize therapeutic trials in mouse models of CNS diseases that afflict wide regions of the CNS.

Here we present a direct intrathecal injection technique using 1% lidocaine hydrochloride in a viral solution to ensure efficient adeno-associated virus delivery to small animals and establish a scoring system to predict transduction efficiency in the central nervous system according to the degree of transient weakness induced by lidocaine.

Intrathecal (IT) injection of adeno-associated virus (AAV) has drawn considerable interest in CNS gene therapy by virtue of its safety, noninvasiveness, ...

Modeling Stroke in Mice: Focal Cortical Lesions by Photothrombosis

Stroke is a leading cause of death and acquired adult disability in developed countries. Despite extensive investigation for novel therapeutic strategies, there remain limited therapeutic options for stroke patients. Therefore, more research is needed for pathophysiological pathways such as post-stroke inflammation, angiogenesis, neuronal plasticity, and regeneration. Given the inability of in vitro models to reproduce the complexity of the brain, experimental stroke models are essential for the analysis and subsequent evaluation of novel drug targets for these mechanisms. In addition, detailed standardized models for all procedures are urgently needed to overcome the so-called replication crisis. As an effort within the ImmunoStroke research consortium, a standardized photothrombotic mouse model using an intraperitoneal injection of Rose Bengal and the illumination of the intact skull with a 561 nm laser is described. This model allows the performance of stroke in mice with allocation to any cortical region of the brain without invasive surgery; thus, enabling the study of stroke in various areas of the brain. In this video, the surgical methods of stroke induction in the photothrombotic model along with&#160;histological analysis are demonstrated.

Described here is the photothrombotic stroke model, where a stroke is produced through the intact skull by inducing permanent microvascular occlusion using laser illumination after administration of a photosensitive dye.

Stroke is a leading cause of death and acquired adult disability in developed countries. Despite extensive investigation for novel therapeutic strategies, ...

Modeling Stroke in Mice: Transient Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion via the External Carotid Artery

Stroke is the third most common cause of mortality and the leading cause of acquired adult disability in developed countries. To date, therapeutic options are limited to a small proportion of stroke patients within the first hours after stroke. Novel therapeutic strategies are being extensively investigated, especially to prolong the therapeutic time window. These current investigations include the study of important pathophysiological pathways after stroke, such as post-stroke inflammation, angiogenesis, neuronal plasticity, and regeneration. Over the last decade, there has been increasing concern about the poor reproducibility of experimental results and scientific findings among independent research groups. To overcome the so-called &#8220;replication crisis&#8221;, detailed standardized models for all procedures are urgently needed. As an effort within the &#8220;ImmunoStroke&#8221; research consortium (https://immunostroke.de/), a standardized mouse model of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) is proposed. This model allows the complete restoration of the blood flow upon removal of the filament, simulating the therapeutic or spontaneous clot lysis that occurs in a large proportion of human strokes. The surgical procedure of this &#8220;filament&#8221; stroke model and tools for its functional analysis are demonstrated in the accompanying video.

Different models of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) are used in experimental stroke research. Here, an experimental stroke model of transient MCAo via the external carotid artery (ECA) is described, which aims to mimic human stroke, in which the cerebrovascular thrombus is removed due to spontaneous clot lysis or therapy.

Stroke is the third most common cause of mortality and the leading cause of acquired adult disability in developed countries. To date, therapeutic options ...

A Model for Encephalomyosynangiosis Treatment after Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion-Induced Stroke in Mice

There is no effective treatment available for most patients suffering with ischemic stroke, making development of novel therapeutics imperative. The brain's ability to self-heal after ischemic stroke is limited by inadequate blood supply in the impacted area. Encephalomyosynangiosis (EMS) is a neurosurgical procedure that achieves angiogenesis in patients with moyamoya disease. It involves craniotomy with placement of a vascular temporalis muscle graft on the ischemic brain surface. EMS has never been studied in the setting of acute ischemic stroke in mice. The hypothesis driving this study is that EMS enhances cerebral angiogenesis at the cortical surface surrounding the muscle graft. The protocol shown here describes the procedure and provides initial data supporting the feasibility and efficacy of the EMS approach. In this protocol, after 60 min of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo), mice were randomized to either MCAo or MCAo + EMS treatment. The EMS was performed 3-4 h after occlusion. The mice were sacrificed 7 or 21 days after MCAo or MCAo + EMS treatment. Temporalis graft viability was measured using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reduced-tetrazolium reductase assay. A mouse angiogenesis array quantified angiogenic and neuromodulating protein expression. Immunohistochemistry was used to visualize graft bonding with brain cortex and change in vessel density. The preliminary data here suggest that grafted muscle remained viable 21 days after EMS. Immunostaining showed successful graft implantation and increase in vessel density near the muscle graft, indicating increased angiogenesis. Data show that EMS increases fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and decreases osteopontin levels after stroke. Additionally, EMS after stroke did not increase mortality suggesting that protocol is safe and reliable. This novel procedure is effective and well-tolerated and has the potential to provide information of novel interventions for enhanced angiogenesis after acute ischemic stroke.

The protocol aims to provide methods for encephalomyosynangiosis-grafting of a vascular temporalis muscle flap on the pial surface of ischemic brain tissue-for the treatment of non-moyamoya acute ischemic stroke. The approach's efficacy in increasing angiogenesis is evaluated using a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion model in mice.

There is no effective treatment available for most patients suffering with ischemic stroke, making development of novel therapeutics imperative. The ...

Establishing a Transcranial Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Mice Model

A Modified Transcranial Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Model to Study Stroke Outcomes in Aged Mice

In experimental stroke research, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) with an intraluminal filament is widely used to model ischemic stroke in mice. The filament MCAO model typically exhibits a massive cerebral infarction in C57Bl/6 mice that sometimes includes brain tissue in the territory supplied by the posterior cerebral artery, which is largely due to a high incidence of posterior communicating artery atresia. This phenomenon is considered a major contributor to the high mortality rate observed in C57Bl/6 mice during long-term stroke recovery after filament MCAO. Thus, many chronic stroke studies exploit distal MCAO models. However, these models usually produce infarction only in the cortex area, and consequently, the assessment of post-stroke neurologic deficits could be a challenge. This study has established a modified transcranial MCAO model in which the MCA at the trunk is partially occluded either permanently or transiently via a small cranial window. Since the occlusion location is relatively proximal to the origin of the MCA, this model generates brain damage in both the cortex and striatum. Extensive characterization of this model has demonstrated an excellent long-term survival rate, even in aged mice, as well as readily detectable neurologic deficits. Therefore, the MCAO mouse model described here represents a valuable tool for experimental stroke research.

Author Spotlight: Innovative Techniques and Future Directions in Stroke Research 

This protocol demonstrates a unique mouse stroke model with a medium-sized infarct and an excellent survival rate. This model allows preclinical stroke researchers to extend the ischemia duration, use aged mice, and assess long-term functional outcomes.

In experimental stroke research, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) with an intraluminal filament is widely used to model ischemic stroke in mice. ...