We are particularly indebted to patients at Vanderbilt University Medical Center who provided invaluable research material for the Molecular Neurosurgical Tissue Bank. We thank those who established and maintain the Tissue Bank, Reid C. Thompson MD (principal investigator), Cherryl Kinnard RN (research nurse) and Larry A. Pierce MS (manager). Histological services were performed, in part, by the Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC) Translational Pathology Shared Resource (supported by award 5P30 CA068485 to the Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center). This work was supported by grants to MKC from the NINDS (1R21NS070139), the Burroughs Wellcome Fund and VMC development funds. MKC is supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration, Office of Research and Development, Biomedical Laboratory Research and Development through grant 1 I01 BX000744-01. The contents do not represent the views of the Department of Veterans Affairs or the United States Government.

1. Preparation of Tumor Cell Suspension
Note: Appropriate institutional approvals for the use of patient material and animals are required to establish and maintain primary orthotopic glioma xenografts. At Vanderbilt University Medical Center, resected tumor material that is in excess of that required for diagnostic purposes is collected with patient consent for a research tissue repository. Specimens are labeled with a randomized 5-digit REDcap database number and all patient-specific identifiers are removed. The REDcap database contains deidentified clinical data for each specimen in the tissue repository that includes gender, age (in years), race, survival status, pathology, cancer treatments, year of resection, and time to progression. To maintain sterility and optimize success of the primary xenograft method, all of the reagents, steam-autoclaved surgical instruments, and the surgical site should be assembled or prepared in advance.
Note: Glioma specimens often contain large amounts of myelin and debris. Depending on specimen size, it may be necessary to use more than 4 discontinuous gradient tubes for adequate removal of myelin and debris.
Note: The process is completed when there is no, or little, clearly visible undissociated tissue remaining. Avoid the introduction of bubbles during the trituration process.
Note: Cell viability following dissociation is typically &#62;90%. Lower viabilities may reflect many variables including suboptimal tissue handling or transport time from the operating room, cryopreservation method, or papain dissociation technique. Lower cellular viabilities may still be adequate, however, as long as a sufficient number of viable may be transplanted in the appropriate volume. For each mouse, 50,000-200,000 viable cells are implanted in volume of 2 &#181;l. Due to the beveled tip of the syringe needle, an additional 5 &#181;l of cell suspension should be included in the final volume to ensure that adequate material can be drawn into the syringe for each injection. For example, to inject 2 &#181;l/mouse for 5 mice the final volume should be 15 &#181;l (15 &#181;l = (5 x 2 &#181;l) + 5 &#181;l).
<ol>
	<li>Place freshly resected, deidentified patient material in a sterile, capped container on ice for transport to the laboratory. Process the specimen directly for transplantation or cryopreserve the specimen in liquid nitrogen (see below) for storage in liquid nitrogen and later use.</li>
	<li>Prepare the papain dissociation solutions (papain solution, wash/protease inhibitor solution and discontinuous gradient solution) in a sterile hood with the kit components and instructions supplied by the manufacturer. Label sterile 15 ml polystyrene conical tubes and distribute the solutions as follows:
		<ul>
			<li>Tube 1: 5 ml of papain solution</li>
			<li>Tube 2: 3 ml of wash/protease inhibitor solution</li>
			<li>Tubes 3-6: 5 ml each of discontinuous gradient solution</li>
		</ul>
	</li>
	<li>Place the glioma specimen in tube 1 with 5 ml of papain solution and triturate with a 5 ml pipette over a 10-20 min time period.</li>
	<li>Pipette the material up and down 10 times and then incubate the material for 2-3 min at room temperature before initiating the next cycle of trituration.</li>
	<li>Position the tip of the 5 ml pipette closer to the bottom of the conical tube with each cycle of trituration such that the tip is touching the bottom of the tube for the last 2 cycles.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 300 x g for 5 min at room temperature. Remove the supernatant and pipette the pellet up and down 10x in 3 ml of the wash/protease inhibitor solution.</li>
	<li>Carefully layer an equal volume of the suspension over each of the 5 ml discontinuous gradient solutions (tubes 3-6), with a pipettor set at the &#8220;gravity&#8221; dispense speed.</li>
	<li>Place the tubes in a centrifuge equipped with a swinging-bucket rotor, with the acceleration speed reduced to the lowest setting and the brake turned off. Centrifuge at 76 x g for 12 min at room temperature. With the brake turned off, centrifugation is generally completed after 20 min.</li>
	<li>Remove the supernatant, resuspend and combine each pellet in 5 ml of sterile balanced salt solution and place the cells on ice.</li>
	<li>Remove a portion (10-100 &#181;l) of the cell suspension and determine the density of viable cells by trypan blue exclusion with a hemocytometer.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 300 x g for 5 min. Remove the supernatant and resuspend the cell pellet at a density of 25,000-125,000 viable cells per &#181;l.</li>
	<li>Transfer an adequate volume of the cell suspension to a 200 &#956;l microcentrifuge tube (PCR tube) and place on ice.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Surgical Site and Instruments
Note: Sterile surgical gloves are worn during the procedure. Depending upon requirements of each institution, surgical gowns, caps and face guards may be required.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a disinfected benchtop for rodent surgery with separated adjoining areas for animal preparation, operating field and animal recovery.</li>
	<li>Sterilize surgical instruments in a steam autoclave. Subsequently, use a hot bead sterilizer to flash-sterilize instruments when transitioning from one animal subject to the next.</li>
</ol>
3. Induction, Anesthesia, and Analgesia
Note: Surgeries exceeding 15 min from the time the mice is anesthetized require a contact heat source. To prevent hypothermia, the mice are provided with a heat source (circulating hot water blanket) during the pre- and post-operative periods. 
<ol>
	<li>Prepare ketamine/xylazine cocktail for induction anesthesia such that each mouse receives ketamine 100 mg/kg and xylazine 10 mg/kg by injecting 10 &#181;l of the cocktail per gram of body weight.</li>
	<li>Table 1. Anesthesia cocktail.
		<table>
			<tbody>
				<tr>
					<td rowspan="2"></td>
					<td rowspan="2">Stock concentration</td>
					<td colspan="3">Volume to prepare for </td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>one mouse</td>
					<td>five mice</td>
					<td>ten mice</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>Ketamine</td>
					<td>100 mg/ml</td>
					<td>25 &#181;l</td>
					<td>125 &#181;l</td>
					<td>250 &#181;l</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>Xylazine</td>
					<td>100 mg/ml</td>
					<td>2.5 &#181;l</td>
					<td>12.5 &#181;l</td>
					<td>25 &#181;l</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td>Isotonic saline</td>
					<td></td>
					<td>223 &#181;l</td>
					<td>1,113 &#181;l</td>
					<td>2,225 &#181;l</td>
				</tr>
				<tr>
					<td colspan="2">Total</td>
					<td>250 ul</td>
					<td>1,250 &#181;l</td>
					<td>2,500 &#181;l</td>
				</tr>
			</tbody>
		</table>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare ketoprofen solution for analgesia by diluting the stock solution (10 mg/ml) 1:20 in sterile, pyogen-free water such that each mouse receives a dose of 5 mg/kg by injecting 10 &#181;l of the solution per gram of body weight.</li>
	<li>Weigh and record presurgical weight. Individual mouse weights vary, but generally range from 18-22 g.</li>
	<li>Inject 10 &#181;l of the ketamine/xylazine cocktail per gram of mouse body weight into the intraperitoneal space with an insulin syringe. For example, inject 200 &#181;l for a 20 g mouse.</li>
	<li>Determine whether mouse is fully anesthetized by toe pinch of the hind leg. It generally takes 3-5 min for the mouse to no longer withdraw from the pinch.</li>
	<li>Inject 10 &#181;l of the ketoprofen solution per gram of mouse body weight subcutaneously in the loose skin of the flank with an insulin syringe. For example, inject 200 &#181;l for a 20 g mouse.</li>
	<li>Shave hair over the skull with clippers, scrub the exposed scalp with povidone-iodine using a cotton tip applicator and then wipe an alcohol pad. Repeat these steps, povidone-iodine scrub and alcohol wipe, two more times.</li>
	<li>Apply ophthalmic ointment to the eyes of the mouse.</li>
	<li>Make a 1 cm midline incision extending from behind the ears to just in front of the eyes with a sterile scalpel blade.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse under a dissecting scope and expose the skull to identify the suture lines. Using circular motions with a drill, center a burr hole 2.5 mm lateral to the bregma and 1 mm posterior to the coronal suture.</li>
</ol>
4. Intracranial Transplantation
Note: Injection volumes exceeding 2.5 &#181;l may be lethal to mice.
<ol>
	<li>Position the mouse on a stereotactic frame by hooking the upper incisors over the incisor bar and applying the nose clamp so that the skull is firmly held in a neutral position.</li>
	<li>Draw 5-10 &#181;l of the cells in a microcentrifuge tube up and down several times into a 10 &#181;l Hamilton syringe clamped in the probe holder of the stereotactic manipulator to mix the suspension and eliminate bubbles. Depress the plunger so that the syringe is loaded with 2 &#181;l (the adequate volume to inject one animal).</li>
	<li>Pull the lateral edge of the skin incision to expose the burr hole and, with the micromanipulator, introduce the needle into the burr hole so that the beveled portion is just below the skull surface.
		<ol>
			<li>Advance the needle 3 mm and then withdraw the needle 0.5 mm to create a space for injection.</li>
			<li>Advance the plunger slowly over 30 sec and then allow the needle to remain in the brain for an additional 2 min. Withdraw the needle gradually by ascending 0.5 mm and waiting for an additional 30 sec before removing the needle from the brain.</li>
		</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Remove the mouse from the stereotactic frame and close the wound with an autoclip.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse on a warming pad to maintain body temperature and monitor continuously the respiration pattern and color of mucous membranes and exposed tissues (soles of feet).</li>
	<li>Place the mouse in a sterile microisolator cage once it recovers fully from anesthesia (sternal and ambulatory), and return it to the animal housing facility.</li>
</ol>
5. Post-implantation Animal Care and Observation
Note: The most reliable indication of tumor engraftment and infiltrative growth is gradual, sustained weight loss accompanied by development of hunched posture and rough hair coat. On rare occasions, neurological deficits are noted that include ataxia, paresis, and seizures. Orthotopic primary xenografts are highly invasive and develop over a long period of time. Mice typically manifest symptoms of tumor growth 3-6 months after transplantation.
<ol>
	<li>Observe mice with orthotopic xenografts daily for food and water intake, behavior, grooming, and signs of infection at the incision site.</li>
	<li>Administer ketoprofen (5 mg/kg subcutaneously, 1-2x a day) if pain or distress is observed postoperatively.</li>
	<li>Remove autoclips 8-10 days after surgery.</li>
	<li>Weigh mice weekly.</li>
	<li>Monitor for signs and symptoms of tumor engraftment.</li>
</ol>
6. Tumor Harvesting
Note: By this method, the first coronal slice (#1) contains the posterior aspect of the olfactory bulbs and the anterior aspect of the frontal lobes. Engrafted tumor is most abundant in the right hemisphere of the subsequent 3 coronal slices (slice #2, #3, and #4) and the injection sight is routinely contained in coronal slice #3. Depending upon experimental needs, the material may be used for tumor passage, frozen tissue sections, formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissue sections, flow cytometry of dissociated tissue, cell culture or lysates for DNA, RNA, or protein analysis. Portions of the tumor may be cryopreserved for future needs with cell viability ranging from of 80-95%.
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize mice by prolonged exposure to carbon dioxide followed by cervical dislocation.</li>
	<li>Decapitate euthanized mice at the base of the brain (foramen magnum level) with a larger pair of surgical scissors, and pull the skin from incision forward to fully expose the skull.</li>
	<li>Remove the brain.
		<ol>
			<li>Insert one tip of pair of fine surgical scissors into the lateral aspect of the foramen magnum to level of the left external auditory meatus to cut the occipital bone along the left side of the skull. Perform the same cut on the right side.</li>
			<li>Cut the occipital bone along a coronal plane from one external auditory meatus to the other and remove the bone to expose the cerebellum.</li>
			<li>Cut the nasal bone plates between the eyes.</li>
			<li>Cut the sagittal suture by cutting posteriorly along the sagittal suture from the nasal bone plates to the bregma. Complete the midline incision along the sagittal suture by cutting anteriorly from the lambda to the bregma.</li>
			<li>Carefully insert the tip of a fine pair of forceps along the sagittal opening on each side to tear any dural adhesion of the skull to the brain and then peel the two skull halves laterally to expose the brain and olfactory bulbs dorsally.</li>
			<li>Slide the forceps between the ventral aspect of the olfactory bulbs and the skull to free any adhesions.</li>
			<li>Tilt the skull back to allow the brain to be retracted so that the optic and other cranial nerves are exposed. Sever the cranial nerves to release the brain into a dish containing sterile PBS.</li>
		</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Transfer the brain with a weighing spatula to a matrix slicer and generate 2 mm coronal slices with razor blades.</li>
	<li>Arrange the coronal slices in a dish containing sterile PBS for further visual inspection and further tissue processing.</li>
</ol>
7. Tumor Cryopreservation
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a stock solution of cryopreservation medium.
		<ol>
			<li>Add 50 ml of proliferation supplement, 5 ml of 100x penicillin and streptomycin solution, and 450 &#181;l of 0.2% heparin to 450 ml of basal medium.</li>
			<li>Store stock solution at 4 &#176;C protected from light.</li>
		</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare a working solution of cryopreservation medium.
		<ol>
			<li>Combine 47.5 ml of cryopreservation medium and 2.5 ml of sterile DMSO in a 50 ml polypropylene conical tube and mix well.</li>
			<li>Aliquot 1.0 ml of working solution to each cryovial and store at 4 &#176;C protected from light.</li>
		</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place one 2 mm coronal slice of xenografted brain into a cryovial containing cryopreservation medium on ice.</li>
	<li>Tightly cap the vial and place it in a freezing container at -80 &#176;C. Transfer the cryovial the following day to a liquid nitrogen tank for longer storage.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Cultured cell lines, xenografts and genetically engineered mice are the most common methods for modeling gliomas, and there are distinct benefits and limitations for each model system3,13,14. Relevant benefits of primary orthotopic glioma xenografts include infiltrative growth that typifies diffuse gliomas and the retention of genetic alterations and important signaling mechanisms that can be exceedingly difficult to maintain in cultured glioma cells. For example, isocitrate dehydrogenase mutations an...

Malignant gliomas are primary glial tumors of the central nervous system that occur in the brain and occasionally the spinal cord. Gliomas are classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) according to histologic resemblance to astrocytes, oligodendrocytes or ependymal cells and then numerically graded (I to IV) for pathologic features of malignancy. The most common histologic subtypes are astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas and mixed oligoastrocytomas. Malignant gliomas encompassing WHO grades II to IV are characterized by invasive growth and recalcitrance to current therapies. Each year in the United States, approximately 15,750 individuals are diagnosed with a malignant glioma and an estimated 12,740 patients succumb to this disease. These statistics highlight the particularly lethal nature of malignant gliomas and important need for enhanced therapeutic efficacy.
Cancer models are essential for investigating tumor biology and therapies. Human cancer cell lines represent an important first step for in vitro manipulations and in vivo xenografting studies (secondary xenografts)1. However, standard cancer cell cultures undergo phenotypic and genotypic transformation2-4 that may not be restored in secondary xenografts5. Furthermore, genetic alterations such as isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations6, distinct stem cell populations7 and dependency on key signaling pathways8 can be lost in cancer cell cultures. Genomic profiles can be maintained to better extent in cancer sphere culture, though still fail to mirror fully the genotype of primary tumors2,3. Direct orthotopic transplantation negates the influences of in vitro culture, provides a proper microenvironment, and preserves the integrity of tumor-initiating cells9,10. Therefore, primary xenografts represent a powerful and relevant preclinical model for rigorously testing targeted agents to aid in the rational design of future clinical trials5,11,12.

<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Phosphate buffered saline
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Life Technologies
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			14040-133
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Papain dissociation system
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Worthington Biochemical Corp.
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			LK003150
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Trypan blue solution 0.4%
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Life Technologies
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			15250061
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Ketamine HCl
			</td>
			<td rowspan="4" style="width:142px;">
			Obtained from institutional pharmacy or local veterinary supply company
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Xylazine HCl
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Ketoprofen
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Ophthalmic ointment
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Povidone-iodine
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			190061617
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Cryopreservation medium and proliferation supplement
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			StemCell Technologies
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			05751
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			0.2% Heparin sodium salt in PBS
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			StemCell Technologies
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			07980
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Penicillin-streptomycin
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Life Technologies
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			15140-122
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Dimethyl sulfoxide
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Sigma-Aldrich
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			D6250-5X10ML
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			NOD.Cg-Prkdcscid I/2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ mice
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			The Jackson Laboratory
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			005557
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			NSG mice
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Anti-human vimentin antibody
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Dako
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			M7020
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			Use 1:200 to 1:800
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:211px;">
			Anti-human IDH1 R132H antibody
			</td>
			<td style="width:142px;">
			Dianova
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			DIA-H09
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			Use 1:100 to 1:400
			</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>




<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Material 
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Company
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			Catalogue Number
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			Comments
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Centrifuge with swinging bucket rotor
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Pipetter with dispensing speed control
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Disposable hemocytometer
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			22-600-100
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Sterile surgical gloves
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			11-388128
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Disposable gown
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			18-567
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Surgical mask
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			19-120-1256
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Tuberculin syringe
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			BD
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			305620
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Alcohol pads
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			22-246-073
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Portable electronic scale
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			01-919-33
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Zoom stereomicroscope
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Surgical clipper
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Stoelting
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			51465
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Scalpel handle
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fine Science Tools
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			10003-12
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Scalpel blades, #10
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Stereotaxic instrument
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Stoelting
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			51730
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			High-speed drill
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Stoelting
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			51449
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">Drill bit, 0.6 mm</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">Stoelting</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">514552</td>
			<td style="width:97px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Hamilton syringe
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Hamilton
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			80336
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Autoclip, 9 mm
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			BD
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			427630
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Circulating water warming pad
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Kent Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			TP-700
			TP-1215EA
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Hot bead dry sterilizer
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Kent Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			INS300850
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Surgical scissors
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fine Science Tools
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			14101-14
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Fine scissors
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fine Science Tools
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			14094-11
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Spring scissors
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fine Science Tools
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			15018-10
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Dumont forceps
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fine Science Tools
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			11251-30
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Semimicro spatulas
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			14374
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Mouse brain slicer matrix
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Zivic Instruments
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			BSMAS002-1
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:210px;">
			Cryogenic storage vials
			</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">
			Fisher Scientific
			</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">
			12-567-501
			</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">
			
			</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

primary orthotopic glioma xenografts recapitulate infiltrative growth and isocitrate dehydrogenase i mutation

Malignant gliomas constitute a heterogeneous group of highly infiltrative glial neoplasms with distinct clinical and molecular features. Primary orthotopic xenografts recapitulate the histopathological and molecular features of malignant glioma subtypes in preclinical animal models. To model WHO grades III and IV malignant gliomas in transplantation assays, human tumor cells are xenografted into an orthotopic site, the brain, of immunocompromised mice. In contrast to secondary xenografts that utilize cultured tumor cells, human glioma cells are dissociated from resected specimens and transplanted without prior passage in tissue culture to generate primary xenografts. The procedure in this report details tumor sample preparation, intracranial transplantation into immunocompromised mice, monitoring for tumor engraftment and tumor harvesting for subsequent passage into recipient animals or analysis. Tumor cell preparation requires 2 hr and surgical procedure requires 20 min/animal.

Dissociated glioma cells are transplanted directly into the brains of immunocompromised mice to obtain primary orthotopic xenograft lines. Each tumor specimen is assigned a randomized number prior to transplantation, as part of the deidentification process to remove protected health information. We use a 5-digit REDcap database number for this purpose. Figure 1 illustrates the process and nomenclature for establishing a xenograft line from a glioblastoma (GBM 17182) with isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1)...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Primary Orthotopic Glioma Xenografts Recapitulate Infiltrative Growth and Isocitrate Dehydrogenase I Mutation at JoVE.com

Primary Orthotopic Glioma Xenografts Recapitulate Infiltrative Growth and Isocitrate Dehydrogenase I Mutation

Malignant gliomas constitute a heterogeneous group of highly infiltrative glial neoplasms with distinct clinical and molecular features. Primary orthotopic xenografts recapitulate the histopathological and molecular features of malignant glioma subtypes in preclinical animal models.

Malignant gliomas constitute a heterogeneous group of highly infiltrative glial neoplasms with distinct clinical and molecular features. Primary ...

primary-orthotopic-glioma-xenografts-recapitulate-infiltrative-growth

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

7.9K Views.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center. Malignant gliomas constitute a heterogeneous group of highly infiltrative glial neoplasms with distinct clinical and molecular features. Primary orthotopic xenografts recapitulate the histopathological and molecular features of malignant glioma subtypes in preclinical animal models.

Video: Primary Orthotopic Glioma Xenografts Recapitulate Infiltrative Growth and Isocitrate Dehydrogenase I Mutation

An Orthotopic Model of Murine Bladder Cancer

In this straightforward procedure, bladder tumors are established in female C57 mice through the use of catheterization, local cauterization, and subsequent cell adhesion. After their bladders are transurethrally catheterized and drained, animals are again catheterized to permit insertion of a platinum wire into bladders without damaging the urethra or bladder. The catheters are made of Teflon to serve as an insulator for the wire, which will conduct electrical current into the bladder to create a burn injury. An electrocautery unit is used to deliver 2.5W to the exposed end of the wire, burning away extracellular layers and providing attachment sites for carcinoma cells that are delivered in suspension to the bladder through a subsequent catheterization. Cells remain in the bladder for 90 minutes, after which the catheters are removed and the bladders allowed to drain naturally. The development of tumor is monitored via ultrasound. Specific attention is paid to the catheterization technique in the accompanying video.

Bladder tumors are established in female mice in a minimally invasive fashion through catheterization, local cauterization, and subsequent adhesion of carcinoma cells to the burn sites.

In this straightforward procedure, bladder tumors are established in female C57 mice through the use of catheterization, local cauterization, and ...

Orthotopic Small Bowel Transplantation in Rats

Small bowel transplantation has become an accepted clinical option for patients with short gut syndrome and failure of parenteral nutrition (irreversible intestinal failure). In specialized centers improved operative and managing strategies have led to excellent short- and intermediate term patient and graft survival while providing high quality of life 1,3. Unlike in the more common transplantation of other solid organs (i.e. heart, liver) many underlying mechanisms of graft function and immunologic alterations induced by intestinal transplantation are not entirely known6,7. Episodes of acute rejection, sepsis and chronic graft failure are the main obstacles still contributing to less favorable long term outcome and hindering a more widespread employment of the procedure despite a growing number of patients on home parenteral nutrition who would potentially benefit from such a transplant. The small intestine contains a large number of passenger leucocytes commonly referred to as part of the gut associated lymphoid system (GALT) this being part of the reason for the high immunogenity of the intestinal graft. The presence and close proximity of many commensals and pathogens in the gut explains the severity of sepsis episodes once graft mucosal integrity is compromised (for example by rejection). To advance the field of intestinal- and multiorgan transplantation more data generated from reliable and feasible animal models is needed. The model provided herein combines both reliability and feasibility once established in a standardized manner and can provide valuable insight in the underlying complex molecular, cellular and functional mechanisms that are triggered by intestinal transplantation. We have successfully used and refined the described procedure over more than 5 years in our laboratory 8-11. The JoVE video-based format is especially useful to demonstrate the complex procedure and avoid initial pitfalls for groups planning to establish an orthotopic rodent model investigating intestinal transplantation.

Small bowel transplantation has become an accepted treatment option for patients with irreversible intestinal failure. Our experimental model of orthotopic small bowel transplantation in rats serves as a reliable tool to address underlying immunologic and inflammatory processes that complicate intestinal transplantation.

Small  bowel transplantation has become an accepted clinical option for patients with  short gut syndrome and failure of parenteral nutrition ...

Orthotopic Liver Transplantation in Rats

Clinical progress in the field of liver transplantation has been largely supported by animal models1,2. Since the publication of the first orthotopic rat liver transplantation in 1979 by Kamada et al.3, this model has remained the gold standard despite various proposed alternative techniques4. Nevertheless, its broader use is limited by its steep learning curve5.
In this video paper, we show a simple and easy-to-establish revision of Kamada's two-cuff technique. The suprahepatic vena cava anastomosis is performed manually with a running suture, and the vena porta and infrahepatic vena cava anastomoses are performed utilizing a quick-linker cuff system6. Manufacturing the quick-linker kit is shown in a separate video paper.

We present an easy-to-establish revision of the classical two-cuff technique for orthotopic liver transplantation in rat.

Clinical progress in the field of liver transplantation has been largely supported by animal models1,2. Since the publication of the first orthotopic rat ...

Imaging Glioma Initiation In Vivo Through a Polished and Reinforced Thin-skull Cranial Window

Glioma is the one of the most lethal forms of human cancer. The most effective glioma therapy to date-surgery followed by radiation treatment-offers patients only modest benefits, as most patients do not survive more than five years following diagnosis due to glioma relapse 1,2. The discovery of cancer stem cells in human brain tumors holds promise for having an enormous impact on the development of novel therapeutic strategies for glioma 3. Cancer stem cells are defined by their ability both to self-renew and to differentiate, and are thought to be the only cells in a tumor that have the capacity to initiate new tumors 4. Glioma relapse following radiation therapy is thought to arise from resistance of glioma stem cells (GSCs) to therapy 5-10. In vivo, GSCs are shown to reside in a perivascular niche that is important for maintaining their stem cell-like characteristics 11-14. Central to the organization of the GSC niche are vascular endothelial cells 12. Existing evidence suggests that GSCs and their interaction with the vascular endothelial cells are important for tumor development, and identify GSCs and their interaction with endothelial cells as important therapeutic targets for glioma. The presence of GSCs is determined experimentally by their capability to initiate new tumors upon orthotopic transplantation 15. This is typically achieved by injecting a specific number of GBM cells isolated from human tumors into the brains of severely immuno-deficient mice, or of mouse GBM cells into the brains of congenic host mice. Assays for tumor growth are then performed following sufficient time to allow GSCs among the injected GBM cells to give rise to new tumors-typically several weeks or months. Hence, existing assays do not allow examination of the important pathological process of tumor initiation from single GSCs in vivo. Consequently, essential insights into the specific roles of GSCs and their interaction with the vascular endothelial cells in the early stages of tumor initiation are lacking. Such insights are critical for developing novel therapeutic strategies for glioma, and will have great implications for preventing glioma relapse in patients. Here we have adapted the PoRTS cranial window procedure 16and in vivo two-photon microscopy to allow visualization of tumor initiation from injected GBM cells in the brain of a live mouse. Our technique will pave the way for future efforts to elucidate the key signaling mechanisms between GSCs and vascular endothelial cells during glioma initiation.

Imaging Glioma Initiation In Vivo Through a Polished and Reinforced Thin-skull Cranial Window

By combining a polished and reinforced thin-skull (PoRTS) cranial window and glioblastoma (GBM) cell injection, we can observe glioma initiation and growth from injected GBM cells in the brain of a live mouse longitudinally.

Glioma is the one of the most lethal forms of human cancer. The most effective glioma therapy to date-surgery followed by radiation treatment-offers ...

An Orthotopic Bladder Tumor Model and the Evaluation of Intravesical saRNA Treatment

We present a novel method for treating bladder cancer with intravesically delivered small activating RNA (saRNA) in an orthotopic xenograft mouse bladder tumor model. The mouse model is established by urethral catheterization under inhaled general anesthetic. Chemical burn is then introduced to the bladder mucosa using intravesical silver nitrate solution to disrupt the bladder glycosaminoglycan layer and allows cells to attach. Following several washes with sterile water, human bladder cancer KU-7-luc2-GFP cells are instilled through the catheter into the bladder to dwell for 2 hours. Subsequent growth of bladder tumors is confirmed and monitored by in vivo bladder ultrasound and bioluminescent imaging. The tumors are then treated intravesically with saRNA formulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). Tumor growth is monitored with ultrasound and bioluminescence. All steps of this procedure are demonstrated in the accompanying video.

Establishing an orthotopic bladder tumor model to evaluate antitumor effects of intravesically delivered saRNA and monitoring tumor growth by ultrasound and bioluminescent imaging.

We present a novel method for treating bladder cancer with intravesically delivered small activating RNA (saRNA) in an orthotopic xenograft mouse bladder ...

Fetal Echocardiography and Pulsed-wave Doppler Ultrasound in a Rabbit Model of Intrauterine Growth Restriction

Fetal intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) results in abnormal cardiac function that is apparent antenatally due to advances in fetoplacental Doppler ultrasound and fetal echocardiography. Increasingly, these imaging modalities are being employed clinically to examine cardiac function and assess wellbeing in utero, thereby guiding timing of birth decisions. Here, we used a rabbit model of IUGR that allows analysis of cardiac function in a clinically relevant way. Using isoflurane induced anesthesia, IUGR is surgically created at gestational age day 25 by performing a laparotomy, exposing the bicornuate uterus and then ligating 40-50% of uteroplacental vessels supplying each gestational sac in a single uterine horn. The other horn in the rabbit bicornuate uterus serves as internal control fetuses. Then, after recovery at gestational age day 30 (full term), the same rabbit undergoes examination of fetal cardiac function. Anesthesia is induced with ketamine and xylazine intramuscularly, then maintained by a continuous intravenous infusion of ketamine and xylazine to minimize iatrogenic effects on fetal cardiac function. A repeat laparotomy is performed to expose each gestational sac and a microultrasound examination (VisualSonics VEVO 2100) of fetal cardiac function is performed. Placental insufficiency is evident by a raised pulsatility index or an absent or reversed end diastolic flow of the umbilical artery Doppler waveform. The ductus venosus and middle cerebral artery Doppler is then examined. Fetal echocardiography is performed by recording B mode, M mode and flow velocity waveforms in lateral and apical views. Offline calculations determine standard M-mode cardiac variables, tricuspid and mitral annular plane systolic excursion, speckle tracking and strain analysis, modified myocardial performance index and vascular flow velocity waveforms of interest. This small animal model of IUGR therefore affords examination of in utero cardiac function that is consistent with current clinical practice and is therefore useful in a translational research setting.

We describe examination of fetal cardiac function with contemporary functional fetal echocardiography and fetoplacental Doppler ultrasound using the VisualSonics VEVO 2100 microultrasound in a surgically induced model of intrauterine fetal growth restriction in a rabbit.

Fetal intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) results in abnormal cardiac function that is apparent antenatally due to advances in fetoplacental Doppler ...

Bioluminescent Orthotopic Model of Pancreatic Cancer Progression

Pancreatic cancer has an extremely poor five-year survival rate of 4-6%. New therapeutic options are critically needed and depend on improved understanding of pancreatic cancer biology. To better understand the interaction of cancer cells with the pancreatic microenvironment, we demonstrate an orthotopic model of pancreatic cancer that permits non-invasive monitoring of cancer progression. Luciferase-tagged pancreatic cancer cells are resuspended in Matrigel and delivered into the pancreatic tail during laparotomy. Matrigel solidifies at body temperature to prevent leakage of cancer cells during injection. Primary tumor growth and metastasis to distant organs are monitored following injection of the luciferase substrate luciferin, using in vivo imaging of bioluminescence emission from the cancer cells. In vivo imaging also may be used to track primary tumor recurrence after resection. This orthotopic model is suited to both syngeneic and xenograft models and may be used in pre-clinical trials to investigate the impact of novel anti-cancer therapeutics on the growth of the primary pancreatic tumor and metastasis.

Improved understanding of pancreatic cancer biology is critically needed to enable the development of better therapeutic options to treat pancreatic cancer. To address this need, we demonstrate an orthotopic model of pancreatic cancer that permits non-invasive monitoring of cancer progression using in vivo bioluminescence imaging.

Pancreatic cancer has an extremely poor five-year survival rate of 4-6%.  New therapeutic options are critically needed and depend on improved ...

Generation of Subcutaneous and Intrahepatic Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Xenografts in Immunodeficient Mice

In vivo experimental models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that recapitulate the human disease provide a valuable platform for research into disease pathophysiology and for the preclinical evaluation of novel therapies. We present a variety of methods to generate subcutaneous or orthotopic human HCC xenografts in immunodeficient mice that could be utilized in a variety of research applications. With a focus on the use of primary tumor tissue from patients undergoing surgical resection as a starting point, we describe the preparation of cell suspensions or tumor fragments for xenografting. We describe specific techniques to xenograft these tissues i) subcutaneously; or ii) intrahepatically, either by direct implantation of tumor cells or fragments into the liver, or indirectly by injection of cells into the mouse spleen. We also describe the use of partial resection of the native mouse liver at the time of xenografting as a strategy to induce a state of active liver regeneration in the recipient mouse that may facilitate the intrahepatic engraftment of primary human tumor cells. The expected results of these techniques are illustrated. The protocols described have been validated using primary human HCC samples and xenografts, which typically perform less robustly than the well-established human HCC cell lines that are widely used and frequently cited in the literature. In comparison with cell lines, we discuss factors which may contribute to the relatively low chance of primary HCC engraftment in xenotransplantation models and comment on technical issues that may influence the kinetics of xenograft growth. We also suggest methods that should be applied to ensure that xenografts obtained accurately resemble parent HCC tissues.

Human tumor xenografts in immunodeficient mice are valuable tools to study cancer biology. Specific protocols to generate subcutaneous and intrahepatic xenografts from human hepatocellular carcinoma cells or tumor fragments are described. Liver regeneration induced by partial hepatectomy in recipient mice is presented as a strategy to facilitate intrahepatic engraftment.

In  vivo experimental models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that recapitulate  the human disease provide a valuable platform for research into disease  ...

Minimally Invasive Establishment of Murine Orthotopic Bladder Xenografts

Orthotopic bladder cancer xenografts are the gold standard to study molecular cellular manipulations and new therapeutic agents&#160;in vivo. Suitable cell lines are inoculated either by intravesical instillation (model of nonmuscle invasive growth) or intramural injection into the bladder wall (model of invasive growth). Both procedures are complex and highly time-consuming. Additionally, the superficial model has its shortcomings due to the lack of cell lines that are tumorigenic following instillation. Intramural injection, on the other hand, is marred by the invasiveness of the procedure and the associated morbidity for the host mouse.
With these shortcomings in mind, we modified previous methods to develop a minimally invasive approach for creating orthotopic bladder cancer xenografts. Using ultrasound guidance we have successfully performed percutaneous inoculation of the bladder cancer cell lines UM-UC1, UM-UC3 and UM-UC13 into 50 athymic nude. We have been able to demonstrate that this approach is time efficient, precise and safe. With this technique, initially a space is created under the bladder mucosa with PBS, and tumor cells are then injected into this space in a second step. Tumor growth is monitored at regular intervals with bioluminescence imaging and ultrasound. The average tumor volumes increased steadily in in all but one of our 50 mice over the study period.
In our institution, this novel approach, which allows bladder cancer xenograft inoculation in a minimally-invasive, rapid and highly precise way, has replaced the traditional model.

The established technique to inoculate primary invasive orthotopic bladder cancer xenografts requires laparotomy and mobilization of the bladder. This procedure inflicts significant morbidity on the mice, is technically challenging and time-consuming. We therefore developed a high-precision, percutaneous approach utilizing ultrasound guidance.

Orthotopic bladder cancer xenografts are the gold standard to study molecular cellular manipulations and new therapeutic agents&#160;in vivo. Suitable ...

Orthotopic Injection of Breast Cancer Cells into the Mammary Fat Pad of Mice to Study Tumor Growth.

Breast cancer growth can be studied in mice using a plethora of models. Genetic manipulation of breast cancer cells may provide insights into the functions of proteins involved in oncogenic progression or help to discover new tumor suppressors. In addition, injecting cancer cells into mice with different genotypes might provide a better understanding of the importance of the stromal compartment. Many models may be useful to investigate certain aspects of disease progression but do not recapitulate the entire cancerous process. In contrast, breast cancer cells engraftment to the mammary fat pad of mice better recapitulates the location of the disease and presence of the proper stromal compartment and therefore better mimics human cancerous disease. In this article, we describe how to implant breast cancer cells into mice orthotopically and explain how to collect tissues to analyse the tumor milieu and metastasis to distant organs. Using this model, many aspects (growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis) of cancer can be investigated simply by providing a proper environment for tumor cells to grow.

Cancer is a complex disease that is influenced by the tissue surrounding the tumor as well as local pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Therefore, orthotropic injection models, rather than subcutaneous models may be useful to study cancer progression in a manner that better mimics human pathology.