This work was supported by National Institutes of Health (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke) Grant 1R01NS060757-01 and by the E.L. Lindseth endowed chair to Dominique M. Durand. We thank Dr. Andrew M. Rollins&#8217; laboratory for the help on the OCT imaging.

NOTE: Animal experimental protocols were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the university. CD1 mice of either sex at the age of P10 to P20 are used in this study.
1. Solutions for Surgery and Experimental Recording
<ol>
	<li>Prepare normal artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF) buffer containing (mM): NaCl 124, KCl 3.75, KH2PO4 1.25, MgSO4 2, NaHCO3 26, Dextrose 10, and CaCl2 2. Use this normal aCSF for tissue recovery after dissection, as well as for washing system at the beginning of the experiment.</li>
	<li>Prepare sucrose aCSF that is used during the hippocampus dissection and contains (mM): Sucrose 220, KCl 2.95, NaH2PO4 1.3, MgSO4 2, NaHCO3 26, Dextrose 10, and CaCl2 2. In order to induce epileptiform activity in the intact hippocampal tissue preparation, add 4-Aminopyridine (4-AP) to normal aCSF at the concentration of 100 &#181;M.</li>
</ol>
2. Surgical Procedure for the Intact Hippocampus Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Drop isoflurane (1 ml) into the chamber at the bottom of a desiccator glass jar (No.1 in Specific Materials and Equipment) and use a regular paper towel to cover the surface of the bottom stage so the animal does not get in contact with the liquid. Then, place the CD1 mouse into the jar and close the lid. Keep the animal in the closed jar for about 1 min to 2 min. When breath frequency is about one per second, remove the mouse from the jar.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse on the surgery stage and decapitate with a suitable scissors. Immediately after decapitation, place the head into the ice-cold (3-4 &#176;C), oxygenated sucrose aCSF for about 30 sec.</li>
	<li>Use fine scissors (No.5 in Specific Materials and Equipment) to remove the skin on top of the skull and to cut the skull along the middle line of the head as well as at two ends near the temporal lobe. Use forceps (No. 6 in Specific Materials and Equipment) to peel the cut skull towards each side of the head in order to expose the brain.</li>
	<li>Insert a micro lab spatula (No. 8 in Specific Materials and Equipment) into the gap between the parietal lobes of the brain and skull to carefully peel the brain from the bottom of the skull and then drop it onto a prepared ice-cold (3-4 &#176;C) surgical stage covered with wet filter paper (No.2 in Specific Materials and Equipment). Remove the cerebellum with an ice-chilled blade and separate the two hemispheres by cutting the midline of the brain. Then, place the two separated hemispheres into a beaker filled with the ice-cold sucrose aCSF bubbled with 95% O2/ 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Take one half of the hemisphere and place on the ice-cold filter paper stage. Place regular paper towels or filter paper around the brain to suck the extra solution. Use two fire-polished glass pipette tools (No. 10 in Materials and Equipment) to separate the cortex from the rest of the central part of the brain.</li>
	<li>After the hippocampus is exposed from inside of the cortex and put on the ice-cold stage, place two or three drops of ice-cold sucrose aCSF on the tissue and then remove extra solution around the hippocampus. Cut the connections with the cortex at two ends of the hippocampus. Then, dissect the hippocampus out of the brain with the fire polished glass tools and remove the remaining part of the brain.</li>
	<li>Separate the whole hippocampus with its alveus side facing up and hippocampal sulcus facing down. Quickly drop two or three drops of ice-cold sucrose aCSF on the tissue again and remove the extra solution around the tissue using a piece of paper towel. Use a fire polished glass tool to turn over the whole hippocampus to expose the sulcus (Figure 1B, C).</li>
	<li>Under a normal optical microscope, insert a custom made glass needle (No. 11 in Specific Materials and Equipment) into one end of the sulcus and cut the fiber connections, from dentate gyrus (DG) to subiculum or the CA1 field, along the direction of sulcus (Figure 1C). Apply an ice-cold blade to trim the septal and temporal ends of the hippocampus if necessary. Insert a custom made metal wire loop (No. 12 in Specific Materials and Equipment) into the cut sulcus and pull over the DG away from the tissue while holding the subiculum/CA1 end of the hippocampus by a fire polished glass tool (Figure 1D).</li>
	<li>Following the unfolding procedure above, add another two or three drops of the ice-cold sucrose aCSF onto the tissue and remove the extra solution around the tissue. Then, trim the unfolded hippocampus with the ice-cold blade at the edges (Figure 1E) and place the preparation by a spatula into the recovering chamber filled with normal aCSF and bubbled with 95% O2/ 5% CO2 at RT (about 25 &#176;C). Leave the unfolded hippocampus tissue to recover about 1 hr before placing it into the recording chamber.</li>
	<li>Take the other brain hemisphere and use it to go through steps from 2.5 to 2.9. Usually, take about 1 to 2 min to finish the whole procedure to unfold a single hippocampus and drop ice-cold sucrose aCSF continuously to keep the tissue oxygenated and hydrated.</li>
</ol>
3. Experimental System Setup
<ol>
	<li>Glue a custom fabricated PMEA on a pin grid array (PGA) package and use micro wire bonding to connect each pad from a single microelectrode to the pad of a pin on the package (Figure 3B). Then, insert the package into the socket on a custom-made circuit board 13.</li>
	<li>Individually connect each microelectrode to its filters with band pass cut-off frequency from 1 Hz to 4 KHz and amplifiers with gain of 100 on the custom made circuit board 13. Digitize the analog output from the circuit board by an A/D converting system, and acquire and store the data on a computer.</li>
	<li>Glue a custom-made plastic recording chamber around the array with inlet and outlet tubing for the solution flow (Figure 4A). Use at least two bottles to keep different solutions in the system, and join and control the output tubing of the bottles by a tri-valve. Connect the output of the tri-valve to a tubing system with an IV drip chamber which is guiding the solution into the recording chamber.</li>
	<li>Between the tri-valve and the inlet of the recording chamber, add an electrical heater to heat the solution to a controlled temperature (35 &#176;C) before the solution is guided to the recording chamber. Attach the outlet of the recording chamber to a vacuum tube to collect the solution into a vacuum tube connected flask. Do not recycle any solution in any experiment in this study.</li>
</ol>
4. Placing the Unfolded Hippocampus onto the PMEA to Record the Neural Activity
<ol>
	<li>To prepare the experimental setup, fill one bottle with normal aCSF and another bottle with 4-AP aCSF. In both bottles, bubble 95% O2/ 5% CO2 from the very beginning of each experiment. Use a tri-valve connector to control which solution will be selected during an experiment. Connect a vacuum tube at the outlet of the chamber to pump the solution into a dust container. Heat the pipeline before delivering it into the recording chamber and keep the solution at a controlled temperature level (35 &#176;C).</li>
	<li>When the inlet and outlet of recording chamber are closed, use a custom made glass pipette dropper to transfer and place the unfolded hippocampus into the recording chamber. Under the microscope, position the unfolded hippocampus using a regular small paint brush while the tissue is floating in the solution. Place the unfolded hippocampus with its alveus side facing down, CA3 area pointing away, and CA1 field pointing towards the researcher.</li>
	<li>Carefully suck away the solution in the chamber using a vacuum pipette from the edge of the recording chamber to lower the solution level until the chamber is dried and the tissue is lowered onto the array. Then, carefully place a custom made tissue anchor (Figure 4) (No. 14 in Specific Materials and Equipment) on top of the tissue to hold the unfolded hippocampus onto the array. Put a few drops of solution into the recording chamber to refill it, and gradually open the inlet and outlet to adjust flow rate to about two drops per second in the IV drip chamber.</li>
	<li>Incubate the tissue in the recording chamber with normal aCSF for about 1 min to recover, then switch the solution supply to 4-AP dissolved aCSF and adjust the flow rate properly. Incubate the tissue in 4-AP dissolved aCSF for about 5 to 10 min and then the researcher could start the software to record the signal when spontaneous activity appears.</li>
</ol>
5. Removing the Tissue from the PMEA After an Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Control the tissue anchor by a micromanipulator and gradually lift the tissue from the recording chamber. Shut down both inlet and outlet to stop the flow in the recording chamber. The recording chamber should be full with solution or add a few drops of solution to fill the chamber if the recording chamber is not full.</li>
	<li>Use a small paint brush to lift each corner of the tissue. If the tissue is not floating in the solution, then employ the vacuum tube to dry the chamber carefully with the tissue still sitting on the array. Then carefully open the inlet to gradually refill the chamber and shut down the inlet to stop the flow when the recording chamber is full. Apply the small paint brush to lift each corner of the tissue again.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 5.2 until the tissue is detached from the array and floating in the solution. If the tissue is floating in the solution, then use the vacuum tube to suck the tissue away. Open the flow in the inlet and open the vacuum in the outlet. Wash the system with distilled water and dry it out.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Richardson, K. A., Schiff, S. J., Gluckman, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+traveling+waves+in+the+Mammalian+cortex.">Control of traveling waves in the Mammalian cortex.</a> Phys Rev Lett. 94 (2), 028103-028112 (2005).</li><li>Luhmann, H. J., Dzhala, V. 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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+studies+of+the+hippocampus+and+hippocampal-dependent+behaviors:+insights+from+interdisciplinary+studies+and+tips+for+new+investigators.">Developmental studies of the hippocampus and hippocampal-dependent behaviors: insights from interdisciplinary studies and tips for new investigators.</a> Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 43, 183-190 (2014).</li><li>Zhang, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Propagation+of+Epileptiform+Activity+Can+Be+Independent+of+Synaptic+Transmission,+Gap+Junctions,+or+Diffusion+and+Is+Consistent+with+Electrical+Field+Transmission.">Propagation of Epileptiform Activity Can Be Independent of Synaptic Transmission, Gap Junctions, or Diffusion and Is Consistent with Electrical Field Transmission.</a> J Neurosci. 34 (4), 1409-1419 (2014).</li><li>Kibler, A. 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T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stress+,+memory,+the+hippocampus.">Stress , memory, the hippocampus.</a> Front Neurol Neurosci. 34, 109-121 (2014).</li><li>Liu, J. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatiotemporal+dynamics+of+high-K+-induced+epileptiform+discharges+in+hippocampal+slice+and+the+effects+of+valproate.">Spatiotemporal dynamics of high-K+-induced epileptiform discharges in hippocampal slice and the effects of valproate.</a> Neurosci Bull. 29 (1), 28-36 (2013).</li><li>Oka, H., Shimono, K., Ogawa, R., Sugihara, H., Taketani, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+planar+multielectrode+array+for+extracellular+recording:+application+to+hippocampal+acute+slice.">A new planar multielectrode array for extracellular recording: application to hippocampal acute slice.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 93, 61-68 (1999).</li><li>Kibler, A. B., Jamieson, B. G., Durand, D. 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J., Swann, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epileptiform+activity+induced+by+4-aminopyridine+in+immature+hippocampus.">Epileptiform activity induced by 4-aminopyridine in immature hippocampus.</a> Epilepsy Res. 2 (3), 187-195 (1988).</li><li>Nam, Y., Wheeler, B. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The development of the unfolded hippocampus preparation, where the longitudinal and transverse axes of the hippocampus are preserved in combination with a penetrating microelectrode array, provides a powerful tool to investigate the anatomy connections or neural propagation in the hippocampus 7. This unfolding procedure is also applicable for studying hippocampus in adult mice. Recent studies with this preparation showed that the 4-AP-induced epileptiform activity could propagate with a diagonal wave front acr...

Understanding the neural conduction or propagation of neural signals is crucial for determination of the mechanism of neural communication in both the normal function and pathological conditions in the brain 1-3. The hippocampus is one of the most extensively studied structures in the brain since it plays fundamental role in several brain functions such as memory, and spatial tracking and is involved in several pathological changes that dramatically impact behavior as well 1,6 . Although, the hippocampus exhibits a complex organization, the different elements of its structure can be readily identified and accessed in the slice preparation4-6. In the transverse direction of the hippocampus, neural activity is known to propagate through the tri-synaptic pathway that comprise the Dentate Gyrus (DG), CA3, CA1 andsubiculum 4,5. It is believed that synaptic transmission and axonal conduction play a major role for communication in this transverse circuit 4,6. However, propagation of neural signal takes place in both transverse and longitudinal directions 4,6. This implies that the hippocampus cannot be fully investigated by using slice preparations which limit the observation to a particular direction of propagation 4. The longitudinal slice was developed to investigate the axonal pathways along the longitudinal axis 5. Researchers have observed behavior-specific gamma and theta oscillations predominantly along the transverse and longitudinal axes respectively 6.&#160;These behaviors have been studied separately, yet simultaneous access to both directions is crucial to understand these behaviors. Even with the development of the intact hippocampus preparation, it is difficult to monitor the propagation throughout the entire tissue due to the folded-structure of the hippocampus 4. The unfolded hippocampus provides access to the packed neurons in a form of a flat two-dimensional cell layer 7,8.
By unfolding the dentate gyrus (DG) (Figure 1), the hippocampus adopts a flattened shape with a rectangular configuration in which both transverse and longitudinal connections remain intact with the pyramidal cell layer arranged in a two-dimensional sheet containing both CA3 and CA1, leaving a flat piece of neural tissue that can be used to investigate neural propagation (Figure 2) 8. Neural activity can then be monitored with individual glass pipettes, microelectrode arrays, stimulating electrodes, as well as voltage sensitive dyes (VSD) 3,7,8. In addition, genetically encoded voltage indicator from transgenic mice can be used to track the propagation pattern 9.
The flat configuration of the unfolded hippocampal network is well suited for optical method recording but also for a microelectrode array. Most of the commercially available arrays are fabricated with flat or low profile electrodes and can record neural activity in both tissue slices and cultured neurons 10-12. However, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) decreases when the signals are obtained from an intact tissue since the soma of the neurons are located deeper into the tissue. Microelectrode electrode arrays with high aspect ratios are required to improve the SNR.
To this effect, a penetrating microelectrode array (PMEA) has been developed in our laboratory, and provides the ability to directly probe into the tissue by inserting 64 spikes with a diameter of 20 &#181;m and height of 200 &#181;m into the unfolded hippocampus 7,13. This microelectrode array has higher SNR compared to the voltage sensitive dye imaging and the SNR remains stable during an experiment 7,13. The combination of the unfolded hippocampal preparation and the PMEA provides a new way to investigate the neural propagation over a two-dimensional plane. Experiments using this technique have already yielded significant results about the mechanisms of neural signal propagation in the hippocampus whereby neural activity can propagate independently of synaptic or electric synapses 7.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>desiccator jar</td>
			<td>LABRECYCLERS Inc.</td>
			<td>5410</td>
			<td>Place regular paper towels at the bottome of the jar for animal anesthesia use.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A blade and Custome made surgical stage for unfolding hippocampus</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>A petri dish is place upside down (in the center) in the ice with a wet filter paper place on top of it.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made tissue recovery chamber</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Plastic tubes were glued with plastic mesh at the bottom and bubbled with 95% O2/ 5% CO2 in the aCSF.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight Operating&#160;Scissors</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S17336B&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Medco Instruments No.:81995&#160;</td>
			<td>This scissors is used to&#160;&#160; decapitate the mice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Integra Miltex Goldman-Fox&#160;Scissors</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-460-517&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; MILTEX INC&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; No.:5-SC-320</td>
			<td>This scissors is used to cut the skull of the mice.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miltex 
			Hysterectomy Forceps</td>
			<td>Claflin Medical equipment</td>
			<td>CESS-722033-00001</td>
			<td>This Forceps is used to peel the cut skull to expose the brain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro Spatula</td>
			<td>Cardinal Health</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>This micro spatula is used to tranfer the whole brain of a semisphere into the recorering chamber.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Frey Scientific Stainless Steel Semi-Micro Spatula</td>
			<td>Cardinal Health</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>this semi micro spatula is used to tranfer the unfolded hippocampus into the glucose aCSF in the recovering chamber.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>small paint brush</td>
			<td>Lowe&#39;s</td>
			<td>tem #:&#160;105657&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Model #:&#160;90219</td>
			<td>The one with the smallest size in a normal paint brush package</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fire polished glass help tool</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This tool was fire polished and made from the regular Pasteur glass pipettes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made glass needle</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This tool was fire polished and made from the regular Pasteur glass pipettes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made glass tool with a metal wire loop</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This tool was fire polished and made from the regular Pasteur glass pipettes with a reshaped metal wire loop.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made glass solution dropper</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This tool was&#160; made from the regular Pasteur glass pipettes with its tips cut and a rubber head attached with the cut end.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made tissue anchor</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Nylon fiber mesh was glued on a insulated copper wire ring. The tissue anchor was hold by an micromanipulator.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom fabricated microelectrode array</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>More detail about the array please refer to&#160; Kibler, et al, 2011.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made filter and amplifiers circuits for the array</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>More detail about the array please refer to&#160; Kibler, et al, 2011.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data acquisition processor 3400a</td>
			<td>Microstar Laboratories</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This is a complete data acquisition system with A/D converter.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

neural activity propagation in an unfolded hippocampal preparation with a penetrating micro-electrode array

This protocol describes a method for preparing a new in vitro flat hippocampus preparation combined with a micro-machined array to map neural activity in the hippocampus. The transverse hippocampal slice preparation is the most common tissue preparation to study hippocampus electrophysiology. A longitudinal hippocampal slice was also developed in order to investigate longitudinal connections in the hippocampus. The intact mouse hippocampus can also be maintained in vitro because its thickness allows adequate oxygen diffusion. However, these three preparations do not provide direct access to neural propagation since some of the tissue is either missing or folded. The unfolded intact hippocampus provides both transverse and longitudinal connections in a flat configuration for direct access to the tissue to analyze the full extent of signal propagation in the hippocampus in vitro. In order to effectively monitor the neural activity from the cell layer, a custom made penetrating micro-electrode array (PMEA) was fabricated and applied to the unfolded hippocampus. The PMEA with 64 electrodes of 200 &#181;m in height could record neural activity deep inside the mouse hippocampus. The unique combination of an unfolded hippocampal preparation and the PMEA provides a new in-vitro tool to study the speed and direction of propagation of neural activity in the two-dimensional CA1-CA3 regions of the hippocampus with a high signal to noise ratio.

The data shown in the figures here were recorded in the unfolded hippocampus preparation with 4-AP (100 &#181;M) aCSF added during incubation of the tissue in the recording chamber at RT (25 &#176;C). Normally activity starts within 5 min, but in some hippocampal tissues from the older animals it may take longer. The 4-AP-induced neuronal firing observed with the PMEA is the same as previously reported 14,15. Since the electrodes have a height of 200 &#181;m, the electrode tips are located just below the cell ...

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Neural Activity Propagation in an Unfolded Hippocampal Preparation with a Penetrating Micro-electrode Array

We have developed an in vitro unfolded hippocampus which preserves CA1-CA3 array of neurons. Combined with the penetrating micro-electrode array, neural activity can be monitored in both the longitudinal and transverse orientations. This method provides advantages over hippocampal slice preparations as the propagation in the entire hippocampus can be recorded simultaneously.

This protocol describes a method for preparing a new in vitro flat hippocampus preparation combined with a micro-machined array to map neural activity in ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.3K Views.  Case Western Reserve University. We have developed an in vitro unfolded hippocampus which preserves CA1-CA3 array of neurons. Combined with the penetrating micro-electrode array, neural activity can be monitored in both the longitudinal and transverse orientations. This method provides advantages over hippocampal slice preparations as the propagation in the entire hippocampus can be recorded simultaneously.

Video: Neural Activity Propagation in an Unfolded Hippocampal Preparation with a Penetrating Micro-electrode Array

Growth and Differentiation of Adult Hippocampal Arctic Ground Squirrel Neural Stem Cells

Arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii, AGS) are unique in their ability to hibernate with a core body temperature near or below freezing 1. These animals also resist ischemic injury to the brain in vivo 2,3 and oxygen-glucose deprivation in vitro 4,5. These unique qualities provided the impetus to isolate AGS neurons to examine inherent neuronal characteristics that could account for the capacity of AGS neurons to resist injury and cell death caused by ischemia and extremely cold temperatures. Identifying proteins or gene targets that allow for the distinctive properties of these cells could aid in the discovery of effective therapies for a number of ischemic indications and for the study of cold tolerance. Adult AGS hippocampus contains neural stem cells that continue to proliferate, allowing for easy expansion of these stem cells in culture. We describe here methods by which researchers can utilize these stem cells and differentiated neurons for any number of purposes. By closely following these steps the AGS neural stem cells can be expanded through two passages or more and then differentiated to a culture high in TUJ1-positive neurons (~50%) without utilizing toxic chemicals to minimize the number of dividing cells. Ischemia induces neurogenesis 6 and neurogenesis which proceeds via MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt survival signaling pathways contributes to ischemia resistance in vivo7 and in vitro 8 (Kelleher-Anderson, Drew et al., in preparation). Further characterization of these unique neural cells can advance on many fronts, using some or all of these methods.

Neural stem cells were prepared from the hippocampus of adult non-hibernating yearling Arctic ground squirrels (AGS). These neural stem cells can be expanded through numerous passages, differentiated and maintained as a nearly 50:50 neuron to glial culture.

Arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii, AGS) are unique in their ability to hibernate with a core body temperature near or below freezing 1. These ...

Neural-Colony Forming Cell Assay: An Assay To Discriminate Bona Fide Neural Stem Cells from Neural Progenitor Cells

The neurosphere assay (NSA) is one of the most frequently used methods to isolate, expand and also calculate the frequency of neural stem cells (NSCs). Furthermore, this serum-free culture system has also been employed to expand stem cells and determine their frequency from a variety of tumors and normal tissues. It has been shown recently that a one-to-one relationship does not exist between neurosphere formation and NSCs. This suggests that the NSA as currently applied, overestimates the frequency of NSCs in a mixed population of neural precursor cells isolated from both the embryonic and adult mammalian brain. This video practically demonstrates a novel collagen based semi- solid assay, the neural-colony forming cell assay (N-CFCA), which has the ability to discriminate stem from progenitor cells based on their long-term proliferative potential, and thus provides a method to enumerate NSC frequency. In the N-CFCA, colonies &ge;2 mm in diameter are derived from cells that meet all the functional criteria of a NSC, while colonies &lt; 2mm are derived from progenitors. The N-CFCA procedure can be used for cells prepared from different sources including primary and cultured adult or embryonic mouse CNS cells. Here we use cells prepared from passage one neurospheres generated from embryonic day 14 mice brain to perform N-CFCA. The cultures are replenished with proliferation medium every seven days for three weeks to allow the plated cells to exhibit their full proliferative potential and then the frequency of neural progenitor and bona fide neural stem cells is calculated respectively by counting the number of colonies that are &lt; 2mm and the ones that are &ge;2mm in reference to the number of cells that were initially plated.

This video protocol demonstrates how to discriminate and enumerate bona fide neural stem cells in a mixed population of neural precursor cells using the neural colony-forming cell assay.

The neurosphere assay (NSA) is one of the most frequently used methods to isolate, expand and also calculate the frequency of neural stem cells (NSCs). ...

Preparation of an Awake Mouse for Recording Neural Responses and Injecting Tracers

It is well known that anesthesia alters neural response properties in various regions of the brain.13. In the auditory system, fundamental response properties of brainstem neurons including threshold, frequency specificity, and inhibitory sidebands are altered in significant ways under anesthesia1-2. These observations prompted physiologists to seek ways to record from single neurons without the contaminating effects of anesthesia. One result was a decerebrate preparation, where the brainstem was completely transected at the level of the midbrain4. The drawbacks of this preparation are a formidable surgery, the elimination of descending projections from the forebrain, and an inability to use sensory stimulation to examine structures above the midbrain. A different strategy has been to implant electrode arrays chronically to record from single neurons and multiunit clusters while the animal is awake and/or behaving5,6. These techniques however are not compatible with injecting tracer dyes after first electrophysiologically characterizing a brain structure. To avoid altering neural response properties with anesthetics while recording electrophysiological response properties from single neurons, we have adapted a head restraint technique long used in bats7-9 to mouse10-12. Using this method, we are able to conduct electrophysiological recordings over several days in the unanesthetized mouse. At the end of the recording sessions, we can then inject a dye to reconstruct electrode positions and recording sites or inject a tracer so that pathways to and from the recording loci can be determined. This method allows for well isolated single neuron recordings over multiple days without the use anesthetics.

Electrophysiological characterization of neuronal responses is important for understanding brain function and for guiding the placement of dyes for pathway tracing. However, many studies are performed in anesthetized animals. To understand brain function without anesthetics, we developed a method to record neuronal response properties and inject dyes in awake mouse.

It is well known that anesthesia alters neural response properties in various regions of the brain.13.  In the auditory system, fundamental response ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

Multi-unit Recording Methods to Characterize Neural Activity in the Locust (Schistocerca Americana) Olfactory Circuits

Detection and interpretation of olfactory cues are critical for the survival of many organisms. Remarkably, species across phyla have strikingly similar olfactory systems suggesting that the biological approach to chemical sensing has been optimized over evolutionary time1. In the insect olfactory system, odorants are transduced by olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) in the antenna, which convert chemical stimuli into trains of action potentials. Sensory input from the ORNs is then relayed to the antennal lobe (AL; a structure analogous to the vertebrate olfactory bulb). In the AL, neural representations for odors take the form of spatiotemporal firing patterns distributed across ensembles of principal neurons (PNs; also referred to as projection neurons)2,3. The AL output is subsequently processed by Kenyon cells (KCs) in the downstream mushroom body (MB), a structure associated with olfactory memory and learning4,5. Here, we present electrophysiological recording techniques to monitor odor-evoked neural responses in these olfactory circuits.
First, we present a single sensillum recording method to study odor-evoked responses at the level of populations of ORNs6,7. We discuss the use of saline filled sharpened glass pipettes as electrodes to extracellularly monitor ORN responses. Next, we present a method to extracellularly monitor PN responses using a commercial 16-channel electrode3. A similar approach using a custom-made 8-channel twisted wire tetrode is demonstrated for Kenyon cell recordings8. We provide details of our experimental setup and present representative recording traces for each of these techniques.

Multi-unit Recording Methods to Characterize Neural Activity in the Locust Schistocerca Americana Olfactory Circuits

We demonstrate variations of the extracellular multi-unit recording technique to characterize odor-evoked responses in the first three stages of the invertebrate olfactory pathway. These techniques can easily be adapted to examine ensemble activity in other neural systems as well.

Detection and interpretation of olfactory cues are critical for the survival  of many organisms. Remarkably, species across phyla have strikingly similar ...

Optogenetic Perturbation of Neural Activity with Laser Illumination in Semi-intact Drosophila Larvae in Motion

Drosophila larval locomotion is a splendid model system in developmental and physiological neuroscience, by virtue of the genetic accessibility of the underlying neuronal components in the circuits1-6. Application of optogenetics7,8 in the larval neural circuit allows us to manipulate neuronal activity in spatially and temporally patterned ways9-13. Typically, specimens are broadly illuminated with a mercury lamp or LED, so specificity of the target neurons is controlled by binary gene expression systems such as the Gal4-UAS system14,15. In this work, to improve the spatial resolution to "sub-genetic resolution", we locally illuminated a subset of neurons in the ventral nerve cord using lasers implemented in a conventional confocal microscope. While monitoring the motion of the body wall of the semi-intact larvae, we interactively activated or inhibited neural activity with channelrhodopsin16,17 or halorhodopsin18-20, respectively. By spatially and temporally restricted illumination of the neural tissue, we can manipulate the activity of specific neurons in the circuit at a specific phase of behavior. This method is useful for studying the relationship between the activities of a local neural assembly in the ventral nerve cord and the spatiotemporal pattern of motor output.

Optogenetic Perturbation of Neural Activity with Laser Illumination in Semi-intact Drosophila Larvae in Motion

Here we describe a protocol for optogenetic manipulation of motoneuronal activity while monitoring changes in motor output (muscle contraction) in semi-intact Drosophila larvae using lasers within a conventional confocal microscope. This technique enables researchers to achieve local perturbation of neural activity in a few neuromeres to elucidate the dynamics of motor circuits.

Drosophila larval locomotion is a splendid model system in developmental and physiological neuroscience, by virtue of the genetic accessibility of the ...

Immunohistochemical Visualization of Hippocampal Neuron Activity After Spatial Learning in a Mouse Model of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Induction of phosphorylated extracellular-regulated kinase (pERK) is a reliable molecular readout of learning-dependent neuronal activation. Here, we describe a pERK immunohistochemistry protocol to study the profile of hippocampal neuron activation following exposure to a spatial learning task in a mouse model characterized by cognitive deficits of neurodevelopmental origin. Specifically, we used pERK immunostaining to study neuronal activation following Morris water maze (MWM, a classical hippocampal-dependent learning task) in Engrailed-2 knockout (En2-/-) mice, a model of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). As compared to wild-type (WT) controls, En2-/- mice showed significant spatial learning deficits in the MWM. After MWM, significant differences in the number of pERK-positive neurons were detected in specific hippocampal subfields of En2-/- mice, as compared to WT animals. Thus, our protocol can robustly detect differences in pERK-positive neurons associated to hippocampal-dependent learning impairment in a mouse model of ASD. More generally, our protocol can be applied to investigate the profile of hippocampal neuron activation in both genetic or pharmacological mouse models characterized by cognitive deficits.

We describe an immunohistochemistry protocol to study the profile of hippocampal neuron activation following exposure to a spatial learning task in a mouse model characterized by cognitive deficits of neurodevelopmental origin. This protocol can be applied to both genetic or pharmacological mouse models characterized by cognitive deficits.

Induction of phosphorylated extracellular-regulated kinase (pERK) is a reliable molecular readout of learning-dependent neuronal activation. Here, we ...

Interfacing 3D Engineered Neuronal Cultures to Micro-Electrode Arrays: An Innovative In Vitro Experimental Model

Currently, large-scale networks derived from dissociated neurons growing and developing in vitro on extracellular micro-transducer devices are the gold-standard experimental model to study basic neurophysiological mechanisms involved in the formation and maintenance of neuronal cell assemblies. However, in vitro studies have been limited to the recording of the electrophysiological activity generated by bi-dimensional (2D) neural networks. Nonetheless, given the intricate relationship between structure and dynamics, a significant improvement is necessary to investigate the formation and the developing dynamics of three-dimensional (3D) networks. In this work, a novel experimental platform in which 3D hippocampal or cortical networks are coupled to planar Micro-Electrode Arrays (MEAs) is presented. 3D networks are realized by seeding neurons in a scaffold constituted of glass microbeads (30-40 &#181;m in diameter) on which neurons are able to grow and form complex interconnected 3D assemblies. In this way, it is possible to design engineered 3D networks made up of 5-8 layers with an expected final cell density. The increasing complexity in the morphological organization of the 3D assembly induces an enhancement of the electrophysiological patterns displayed by this type of networks. Compared with the standard 2D networks, where highly stereotyped bursting activity emerges, the 3D structure alters the bursting activity in terms of duration and frequency, as well as it allows observation of more random spiking activity. In this sense, the developed 3D model more closely resembles in vivo neural networks.

Interfacing 3D Engineered Neuronal Cultures to Micro-Electrode Arrays: An Innovative In Vitro Experimental Model

In this work, a novel experimental model in which 3D neuronal cultures are coupled to planar Micro-Electrode Arrays (MEAs) is presented. 3D networks are built by seeding neurons in a scaffold made up of glass microbeads on which neurons grow and form interconnected 3D structures.

Currently, large-scale networks derived from dissociated neurons growing and developing in vitro on extracellular micro-transducer devices are the ...

Direct-current Stimulation and Multi-electrode Array Recording of Seizure-like Activity in Mice Brain Slice Preparation

Cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) induces suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. To perform effective actions, the stimulation parameters (e.g., orientation, field strength, and stimulation duration) need to be examined in mice brain slice preparations. Testing and arranging the orientation of the electrode relative to the position of the mice brain slice are feasible. The present method preserves the thalamocingulate pathway to evaluate the effect of DCS on anterior cingulate cortex seizure-like activities. The results of the multichannel array recordings indicated that cathodal DCS significantly decreased the amplitude of the stimulation-evoked responses and duration of 4-aminopyridine and bicuculline-induced seizure-like activity. This study also found that cathodal DCS applications at 15 min caused long-term depression in the thalamocingulate pathway. The present study investigates the effects of DCS on thalamocingulate synaptic plasticity and acute seizure-like activities. The current procedure can test the optimal stimulation parameters including orientation, field strength, and stimulation duration in an in vitro mouse model. Also, the method can evaluate the effects of DCS on cortical seizure-like activities at both the cellular and network levels.

Studies have shown that cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation can produce suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. In this study, an in vitro experimental setup was devised in which the direct-current stimulation and multielectrode array recording of seizure-like activity were evaluated in mice brain slice preparation. The direct-current stimulation parameters were evaluated.

Cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) induces suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. To perform effective actions, the ...

Extracellular Recording of Neuronal Activity Combined with Microiontophoretic Application of Neuroactive Substances in Awake Mice

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and awake animals. Therefore, methods allowing the manipulation of synaptic systems in awake animals are required in order to determine the contribution of synaptic inputs to neuronal processing unaffected by anesthetics. Here, we present methodology for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. By combining these procedures, we performed microiontophoretic injections of gabazine to selectively block GABAA receptors in neurons of the inferior colliculus of head-restrained mice. Gabazine successfully modified neural response properties such as the frequency response area and stimulus-specific adaptation. Thus, we demonstrate that our methods are suitable for recording single-unit activity and for dissecting the role of specific neurotransmitter receptors in auditory processing.
The main limitation of the described procedure is the relatively short recording time (~3 hr), which is determined by the level of habituation of the animal to the recording sessions. On the other hand, multiple recording sessions can be performed in the same animal. The advantage of this technique over other experimental procedures used to manipulate the level of neurotransmission or neuromodulation (such as systemic injections or the use of optogenetic models), is that the drug effect is confined to the local synaptic inputs to the target neuron. In addition, the custom-manufacture of electrodes allows adjustment of specific parameters according to the neural structure and type of neuron of interest (such as the tip resistance for improving the signal-to-noise ratio of the recordings).

We present methods for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. This technique allows the detailed analysis of putative local synaptic inputs to the neuron of interest.

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and ...