This work was supported by the German Research Foundation and the ERC (AN377/3-2 and 309528 CHROMDECON to W.A.) and a PhD Fellowship of the Boehringer Ingelheim Fonds to A.K.S. Figure 1 &#38; 2 are reprinted from Developmental Cell 31(3), Magalska et al., RuvB-like ATPases function in chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis, 305-318, 2014, with kind permission from Elsevier.

<ol>
	<li>Lohka, M. J., Masui, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+in+vitro+of+sperm+pronuclei+and+mitotic+chromosomes+induced+by+amphibian+ooplasmic+components.">Formation in vitro of sperm pronuclei and mitotic chromosomes induced by amphibian ooplasmic components.</a> Science. 220, 719-721 (1983).</li><li>de la Barre, A. E., Robert-Nicoud, M., Dimitrov, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assembly+of+mitotic+chromosomes+in+Xenopus+egg+extract.">Assembly of mitotic chromosomes in Xenopus egg extract.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 119, 219-229 (1999).</li><li>Maresca, T. J., Heald, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+for+studying+spindle+assembly+and+chromosome+condensation+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts.">Methods for studying spindle assembly and chromosome condensation in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 322, 459-474 (2006).</li><li>Galy, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+role+for+gp210+in+mitotic+nuclear-envelope+breakdown.">A role for gp210 in mitotic nuclear-envelope breakdown.</a> J Cell Sci. 121, 317-328 (2008).</li><li>Chan, R. C., Forbes, D. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+study+of+nuclear+assembly+and+nuclear+import+using+Xenopus+egg+extracts.">In vitro study of nuclear assembly and nuclear import using Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 322, 289-300 (2006).</li><li>Gillespie, P. J., Gambus, A., Blow, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+and+use+of+Xenopus+egg+extracts+to+study+DNA+replication+and+chromatin+associated+proteins.">Preparation and use of Xenopus egg extracts to study DNA replication and chromatin associated proteins.</a> Methods. 57, 203-213 (2012).</li><li>Gant, T. M., Wilson, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+assembly.">Nuclear assembly.</a> Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 13, 669-695 (1997).</li><li>Magalska, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RuvB-like+ATPases+function+in+chromatin+decondensation+at+the+end+of+mitosis.">RuvB-like ATPases function in chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis.</a> Developmental Cell. 31, 305-318 (2014).</li><li>Belmont, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitotic+chromosome+structure+and+condensation.">Mitotic chromosome structure and condensation.</a> Curr Opin Cell Biol. 18, 632-638 (2006).</li><li>Lavoie, B. D., Tuffo, K. M., Oh, S., Koshland, D., Holm, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitotic+chromosome+condensation+requires+Brn1p,+the+yeast+homologue+of+Barren.">Mitotic chromosome condensation requires Brn1p, the yeast homologue of Barren.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 11, 1293-1304 (2000).</li><li>Philpott, A., Leno, G. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nucleoplasmin+remodels+sperm+chromatin+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts.">Nucleoplasmin remodels sperm chromatin in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Cell. 69, 759-767 (1992).</li><li>Philpott, A., Leno, G. H., Laskey, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sperm+decondensation+in+Xenopus+egg+cytoplasm+is+mediated+by+nucleoplasmin.">Sperm decondensation in Xenopus egg cytoplasm is mediated by nucleoplasmin.</a> Cell. 65, 569-578 (1991).</li><li>Burglin, T. R., Mattaj, I. W., Newmeyer, D. D., Zeller, R., De Robertis, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cloning+of+nucleoplasmin+from+Xenopus+laevis+oocytes+and+analysis+of+its+developmental+expression.">Cloning of nucleoplasmin from Xenopus laevis oocytes and analysis of its developmental expression.</a> Genes Dev. 1, 97-107 (1987).</li><li>Whitaker, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+at+fertilization+and+in+early+development.">Calcium at fertilization and in early development.</a> Physiological reviews. 86, 25-88 (2006).</li><li>Gasser, S. M., Laemmli, U. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+methods+for+the+isolation+of+individual+and+clustered+mitotic+chromosomes.">Improved methods for the isolation of individual and clustered mitotic chromosomes.</a> Exp Cell Res. 173, 85-98 (1987).</li><li>Eisenhardt, N., Schooley, A., Antonin, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Xenopus+in+vitro+assays+to+analyze+the+function+of+transmembrane+nucleoporins+and+targeting+of+inner+nuclear+membrane+proteins.">Xenopus in vitro assays to analyze the function of transmembrane nucleoporins and targeting of inner nuclear membrane proteins.</a> Methods Cell Biol. 122, 193-218 (2014).</li><li>Wignall, S. M., Deehan, R., Maresca, T. J., Heald, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+condensin+complex+is+required+for+proper+spindle+assembly+and+chromosome+segregation+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts.">The condensin complex is required for proper spindle assembly and chromosome segregation in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> J Cell Biol. 161, 1041-1051 (2003).</li><li>Forbes, D. J., Kirschner, M. W., Newport, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spontaneous+formation+of+nucleus-like+structures+around+bacteriophage+DNA+microinjected+into+Xenopus+eggs.">Spontaneous formation of nucleus-like structures around bacteriophage DNA microinjected into Xenopus eggs.</a> Cell. 34, 13-23 (1983).</li><li>Hartl, P., Olson, E., Dang, T., Forbes, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+assembly+with+lambda+DNA+in+fractionated+Xenopus+egg+extracts:+an+unexpected+role+for+glycogen+in+formation+of+a+higher+order+chromatin+intermediate.">Nuclear assembly with lambda DNA in fractionated Xenopus egg extracts: an unexpected role for glycogen in formation of a higher order chromatin intermediate.</a> J Cell Biol. 124, 235-248 (1994).</li><li>Sandaltzopoulos, R., Blank, T., Becker, P. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcriptional+repression+by+nucleosomes+but+not+H1+in+reconstituted+preblastoderm+Drosophila+chromatin.">Transcriptional repression by nucleosomes but not H1 in reconstituted preblastoderm Drosophila chromatin.</a> EMBO J. 13, 373-379 (1994).</li><li>Ulbert, S., Platani, M., Boue, S., Mattaj, I. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+membrane+protein-DNA+interactions+required+early+in+nuclear+envelope+assembly.">Direct membrane protein-DNA interactions required early in nuclear envelope assembly.</a> J Cell Biol. 173, 469-476 (2006).</li><li>Zhang, C., Clarke, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chromatin-independent+nuclear+envelope+assembly+induced+by+Ran+GTPase+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts.">Chromatin-independent nuclear envelope assembly induced by Ran GTPase in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Science. 288, 1429-1432 (2000).</li><li>Paulson, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+chromosome+clusters+from+metaphase-arrested+HeLa+cells.">Isolation of chromosome clusters from metaphase-arrested HeLa cells.</a> Chromosoma. 85, 571-581 (1982).</li><li>Ramadan, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cdc48/p97+promotes+reformation+of+the+nucleus+by+extracting+the+kinase+Aurora+B+from+chromatin.">Cdc48/p97 promotes reformation of the nucleus by extracting the kinase Aurora B from chromatin.</a> Nature. 450, 1258-1262 (2007).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Xenopus laevis egg extracts are a very useful tool to faithfully reproduce cellular processes in vitro, and this system was successfully used in the characterization of cell cycle and cell division events 2,3,5,6,17. Due to large stores of nuclear components sequestered in the egg during oogenesis, egg extracts are an excellent source of cellular components. Compared to other approaches like RNAi on mammalian tissue cell lines or genetic manipulation, it offers several advantages: ...

Xenopus laevis egg extract is a powerful and widely applied tool to study complicated cellular events in the simplicity of a cell-free assay. Since their first description by Lohka &#38; Masui 1 they have been extensively used to study mitotic processes such as chromatin condensation 2, spindle assembly 3, nuclear envelope breakdown 4, but also nucleocytoplasmic transport 5 or DNA replication 6. The events taking place at the end of mitosis, necessary for reformation of the interphasic nucleus such as nuclear envelope reformation and nuclear pore complex reassembly are much less understood compared to the early mitotic events but can be similarly studied using Xenopus egg extract 7. We have recently established an assay based on Xenopus egg extract to study chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis 8, an under-investigated process that awaits its detailed characterization.
In metazoans, chromatin is highly condensed at mitotic entry in order to perform faithfully segregation of the genetic material. To ensure that the chromatin is accessible for gene expression and DNA replication during interphase, it needs to be de-compacted at the end of mitosis. In vertebrates, chromatin is up to fifty-fold more compacted during mitosis compared to interphase 9, in contrast to yeasts where the mitotic compaction is usually much lower, e.g., only two-fold in S. cerevisiae 10. Vertebrate chromatin decondensation has been mostly studied in the context of sperm DNA reorganization after egg fertilization. A molecular mechanism, in which nucleoplasmin, an abundant oocyte protein, exchanges sperm-specific protamines to histones H2A and H2B stored in the egg. This process was also elucidated using Xenopus egg extract 11,12. However, the expression of nucleoplasmin is limited to oocytes 13 and mitotic chromatin does not contain these sperm-specific protamines. Therefore chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis is nucleoplasmin independent 8.
For the in vitro decondensation reaction we employ extract generated from activated X.laevis eggs and chromatin clusters isolated from synchronized HeLa cells. Treatment of eggs with a calcium ionophore mimics the calcium release into the oocyte generated by sperm entry during fertilization. The calcium wave triggers the cell cycle resumption and the egg, arrested in the second metaphase of meiosis, progresses to the first interphase 14. Therefore, egg extracts prepared form activated eggs represent the mitotic exit/interphase state and are competent to induce events specific for mitotic exit like chromatin decondensation, nuclear envelope and pore complex reformation. For the isolation of mitotic chromatin clusters we used a slightly modified version of the protocol published by Gasser &#38; Laemmli 15, where chromosome clusters are released by lysis from HeLa cells synchronized in mitosis and isolated in polyamine containing buffers by gradient centrifugations.

<table><tbody><tr><td>spermine tetrahydrochloride</td><td>Fluka analytical</td><td>85610-25G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>spermidine trihydrochloride</td><td>Sigma&amp;nbsp;</td><td>S2501-5G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>high-purity digitonin</td><td>Millipore</td><td>300410-1GM</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>PMSF</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A0999,0100</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>thymidine</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>6060</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>nocodazole</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>487928</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>37% formaldehyde solution</td><td>Roth</td><td>7398-1</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>trypan blue solution (0.4%)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T8154</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>1,4-dithiothreitol (DTT)</td><td>Roth</td><td>6908.2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>AEBSF hydrochloride</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A1421,0001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pepstatin</td><td>Roth</td><td>2936.1/2/3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>leupeptin</td><td>Roth</td><td>CN334</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>aprotinin</td><td>Roth</td><td>A162.3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Percoll (colloidal silica particles solution)</td><td>GE Healthcare</td><td>17-0891-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>glutamine</td><td>Gibco</td><td>25030-024</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td><td>Gibco</td><td>15140-122</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>75 cm&amp;sup2; tissue culture flasks</td><td>Greiner Bio-one</td><td>658175</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>10500-064</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Homogenizer (40 ml tissue grinder)</td><td>Wheaton</td><td>357546</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Neubauer chamber</td><td>Assistent</td><td>441/1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;Oak Ridge Centrifuge Tubes, polycarbonate (50 ml)</td><td>Nalgene</td><td>3118-0050</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>100 &amp;micro;m cell strainer, nylon</td><td>BD Falcon</td><td>352360</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>cytochalasin B</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A7657,0010</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>cycloheximide</td><td>Roth</td><td>8682.3</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>L-cystein</td><td>Merck</td><td>1,028,381,000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>hCG available as Ovogest</td><td>MSD</td><td>1431593</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PMSG available as Intergonan</td><td>MSD</td><td>1431015</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>A23187 (mixed calcium-magnesium-salt)</td><td>Enzo</td><td>ALX-450-002-M010</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>syringe needles (1.20 x 40 mm, 18 G x 1 1/2&quot;)</td><td>Braun</td><td>4665120</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ATP</td><td>Serva</td><td>10920.03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>GTP, 2 Na x 3 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0</td><td>Roth</td><td>K056.1/2/3/4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>creatine phosphat disodium salt</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>2380</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>creatine phosphokinase</td><td>Sigma</td><td>C3755-35KU</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMAP</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D2629-1G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DAPI&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Roche</td><td>10236276001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PFA</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P-6148</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>centrifugation tubes for TLA 100 (7 x 10 mm, 5/16 x 13/16 in.)</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td>343775</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&quot;Cell-Saver&quot; (tips with wide opening, 1,000 &amp;micro;l)</td><td>Biozym</td><td>729065</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50% glutaraldehyde solution, grade I</td><td>Sigma alderich</td><td>G7651-10 ml</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>0.1% (w/v) poly-L-lysine solution</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P8920-100 ml</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>flat-bottom tubes (6 ml, 16.0/55 mm)</td><td>Greiner Bio-one</td><td>145211</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vectashield mounting medium</td><td>Vector laboratories</td><td>H1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tubes for TLA120 (11 x 34 mm, 7/16 x 1 3/8 in.)</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td>343778</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&quot;Cell-Saver&quot; (tips with wide opening, 200 &amp;micro;l)</td><td>Biozym</td><td>729055</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12 mm coverslips</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>0784 #1</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a cell free assay to study chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis

During the vertebrate cell cycle chromatin undergoes extensive structural and functional changes. Upon mitotic entry, it massively condenses into rod shaped chromosomes which are moved individually by the mitotic spindle apparatus. Mitotic chromatin condensation yields chromosomes compacted fifty-fold denser as in interphase. During exit from mitosis, chromosomes have to re-establish their functional interphase state, which is enclosed by a nuclear envelope and is competent for replication and transcription. The decondensation process is morphologically well described, but in molecular terms poorly understood: We lack knowledge about the underlying molecular events and to a large extent the factors involved as well as their regulation. We describe here a cell-free system that faithfully recapitulates chromatin decondensation in vitro, based on mitotic chromatin clusters purified from synchronized HeLa cells and X. laevis egg extract. Our cell-free system provides an important tool for further molecular characterization of chromatin decondensation and its co-ordination with processes simultaneously occurring during mitotic exit such as nuclear envelope and pore complex re-assembly.

Time dependence of the decondensation reaction
Figure 1 shows a typical time course of the decondensation assay. The cluster of chromosomes visible at the beginning of the reaction decondenses and merges into a single, round and smooth nucleus. When the egg extract is replaced by sucrose buffer the chromosome cluster remains condensed, which suggest that decondensation activity is present in the egg extract.
Chromatin decondensation is an energy dep...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis at JoVE.com

A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis

The molecular mechanisms of the decondensation of highly compacted mitotic chromatin are ill-defined. We present a cell-free assay based on mitotic chromatin clusters isolated from HeLa cells and Xenopus laevis egg extract that faithfully reconstitutes the decondensation process in vitro.

During the vertebrate cell cycle chromatin undergoes extensive structural and functional changes. Upon mitotic entry, it massively condenses into rod ...

a-cell-free-assay-to-study-chromatin-decondensation-at-end

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.3K Views.  Max Planck Society. The molecular mechanisms of the decondensation of highly compacted mitotic chromatin are ill-defined. We present a cell-free assay based on mitotic chromatin clusters isolated from HeLa cells and Xenopus laevis egg extract that faithfully reconstitutes the decondensation process in vitro.

Video: A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis

Chromatin Spread Preparations for the Analysis of Mouse Oocyte Progression from Prophase to Metaphase II

Chromatin spread techniques have been widely used to assess the dynamic localization of various proteins during gametogenesis, particularly for spermatogenesis. These techniques allow for visualization of protein and DNA localization patterns during meiotic events such as homologous chromosome pairing, synapsis and DNA repair. While a few protocols have been described in the literature, general chromatin spread techniques using mammalian prophase oocytes are limited and difficult due to the timing of meiosis initiation in fetal ovaries. In comparison, prophase spermatocytes can be collected from juvenile male mice with higher yields without the need for microdissection. However, it is difficult to obtain a pure synchronized population of cells at specific stages due to the heterogeneity of meiotic and post-meiotic germ cell populations in the juvenile and adult testis. For later stages of meiosis, it is advantageous to assess oocytes undergoing meiosis I (MI) or meiosis II (MII), because groups of mature oocytes can be collected from adult female mice and stimulated to resume meiosis in culture. Here, methods for meiotic chromatin spread preparations using oocytes dissected from fetal, neonatal and adult ovaries are described with accompanying video demonstrations. Chromosome missegregation events in mammalian oocytes are frequent, particularly during MI. These techniques can be used to assess and characterize the effects of different mutations or environmental exposures during various stages of oogenesis. As there are distinct differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis, the techniques described within are invaluable to increase our understanding of mammalian oogenesis and the sexually dimorphic features of chromosome and protein dynamics during meiosis.

Oogenesis in mammals is known to be error-prone, particularly due to chromosome missegregation. This manuscript describes chromatin spread preparation methods for mouse prophase, metaphase I and II-staged oocytes. These fundamental techniques allow for the study of chromatin-bound proteins and chromosome morphology throughout mammalian oogenesis.

Chromatin spread techniques have been widely used to assess the dynamic localization of various proteins during gametogenesis, particularly for ...

Genetics

Long-term Live-cell Imaging to Assess Cell Fate in Response to Paclitaxel

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over the past decade, new and innovative technologies have greatly enhanced the practicality of live-cell imaging. Cells can now be kept in focus and continuously imaged over several days while maintained under 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 cell culture conditions. Moreover, multiple fields of view representing different experimental conditions can be acquired simultaneously, thus providing high-throughput experimental data. Live-cell imaging provides a significant advantage over fixed-cell imaging by allowing for the direct visualization and temporal quantitation of dynamic cellular events. Live-cell imaging can also identify variation in the behavior of single cells that would otherwise have been missed using population-based assays. Here, we describe live-cell imaging protocols to assess cell fate decisions following treatment with the anti-mitotic drug paclitaxel. We demonstrate methods to visualize whether mitotically arrested cells die directly from mitosis or slip back into interphase. We also describe how the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI) system can be used to assess the fraction of interphase cells born from mitotic slippage that are capable of re-entering the cell cycle. Finally, we describe a live-cell imaging method to identify nuclear envelope rupture events.

Live-cell imaging provides a wealth of information on single cells or whole populations that is unattainable by fixed cell imaging alone. Here, live-cell imaging protocols to assess cell fate decisions following treatment with the anti-mitotic drug paclitaxel are described.

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over ...

Cancer Research

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay Using Micrococcal Nucleases in Mammalian Cells

To express cellular phenotypes in organisms, living cells execute gene expression accordingly, and transcriptional programs play a central role in gene expression. The cellular transcriptional machinery and its chromatin modification proteins coordinate to regulate transcription. To analyze transcriptional regulation at the molecular level, several experimental methods such as electrophoretic mobility shift, transient reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays are available. We describe a modified ChIP assay in detail in this article because of its advantages in directly showing histone modifications and the interactions between proteins and DNA in cells. One of the key steps in a successful ChIP assay is chromatin shearing. Although sonication is commonly used for shearing chromatin, it is difficult to identify reproducible conditions. Instead of shearing chromatin by sonication, we utilized enzymatic digestion with micrococcal nuclease (MNase) to obtain more reproducible results. In this article, we provide a straightforward ChIP assay protocol using MNase.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms of gene regulation. However, the method involves difficulties in obtaining reproducible chromatin fragmentation by mechanical shearing. Here, we provide an improved protocol for a ChIP assay using enzymatic digestion.

To express cellular phenotypes in organisms, living cells execute gene expression accordingly, and transcriptional programs play a central role in gene ...

Live Cell Imaging of Chromosome Segregation During Mitosis

Chromosomes must be reliably and uniformly segregated into daughter cells during mitotic cell division. Fidelity of chromosomal segregation is controlled by multiple mechanisms that include the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint (SAC). The SAC is part of a complex feedback system that is responsible for prevention of a cell progress through mitosis unless all chromosomal kinetochores have attached to spindle microtubules. Chromosomal lagging and abnormal chromosome segregation is an indicator of dysfunctional cell cycle control checkpoints and can be used to measure the genomic stability of dividing cells. Deregulation of the SAC can result in the transformation of a normal cell into a malignant cell through the accumulation of errors during chromosomal segregation. Implementation of the SAC and the formation of the kinetochore complex are tightly regulated by interactions between kinases and phosphatase such as Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A). This protocol describes live cell imaging of lagging chromosomes in mouse embryonic fibroblasts isolated from mice that had a knockout of the PP2A-B56&#947; regulatory subunit. This method overcomes the shortcomings of other cell cycle control imaging techniques such as flow cytometry or immunocytochemistry that only provide a snapshot of a cell cytokinesis status, instead of a dynamic spatiotemporal visualization of chromosomes during mitosis.

This protocol describes an easy and convenient method to label and visualize live chromosomes in mitotic cells using Histone2B-GFP BacMam 2.0 label and a spinning disc confocal microscopy system.

Chromosomes must be reliably and uniformly segregated into daughter cells during mitotic cell division. Fidelity of chromosomal segregation is controlled ...

Developmental Biology

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited from their latent state in the cytoplasm to cell surface receptors where they are activated by phosphorylation at a single tyrosine residue1. They then dimerize and translocate to the nucleus to drive the transcription of target genes, affecting growth, differentiation, homeostasis and the immune response. Not surprisingly, given their widespread involvement in normal cell processes, dysregulation of STAT function contributes to human disease, particularly to cancers2 and autoimmune diseases3. It is well established that transcription is regulated by alterations to the chromatin template4,5. These alterations include the activities of ATP-dependent complexes, as well as covalent histone modifications and DNA methylation6. Because STAT activation of gene expression is both rapid and transient, it requires specific mechanisms for modulating the chromatin template at STAT-dependent gene loci. To define these mechanisms, we characterize the histone modifications and the enzymatic activities that generate them at gene loci that respond to STAT signaling. This protocol describes chromatin immunoprecipitation, a method that is valuable for the study of STAT signaling to chromatin in activated gene expression.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

This protocol describes how chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used to study the dynamic alterations to the chromatin template that regulate transcription induced by a signal transduction pathway.

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited ...

Chromatin Interaction Analysis with Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) for Mapping Chromatin Interactions and Understanding Transcription Regulation

Genomes are organized into three-dimensional structures, adopting higher-order conformations inside the micron-sized nuclear spaces 7, 2, 12. Such architectures are not random and involve interactions between gene promoters and regulatory elements 13. The binding of transcription factors to specific regulatory sequences brings about a network of transcription regulation and coordination 1, 14. 
Chromatin Interaction Analysis by Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) was developed to identify these higher-order chromatin structures 5,6. Cells are fixed and interacting loci are captured by covalent DNA-protein cross-links. To minimize non-specific noise and reduce complexity, as well as to increase the specificity of the chromatin interaction analysis, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used against specific protein factors to enrich chromatin fragments of interest before proximity ligation. Ligation involving half-linkers subsequently forms covalent links between pairs of DNA fragments tethered together within individual chromatin complexes. The flanking MmeI restriction enzyme sites in the half-linkers allow extraction of paired end tag-linker-tag constructs (PETs) upon MmeI digestion. As the half-linkers are biotinylated, these PET constructs are purified using streptavidin-magnetic beads. The purified PETs are ligated with next-generation sequencing adaptors and a catalog of interacting fragments is generated via next-generation sequencers such as the Illumina Genome Analyzer. Mapping and bioinformatics analysis is then performed to identify ChIP-enriched binding sites and ChIP-enriched chromatin interactions 8. 
We have produced a video to demonstrate critical aspects of the ChIA-PET protocol, especially the preparation of ChIP as the quality of ChIP plays a major role in the outcome of a ChIA-PET library. As the protocols are very long, only the critical steps are shown in the video.

Chromatin Interaction Analysis with Paired-End Tag Sequencing ChIA-PET for Mapping Chromatin Interactions and Understanding Transcription Regulation

Chromatin Interaction Analysis by Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) is a method for de novo detection of chromatin interactions, for better understanding of transcriptional control.

Genomes are organized into three-dimensional structures, adopting higher-order conformations inside the micron-sized nuclear spaces 7, 2, 12. Such ...

Studying Proteolysis of Cyclin B at the Single Cell Level in Whole Cell Populations

Equal distribution of chromosomes between the two daughter cells during cell division is a prerequisite for guaranteeing genetic stability 1. Inaccuracies during chromosome separation are a hallmark of malignancy and associated with progressive disease 2-4. The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a mitotic surveillance mechanism that holds back cells at metaphase until every single chromosome has established a stable bipolar attachment to the mitotic spindle1. The SAC exerts its function by interference with the activating APC/C subunit Cdc20 to block proteolysis of securin and cyclin B and thus chromosome separation and mitotic exit. Improper attachment of chromosomes prevents silencing of SAC signaling and causes continued inhibition of APC/CCdc20 until the problem is solved to avoid chromosome missegregation, aneuploidy and malignant growths1.
Most studies that addressed the influence of improper chromosomal attachment on APC/C-dependent proteolysis took advantage of spindle disruption using depolymerizing or microtubule-stabilizing drugs to interfere with chromosomal attachment to microtubules. Since interference with microtubule kinetics can affect the transport and localization of critical regulators, these procedures bear a risk of inducing artificial effects 5.
To study how the SAC interferes with APC/C-dependent proteolysis of cyclin B during mitosis in unperturbed cell populations, we established a histone H2-GFP-based system which allowed the simultaneous monitoring of metaphase alignment of mitotic chromosomes and proteolysis of cyclin B 6.
To depict proteolytic profiles, we generated a chimeric cyclin B reporter molecule with a C-terminal SNAP moiety 6 (Figure 1). In a self-labeling reaction, the SNAP-moiety is able to form covalent bonds with alkylguanine-carriers (SNAP substrate) 7,8 (Figure 1). SNAP substrate molecules are readily available and carry a broad spectrum of different fluorochromes. Chimeric cyclin B-SNAP molecules become labeled upon addition of the membrane-permeable SNAP substrate to the growth medium 7 (Figure 1). Following the labeling reaction, the cyclin B-SNAP fluorescence intensity drops in a pulse-chase reaction-like manner and fluorescence intensities reflect levels of cyclin B degradation 6 (Figure 1). Our system facilitates the monitoring of mitotic APC/C-dependent proteolysis in large numbers of cells (or several cell populations) in parallel. Thereby, the system may be a valuable tool to identify agents/small molecules that are able to interfere with proteolytic activity at the metaphase to anaphase transition. Moreover, as synthesis of cyclin B during mitosis has recently been suggested as an important mechanism in fostering a mitotic block in mice and humans by keeping cyclin B expression levels stable 9,10, this system enabled us to analyze cyclin B proteolysis as one element of a balanced equilibrium 6.

Metaphase to anaphase transition is triggered through anaphase-promoting complex (APC/C)-dependent ubiquitination and subsequent destruction of cyclin B. Here, we established a system which, following pulse-chase labeling, allows monitoring cyclin B proteolysis in entire cell populations and facilitates the detection of interference by the mitotic checkpoint.

Equal distribution of chromosomes between the two daughter cells during cell division is a prerequisite for guaranteeing genetic stability 1. Inaccuracies ...

Efficient Chromatin Immunoprecipitation using Limiting Amounts of Biomass

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used method for determining the interactions of different proteins with DNA in chromatin of living cells. Examples include sequence-specific DNA binding transcription factors, histones and their different modification states, enzymes such as RNA polymerases and ancillary factors, and DNA repair components. Despite its ubiquity, there is a lack of up-to-date, detailed methodologies for both bench preparation of material and for accurate analysis allowing quantitative metrics of interaction. Due to this lack of information, and also because, like any immunoprecipitation, conditions must be re-optimized for new sets of experimental conditions, the ChIP assay is susceptible to inaccurate or poorly quantitative results.
Our protocol is ultimately derived from seminal work on transcription factor:DNA interactions1,2 , but incorporates a number of improvements to sensitivity and reproducibility for difficult-to-obtain cell types. The protocol has been used successfully3,4 , both using qPCR to quantify DNA enrichment, or using a semi-quantitative variant of the below protocol.
This quantitative analysis of PCR-amplified material is performed computationally, and represents a limiting factor in the assay. Important controls and other considerations include the use of an isotype-matched antibody, as well as evaluation of a control region of genomic DNA, such as an intergenic region predicted not to be bound by the protein under study (or anticipated not to show changes under the experimental conditions). In addition, a standard curve of input material for every ChIP sample is used to derive absolute levels of enrichment in the experimental material. Use of standard curves helps to take into account differences between primer sets, regardless of how carefully they are designed, and also efficiency differences throughout the range of template concentrations for a single primer set. Our protocol is different from others that are available5-8 in that we extensively cover the later, analysis phase.

We describe a robust method for chromatin immunoprecipitation using primary T cells. The method is founded on standard approaches, but uses a specific set of conditions and reagents that improve efficiency for limited a quantities of cells. Importantly, a detailed description of the data analysis phase is presented.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a  widely-used method for determining the interactions of different proteins with  DNA in chromatin of living ...

Isolation of Specific Genomic Regions and Identification of Associated Molecules by enChIP

The identification of molecules associated with specific genomic regions of interest is required to understand the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of these regions. To enable the non-biased identification of molecules interacting with a specific genomic region of interest, we recently developed the engineered DNA-binding molecule-mediated chromatin immunoprecipitation (enChIP) technique. Here, we describe how to use enChIP to isolate specific genomic regions and identify the associated proteins and RNAs. First, a genomic region of interest is tagged with a transcription activator-like (TAL) protein or a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) complex consisting of a catalytically inactive form of Cas9 and a guide RNA. Subsequently, the chromatin is crosslinked and fragmented by sonication. The tagged locus is then immunoprecipitated and the crosslinking is reversed. Finally, the proteins or RNAs that are associated with the isolated chromatin are subjected to mass spectrometric or RNA sequencing analyses, respectively. This approach allows the successful identification of proteins and RNAs associated with a genomic region of interest.

The identification of molecules associated with specific genomic regions of interest is required to understand the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of these regions. This protocol describes procedures to perform engineered DNA-binding molecule-mediated chromatin imunoprecipitation (enChIP) for identification of proteins and RNAs associated with a specific genomic region.

The identification of molecules associated with specific genomic regions of interest is required to understand the mechanisms of regulation of the ...

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy has revolutionized the understanding of meiotic cell-cycle events by providing temporal and spatial data that is often not seen by imaging fixed cells. Budding yeast has proved to be an important model organism to study meiotic chromosome segregation because many meiotic genes are highly conserved. Time-lapse microscopy of meiosis in budding yeast allows the monitoring of different meiotic mutants to show how the mutation disrupts meiotic processes. However, many proteins function at multiple points in meiosis. The use of loss-of-function or meiotic null mutants can therefore disrupt an early process, blocking or disturbing the later process and making it difficult to determine the phenotypes associated with each individual role. To circumvent this challenge, this protocol describes how the proteins can be conditionally depleted from the nucleus at specific stages of meiosis while monitoring meiotic events using time-lapse microscopy. Specifically, this protocol describes how the cells are synchronized in prophase I, how the anchor away technique is used to deplete proteins from the nucleus at specific meiotic stages, and how time-lapse imaging is used to monitor meiotic chromosome segregation. As an example of the usefulness of the technique, the kinetochore protein Ctf19 was depleted from the nucleus at different time points during meiosis, and the number of chromatin masses was analyzed at the end of meiosis II. Overall, this protocol can be adapted to deplete different nuclear proteins from the nucleus while monitoring the meiotic divisions.

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse microscopy is a valuable tool for studying meiosis in budding yeast. This protocol describes a method that combines cell-cycle synchronization, time-lapse microscopy, and conditional depletion of a target protein to demonstrate how to study the function of a specific protein during meiotic chromosome segregation.

Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy has revolutionized the understanding of meiotic cell-cycle events by providing temporal and spatial data that is often ...

A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis

Podsumowanie

Przeglądaj więcej filmów

Rozdziały w tym wideo

Chromatin Spread Preparations for the Analysis of Mouse Oocyte Progression from Prophase to Metaphase II

Long-term Live-cell Imaging to Assess Cell Fate in Response to Paclitaxel

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay Using Micrococcal Nucleases in Mammalian Cells

Live Cell Imaging of Chromosome Segregation During Mitosis

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

Chromatin Interaction Analysis with Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) for Mapping Chromatin Interactions and Understanding Transcription Regulation

Studying Proteolysis of Cyclin B at the Single Cell Level in Whole Cell Populations

Efficient Chromatin Immunoprecipitation using Limiting Amounts of Biomass

Isolation of Specific Genomic Regions and Identification of Associated Molecules by enChIP

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae