עבודה זו נתמכה על ידי קרן המחקר הגרמנית וERC (AN377 / 3-2 ו309,528 CHROMDECON לWA) ומלגת דוקטורט של Boehringer Ingelheim חטיבות לAKS איור 1 &amp; 2 הם נדפסו מתא התפתחותית 31 (3), Magalska et al., פונקצית ATPases כמו-RuvB בdecondensation הכרומטין בסוף מיטוזה, 305-318, 2014, באישור סוג מElsevier.

<ol><li>Lohka, M. J., Masui, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Formation+in+vitro+of+sperm+pronuclei+and+mitotic+chromosomes+induced+by+amphibian+ooplasmic+components%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Science%22%5BJournal%5D)">Formation in vitro of sperm pronuclei and mitotic chromosomes induced by amphibian ooplasmic components.</a> Science. 220, 719-721 (1983).</li>
<li>de la Barre, A. E., Robert-Nicoud, M., Dimitrov, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Assembly+of+mitotic+chromosomes+in+Xenopus+egg+extract%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+Mol+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Assembly of mitotic chromosomes in Xenopus egg extract.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 119, 219-229 (1999).</li>
<li>Maresca, T. J., Heald, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Methods+for+studying+spindle+assembly+and+chromosome+condensation+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+Mol+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Methods for studying spindle assembly and chromosome condensation in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 322, 459-474 (2006).</li>
<li>Galy, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+role+for+gp210+in+mitotic+nuclear-envelope+breakdown%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Cell+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">A role for gp210 in mitotic nuclear-envelope breakdown.</a> J Cell Sci. 121, 317-328 (2008).</li>
<li>Chan, R. C., Forbes, D. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((In+vitro+study+of+nuclear+assembly+and+nuclear+import+using+Xenopus+egg+extracts%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+Mol+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">In vitro study of nuclear assembly and nuclear import using Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 322, 289-300 (2006).</li>
<li>Gillespie, P. J., Gambus, A., Blow, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Preparation+and+use+of+Xenopus+egg+extracts+to+study+DNA+replication+and+chromatin+associated+proteins%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods%22%5BJournal%5D)">Preparation and use of Xenopus egg extracts to study DNA replication and chromatin associated proteins.</a> Methods. 57, 203-213 (2012).</li>
<li>Gant, T. M., Wilson, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Nuclear+assembly%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Annu+Rev+Cell+Dev+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Nuclear assembly.</a> Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 13, 669-695 (1997).</li>
<li>Magalska, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((RuvB-like+ATPases+function+in+chromatin+decondensation+at+the+end+of+mitosis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Developmental+Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">RuvB-like ATPases function in chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis.</a> Developmental Cell. 31, 305-318 (2014).</li>
<li>Belmont, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mitotic+chromosome+structure+and+condensation%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Curr+Opin+Cell+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mitotic chromosome structure and condensation.</a> Curr Opin Cell Biol. 18, 632-638 (2006).</li>
<li>Lavoie, B. D., Tuffo, K. M., Oh, S., Koshland, D., Holm, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mitotic+chromosome+condensation+requires+Brn1p%2C+the+yeast+homologue+of+Barren%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Mol+Biol+Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mitotic chromosome condensation requires Brn1p, the yeast homologue of Barren.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 11, 1293-1304 (2000).</li>
<li>Philpott, A., Leno, G. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Nucleoplasmin+remodels+sperm+chromatin+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Nucleoplasmin remodels sperm chromatin in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Cell. 69, 759-767 (1992).</li>
<li>Philpott, A., Leno, G. H., Laskey, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Sperm+decondensation+in+Xenopus+egg+cytoplasm+is+mediated+by+nucleoplasmin%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Sperm decondensation in Xenopus egg cytoplasm is mediated by nucleoplasmin.</a> Cell. 65, 569-578 (1991).</li>
<li>Burglin, T. R., Mattaj, I. W., Newmeyer, D. D., Zeller, R., De Robertis, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Cloning+of+nucleoplasmin+from+Xenopus+laevis+oocytes+and+analysis+of+its+developmental+expression%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Genes+Dev%22%5BJournal%5D)">Cloning of nucleoplasmin from Xenopus laevis oocytes and analysis of its developmental expression.</a> Genes Dev. 1, 97-107 (1987).</li>
<li>Whitaker, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Calcium+at+fertilization+and+in+early+development%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Physiological+reviews%22%5BJournal%5D)">Calcium at fertilization and in early development.</a> Physiological reviews. 86, 25-88 (2006).</li>
<li>Gasser, S. M., Laemmli, U. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Improved+methods+for+the+isolation+of+individual+and+clustered+mitotic+chromosomes%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Exp+Cell+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">Improved methods for the isolation of individual and clustered mitotic chromosomes.</a> Exp Cell Res. 173, 85-98 (1987).</li>
<li>Eisenhardt, N., Schooley, A., Antonin, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Xenopus+in+vitro+assays+to+analyze+the+function+of+transmembrane+nucleoporins+and+targeting+of+inner+nuclear+membrane+proteins%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+Cell+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Xenopus in vitro assays to analyze the function of transmembrane nucleoporins and targeting of inner nuclear membrane proteins.</a> Methods Cell Biol. 122, 193-218 (2014).</li>
<li>Wignall, S. M., Deehan, R., Maresca, T. J., Heald, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+condensin+complex+is+required+for+proper+spindle+assembly+and+chromosome+segregation+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Cell+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">The condensin complex is required for proper spindle assembly and chromosome segregation in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> J Cell Biol. 161, 1041-1051 (2003).</li>
<li>Forbes, D. J., Kirschner, M. W., Newport, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Spontaneous+formation+of+nucleus-like+structures+around+bacteriophage+DNA+microinjected+into+Xenopus+eggs%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Spontaneous formation of nucleus-like structures around bacteriophage DNA microinjected into Xenopus eggs.</a> Cell. 34, 13-23 (1983).</li>
<li>Hartl, P., Olson, E., Dang, T., Forbes, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Nuclear+assembly+with+lambda+DNA+in+fractionated+Xenopus+egg+extracts%3A+an+unexpected+role+for+glycogen+in+formation+of+a+higher+order+chromatin+intermediate%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Cell+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Nuclear assembly with lambda DNA in fractionated Xenopus egg extracts: an unexpected role for glycogen in formation of a higher order chromatin intermediate.</a> J Cell Biol. 124, 235-248 (1994).</li>
<li>Sandaltzopoulos, R., Blank, T., Becker, P. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Transcriptional+repression+by+nucleosomes+but+not+H1+in+reconstituted+preblastoderm+Drosophila+chromatin%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22EMBO+J%22%5BJournal%5D)">Transcriptional repression by nucleosomes but not H1 in reconstituted preblastoderm Drosophila chromatin.</a> EMBO J. 13, 373-379 (1994).</li>
<li>Ulbert, S., Platani, M., Boue, S., Mattaj, I. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Direct+membrane+protein-DNA+interactions+required+early+in+nuclear+envelope+assembly%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Cell+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Direct membrane protein-DNA interactions required early in nuclear envelope assembly.</a> J Cell Biol. 173, 469-476 (2006).</li>
<li>Zhang, C., Clarke, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Chromatin-independent+nuclear+envelope+assembly+induced+by+Ran+GTPase+in+Xenopus+egg+extracts%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Science%22%5BJournal%5D)">Chromatin-independent nuclear envelope assembly induced by Ran GTPase in Xenopus egg extracts.</a> Science. 288, 1429-1432 (2000).</li>
<li>Paulson, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Isolation+of+chromosome+clusters+from+metaphase-arrested+HeLa+cells%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Chromosoma%22%5BJournal%5D)">Isolation of chromosome clusters from metaphase-arrested HeLa cells.</a> Chromosoma. 85, 571-581 (1982).</li>
<li>Ramadan, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Cdc48%2Fp97+promotes+reformation+of+the+nucleus+by+extracting+the+kinase+Aurora+B+from+chromatin%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature%22%5BJournal%5D)">Cdc48/p97 promotes reformation of the nucleus by extracting the kinase Aurora B from chromatin.</a> Nature. 450, 1258-1262 (2007).</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Xenopus laevis תמציות ביצה הן כלי שימושי מאוד לשחזר בנאמנות תהליכים תאיים במבחנה, ומערכת זו שימשה בהצלחה באפיון של אירועי מחזור התא וחלוקת תא 2, 3,5,6,17. בשל חנויות גדולות של רכיבים גרעיניים מוחרם בביצה במהלך oogenesis, תמציות ביצה הן מקור מצוין של מרכיבים תאי?...

תמצית ביצת laevis Xenopus היא כלי רב עוצמה ומיושם באופן נרחב כדי ללמוד אירועים הסלולר מסובכים בפשטות של assay תא ללא. מאז התיאור הראשון שלהם על ידי Lohka &amp; 1 Masui הם כבר בשימוש נרחב ללמוד תהליכי mitotic כגון הכרומטין עיבוי 2, הרכבה ציר 3, התמוטטות מעטפת גרעין 4, אלא גם תחבורת nucleocytoplasmic 5 או DNA שכפול 6. אירועים המתרחשים בסוף מיטוזה, הכרחיים להרפורמציה של גרעין interphasic כגון הרפורמציה מעטפת גרעין והרכבה מחדש מורכבת נקבובית הגרעיני הם הרבה פחות מובנים בהשוואה לאירועי mitotic המוקדמים אך ניתן ללמוד באופן דומה באמצעות תמצית ביצת צפרדעי 7. יש לנו לאחרונה הוקם assay המבוסס על תמצית ביצת צפרדעים ללמוד decondensation הכרומטין בסוף מיטוזה 8, תהליך נחקר תחת שמחכה ליTS אפיון מפורט. בmetazoans, הכרומטין מרוכז מאוד בכניסה mitotic על מנת לבצע בנאמנות הפרדה של החומר הגנטי. כדי להבטיח שהכרומטין נגיש לביטוי גנים ושכפול ה- DNA במהלך שלבי הביניים, זה צריך להיות דה-נדחס בסוף מיטוזה. בבעלי חוליות, הכרומטין הוא עד חמישים ולקפל יותר דחוס במיטוזה לעומת הביניים 9, בניגוד לשמרים שבו דחיסת mitotic היא בדרך כלל נמוכה בהרבה, למשל, כפול רק בס cerevisiae 10. decondensation הכרומטין חוליות כבר למד בעיקר בהקשר של ארגון מחדש DNA הזרע לאחר הפריית ביצית. מנגנון מולקולרי, שבי nucleoplasmin, חלבון ביצית בשפע, מחליף protamines זרע ספציפי לH2A ההיסטונים וH2B מאוחסן בביצה. תהליך זה גם הובהר באמצעות תמצית Xenopus ביצת 11, 12. עם זאת, הביטוישל nucleoplasmin מוגבל לביציות 13 והכרומטין mitotic אינו מכיל protamines הזרע ספציפי אלה. לכן הכרומטין decondensation בסוף מיטוזה הוא nucleoplasmin עצמאי 8. במבחנת התגובה decondensation אנו מעסיקים תמצית המופקת מהביצים מופעלות X. laevis ואשכולות הכרומטין המבודדים מתאי הלה מסונכרנים. טיפול בביצים עם ionophore סידן מחקה את שחרור סידן לתוך הביצית שנוצרה על ידי כניסת זרע במהלך הפריה. גל סידן גורם לחידוש מחזור התא והביצה, נעצר בmetaphase השני של המיוזה, התקדמות לשלבי הביניים הראשונים 14. לכן, תמציות ביצה מוכנות ביצי צורה מופעלת לייצג את מדינת יציאה / הביניים mitotic ומוכשרים כדי לגרום לאירועים ספציפיים ליציאת mitotic כמו decondensation הכרומטין, מעטפת גרעין ולהתעמק הרפורמציה מורכבת. לבידוד של CH mitoticromatin אשכולות השתמשנו גרסה מעט שונה של הפרוטוקול שפורסם על ידי גאסר וLaemmli 15, שבו אשכולות כרומוזום פורסמו על ידי תמוגה מתאי הלה מסונכרן במיטוזה ומבודדת במאגרים המכיל polyamine ידי centrifugations שיפוע.

<table><tbody><tr><td>spermine tetrahydrochloride</td><td>Fluka analytical</td><td>85610-25G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>spermidine trihydrochloride</td><td>Sigma&amp;nbsp;</td><td>S2501-5G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>high-purity digitonin</td><td>Millipore</td><td>300410-1GM</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>PMSF</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A0999,0100</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>thymidine</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>6060</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>nocodazole</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>487928</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>37% formaldehyde solution</td><td>Roth</td><td>7398-1</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>trypan blue solution (0.4%)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T8154</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>1,4-dithiothreitol (DTT)</td><td>Roth</td><td>6908.2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>AEBSF hydrochloride</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A1421,0001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pepstatin</td><td>Roth</td><td>2936.1/2/3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>leupeptin</td><td>Roth</td><td>CN334</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>aprotinin</td><td>Roth</td><td>A162.3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Percoll (colloidal silica particles solution)</td><td>GE Healthcare</td><td>17-0891-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>glutamine</td><td>Gibco</td><td>25030-024</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td><td>Gibco</td><td>15140-122</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>75 cm&amp;sup2; tissue culture flasks</td><td>Greiner Bio-one</td><td>658175</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>10500-064</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Homogenizer (40 ml tissue grinder)</td><td>Wheaton</td><td>357546</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Neubauer chamber</td><td>Assistent</td><td>441/1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;Oak Ridge Centrifuge Tubes, polycarbonate (50 ml)</td><td>Nalgene</td><td>3118-0050</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>100 &amp;micro;m cell strainer, nylon</td><td>BD Falcon</td><td>352360</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>cytochalasin B</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A7657,0010</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>cycloheximide</td><td>Roth</td><td>8682.3</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>L-cystein</td><td>Merck</td><td>1,028,381,000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>hCG available as Ovogest</td><td>MSD</td><td>1431593</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PMSG available as Intergonan</td><td>MSD</td><td>1431015</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>A23187 (mixed calcium-magnesium-salt)</td><td>Enzo</td><td>ALX-450-002-M010</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>syringe needles (1.20 x 40 mm, 18 G x 1 1/2&quot;)</td><td>Braun</td><td>4665120</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ATP</td><td>Serva</td><td>10920.03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>GTP, 2 Na x 3 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0</td><td>Roth</td><td>K056.1/2/3/4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>creatine phosphat disodium salt</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>2380</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>creatine phosphokinase</td><td>Sigma</td><td>C3755-35KU</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMAP</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D2629-1G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DAPI&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Roche</td><td>10236276001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PFA</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P-6148</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>centrifugation tubes for TLA 100 (7 x 10 mm, 5/16 x 13/16 in.)</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td>343775</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&quot;Cell-Saver&quot; (tips with wide opening, 1,000 &amp;micro;l)</td><td>Biozym</td><td>729065</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50% glutaraldehyde solution, grade I</td><td>Sigma alderich</td><td>G7651-10 ml</td><td>toxic</td></tr><tr><td>0.1% (w/v) poly-L-lysine solution</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P8920-100 ml</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>flat-bottom tubes (6 ml, 16.0/55 mm)</td><td>Greiner Bio-one</td><td>145211</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vectashield mounting medium</td><td>Vector laboratories</td><td>H1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tubes for TLA120 (11 x 34 mm, 7/16 x 1 3/8 in.)</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td>343778</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&quot;Cell-Saver&quot; (tips with wide opening, 200 &amp;micro;l)</td><td>Biozym</td><td>729055</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12 mm coverslips</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>0784 #1</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a cell free assay to study chromatin decondensation at the end of mitosis

During the vertebrate cell cycle chromatin undergoes extensive structural and functional changes. Upon mitotic entry, it massively condenses into rod shaped chromosomes which are moved individually by the mitotic spindle apparatus. Mitotic chromatin condensation yields chromosomes compacted fifty-fold denser as in interphase. During exit from mitosis, chromosomes have to re-establish their functional interphase state, which is enclosed by a nuclear envelope and is competent for replication and transcription. The decondensation process is morphologically well described, but in molecular terms poorly understood: We lack knowledge about the underlying molecular events and to a large extent the factors involved as well as their regulation. We describe here a cell-free system that faithfully recapitulates chromatin decondensation in vitro, based on mitotic chromatin clusters purified from synchronized HeLa cells and X. laevis egg extract. Our cell-free system provides an important tool for further molecular characterization of chromatin decondensation and its co-ordination with processes simultaneously occurring during mitotic exit such as nuclear envelope and pore complex re-assembly.

<html> תלות בזמן של תגובת decondensation איור 1 מציג כמובן זמן אופייני של assay decondensation. האשכול של כרומוזומים גלויים בתחילת התגובה decondenses ומתמזג אחת, סיבוב גרעין חלק ו. כאשר תמצית הביצה הוא הוחלף על ידי סוכרוז חיץ אשכול כרומוזום נשאר מ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis at JoVE.com

A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis

The molecular mechanisms of the decondensation of highly compacted mitotic chromatin are ill-defined. We present a cell-free assay based on mitotic chromatin clusters isolated from HeLa cells and Xenopus laevis egg extract that faithfully reconstitutes the decondensation process in vitro.

תא Assay חינם לחקר הכרומטין Decondensation בסוף מיטוזה

During the vertebrate cell cycle chromatin undergoes extensive structural and functional changes. Upon mitotic entry, it massively condenses into rod ...

a-cell-free-assay-to-study-chromatin-decondensation-at-end

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.3K Views.  Max Planck Society. The molecular mechanisms of the decondensation of highly compacted mitotic chromatin are ill-defined. We present a cell-free assay based on mitotic chromatin clusters isolated from HeLa cells and Xenopus laevis egg extract that faithfully reconstitutes the decondensation process in vitro.

Video: A Cell Free Assay to Study Chromatin Decondensation at the End of Mitosis

Chromatin Spread Preparations for the Analysis of Mouse Oocyte Progression from Prophase to Metaphase II

Chromatin spread techniques have been widely used to assess the dynamic localization of various proteins during gametogenesis, particularly for spermatogenesis. These techniques allow for visualization of protein and DNA localization patterns during meiotic events such as homologous chromosome pairing, synapsis and DNA repair. While a few protocols have been described in the literature, general chromatin spread techniques using mammalian prophase oocytes are limited and difficult due to the timing of meiosis initiation in fetal ovaries. In comparison, prophase spermatocytes can be collected from juvenile male mice with higher yields without the need for microdissection. However, it is difficult to obtain a pure synchronized population of cells at specific stages due to the heterogeneity of meiotic and post-meiotic germ cell populations in the juvenile and adult testis. For later stages of meiosis, it is advantageous to assess oocytes undergoing meiosis I (MI) or meiosis II (MII), because groups of mature oocytes can be collected from adult female mice and stimulated to resume meiosis in culture. Here, methods for meiotic chromatin spread preparations using oocytes dissected from fetal, neonatal and adult ovaries are described with accompanying video demonstrations. Chromosome missegregation events in mammalian oocytes are frequent, particularly during MI. These techniques can be used to assess and characterize the effects of different mutations or environmental exposures during various stages of oogenesis. As there are distinct differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis, the techniques described within are invaluable to increase our understanding of mammalian oogenesis and the sexually dimorphic features of chromosome and protein dynamics during meiosis.

Oogenesis in mammals is known to be error-prone, particularly due to chromosome missegregation. This manuscript describes chromatin spread preparation methods for mouse prophase, metaphase I and II-staged oocytes. These fundamental techniques allow for the study of chromatin-bound proteins and chromosome morphology throughout mammalian oogenesis.

כרומטין להפיץ את ההכנות לניתוח של העכבר Oocyte התקדמות מן Prophase כדי מפה של השני

Chromatin spread techniques have been widely used to assess the dynamic localization of various proteins during gametogenesis, particularly for ...

Genetics

Long-term Live-cell Imaging to Assess Cell Fate in Response to Paclitaxel

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over the past decade, new and innovative technologies have greatly enhanced the practicality of live-cell imaging. Cells can now be kept in focus and continuously imaged over several days while maintained under 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 cell culture conditions. Moreover, multiple fields of view representing different experimental conditions can be acquired simultaneously, thus providing high-throughput experimental data. Live-cell imaging provides a significant advantage over fixed-cell imaging by allowing for the direct visualization and temporal quantitation of dynamic cellular events. Live-cell imaging can also identify variation in the behavior of single cells that would otherwise have been missed using population-based assays. Here, we describe live-cell imaging protocols to assess cell fate decisions following treatment with the anti-mitotic drug paclitaxel. We demonstrate methods to visualize whether mitotically arrested cells die directly from mitosis or slip back into interphase. We also describe how the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI) system can be used to assess the fraction of interphase cells born from mitotic slippage that are capable of re-entering the cell cycle. Finally, we describe a live-cell imaging method to identify nuclear envelope rupture events.

Live-cell imaging provides a wealth of information on single cells or whole populations that is unattainable by fixed cell imaging alone. Here, live-cell imaging protocols to assess cell fate decisions following treatment with the anti-mitotic drug paclitaxel are described.

לטווח ארוך לחיות תאים הדמיה כדי להעריך את גורל בתגובה פקליטקסל

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over ...

Cancer Research

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay Using Micrococcal Nucleases in Mammalian Cells

To express cellular phenotypes in organisms, living cells execute gene expression accordingly, and transcriptional programs play a central role in gene expression. The cellular transcriptional machinery and its chromatin modification proteins coordinate to regulate transcription. To analyze transcriptional regulation at the molecular level, several experimental methods such as electrophoretic mobility shift, transient reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays are available. We describe a modified ChIP assay in detail in this article because of its advantages in directly showing histone modifications and the interactions between proteins and DNA in cells. One of the key steps in a successful ChIP assay is chromatin shearing. Although sonication is commonly used for shearing chromatin, it is difficult to identify reproducible conditions. Instead of shearing chromatin by sonication, we utilized enzymatic digestion with micrococcal nuclease (MNase) to obtain more reproducible results. In this article, we provide a straightforward ChIP assay protocol using MNase.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms of gene regulation. However, the method involves difficulties in obtaining reproducible chromatin fragmentation by mechanical shearing. Here, we provide an improved protocol for a ChIP assay using enzymatic digestion.

כרומטין Immunoprecipitation שימוש בנוקלאוסים מיקרוקוקל בתאי מיונקים

To express cellular phenotypes in organisms, living cells execute gene expression accordingly, and transcriptional programs play a central role in gene ...

Live Cell Imaging of Chromosome Segregation During Mitosis

Chromosomes must be reliably and uniformly segregated into daughter cells during mitotic cell division. Fidelity of chromosomal segregation is controlled by multiple mechanisms that include the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint (SAC). The SAC is part of a complex feedback system that is responsible for prevention of a cell progress through mitosis unless all chromosomal kinetochores have attached to spindle microtubules. Chromosomal lagging and abnormal chromosome segregation is an indicator of dysfunctional cell cycle control checkpoints and can be used to measure the genomic stability of dividing cells. Deregulation of the SAC can result in the transformation of a normal cell into a malignant cell through the accumulation of errors during chromosomal segregation. Implementation of the SAC and the formation of the kinetochore complex are tightly regulated by interactions between kinases and phosphatase such as Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A). This protocol describes live cell imaging of lagging chromosomes in mouse embryonic fibroblasts isolated from mice that had a knockout of the PP2A-B56&#947; regulatory subunit. This method overcomes the shortcomings of other cell cycle control imaging techniques such as flow cytometry or immunocytochemistry that only provide a snapshot of a cell cytokinesis status, instead of a dynamic spatiotemporal visualization of chromosomes during mitosis.

This protocol describes an easy and convenient method to label and visualize live chromosomes in mitotic cells using Histone2B-GFP BacMam 2.0 label and a spinning disc confocal microscopy system.

תא חי הדמיה של הפרדה בין כרומוזום במהלך מיטוזה

Chromosomes must be reliably and uniformly segregated into daughter cells during mitotic cell division. Fidelity of chromosomal segregation is controlled ...

Developmental Biology

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited from their latent state in the cytoplasm to cell surface receptors where they are activated by phosphorylation at a single tyrosine residue1. They then dimerize and translocate to the nucleus to drive the transcription of target genes, affecting growth, differentiation, homeostasis and the immune response. Not surprisingly, given their widespread involvement in normal cell processes, dysregulation of STAT function contributes to human disease, particularly to cancers2 and autoimmune diseases3. It is well established that transcription is regulated by alterations to the chromatin template4,5. These alterations include the activities of ATP-dependent complexes, as well as covalent histone modifications and DNA methylation6. Because STAT activation of gene expression is both rapid and transient, it requires specific mechanisms for modulating the chromatin template at STAT-dependent gene loci. To define these mechanisms, we characterize the histone modifications and the enzymatic activities that generate them at gene loci that respond to STAT signaling. This protocol describes chromatin immunoprecipitation, a method that is valuable for the study of STAT signaling to chromatin in activated gene expression.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

This protocol describes how chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used to study the dynamic alterations to the chromatin template that regulate transcription induced by a signal transduction pathway.

הכרומטין immunoprecipitation (שבב) לשינוי Assay דינמי היסטון בביטוי הגנים המופעלת בתא האדם

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited ...

Studying Proteolysis of Cyclin B at the Single Cell Level in Whole Cell Populations

Equal distribution of chromosomes between the two daughter cells during cell division is a prerequisite for guaranteeing genetic stability 1. Inaccuracies during chromosome separation are a hallmark of malignancy and associated with progressive disease 2-4. The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a mitotic surveillance mechanism that holds back cells at metaphase until every single chromosome has established a stable bipolar attachment to the mitotic spindle1. The SAC exerts its function by interference with the activating APC/C subunit Cdc20 to block proteolysis of securin and cyclin B and thus chromosome separation and mitotic exit. Improper attachment of chromosomes prevents silencing of SAC signaling and causes continued inhibition of APC/CCdc20 until the problem is solved to avoid chromosome missegregation, aneuploidy and malignant growths1.
Most studies that addressed the influence of improper chromosomal attachment on APC/C-dependent proteolysis took advantage of spindle disruption using depolymerizing or microtubule-stabilizing drugs to interfere with chromosomal attachment to microtubules. Since interference with microtubule kinetics can affect the transport and localization of critical regulators, these procedures bear a risk of inducing artificial effects 5.
To study how the SAC interferes with APC/C-dependent proteolysis of cyclin B during mitosis in unperturbed cell populations, we established a histone H2-GFP-based system which allowed the simultaneous monitoring of metaphase alignment of mitotic chromosomes and proteolysis of cyclin B 6.
To depict proteolytic profiles, we generated a chimeric cyclin B reporter molecule with a C-terminal SNAP moiety 6 (Figure 1). In a self-labeling reaction, the SNAP-moiety is able to form covalent bonds with alkylguanine-carriers (SNAP substrate) 7,8 (Figure 1). SNAP substrate molecules are readily available and carry a broad spectrum of different fluorochromes. Chimeric cyclin B-SNAP molecules become labeled upon addition of the membrane-permeable SNAP substrate to the growth medium 7 (Figure 1). Following the labeling reaction, the cyclin B-SNAP fluorescence intensity drops in a pulse-chase reaction-like manner and fluorescence intensities reflect levels of cyclin B degradation 6 (Figure 1). Our system facilitates the monitoring of mitotic APC/C-dependent proteolysis in large numbers of cells (or several cell populations) in parallel. Thereby, the system may be a valuable tool to identify agents/small molecules that are able to interfere with proteolytic activity at the metaphase to anaphase transition. Moreover, as synthesis of cyclin B during mitosis has recently been suggested as an important mechanism in fostering a mitotic block in mice and humans by keeping cyclin B expression levels stable 9,10, this system enabled us to analyze cyclin B proteolysis as one element of a balanced equilibrium 6.

Metaphase to anaphase transition is triggered through anaphase-promoting complex (APC/C)-dependent ubiquitination and subsequent destruction of cyclin B. Here, we established a system which, following pulse-chase labeling, allows monitoring cyclin B proteolysis in entire cell populations and facilitates the detection of interference by the mitotic checkpoint.

לומד Proteolysis של cyclin B ברמת התא הבודד באוכלוסיות תאים שלמות

Equal distribution of chromosomes between the two daughter cells during cell division is a prerequisite for guaranteeing genetic stability 1. Inaccuracies ...

Two- and Three-Dimensional Live Cell Imaging of DNA Damage Response Proteins

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious DNA lesions a cell can encounter. If left unrepaired, DSBs harbor great potential to generate mutations and chromosomal aberrations1. To prevent this trauma from catalyzing genomic instability, it is crucial for cells to detect DSBs, activate the DNA damage response (DDR), and repair the DNA. When stimulated, the DDR works to preserve genomic integrity by triggering cell cycle arrest to allow for repair to take place or force the cell to undergo apoptosis. The predominant mechanisms of DSB repair occur through nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination repair (HRR) (reviewed in2). There are many proteins whose activities must be precisely orchestrated for the DDR to function properly. Herein, we describe a method for 2- and 3-dimensional (D) visualization of one of these proteins, 53BP1.
The p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1) localizes to areas of DSBs by binding to modified histones3,4, forming foci within 5-15 minutes5. The histone modifications and recruitment of 53BP1 and other DDR proteins to DSB sites are believed to facilitate the structural rearrangement of chromatin around areas of damage and contribute to DNA repair6. Beyond direct participation in repair, additional roles have been described for 53BP1 in the DDR, such as regulating an intra-S checkpoint, a G2/M checkpoint, and activating downstream DDR proteins7-9. Recently, it was discovered that 53BP1 does not form foci in response to DNA damage induced during mitosis, instead waiting for cells to enter G1 before localizing to the vicinity of DSBs6. DDR proteins such as 53BP1 have been found to associate with mitotic structures (such as kinetochores) during the progression through mitosis10.
In this protocol we describe the use of 2- and 3-D live cell imaging to visualize the formation of 53BP1 foci in response to the DNA damaging agent camptothecin (CPT), as well as 53BP1's behavior during mitosis. Camptothecin is a topoisomerase I inhibitor that primarily causes DSBs during DNA replication. To accomplish this, we used a previously described 53BP1-mCherry fluorescent fusion protein construct consisting of a 53BP1 protein domain able to bind DSBs11. In addition, we used a histone H2B-GFP fluorescent fusion protein construct able to monitor chromatin dynamics throughout the cell cycle but in particular during mitosis12. Live cell imaging in multiple dimensions is an excellent tool to deepen our understanding of the function of DDR proteins in eukaryotic cells.

This protocol describes a method for visualizing a DNA double-strand break signaling protein activated in response to DNA damage as well as its localization during mitosis.

שתי והדמית תא חייה תלת ממדית של חלבוני תגובת ניזק לדנ&quot;א

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious DNA lesions a cell can encounter. If left unrepaired, DSBs harbor great potential to generate ...

Efficient Chromatin Immunoprecipitation using Limiting Amounts of Biomass

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used method for determining the interactions of different proteins with DNA in chromatin of living cells. Examples include sequence-specific DNA binding transcription factors, histones and their different modification states, enzymes such as RNA polymerases and ancillary factors, and DNA repair components. Despite its ubiquity, there is a lack of up-to-date, detailed methodologies for both bench preparation of material and for accurate analysis allowing quantitative metrics of interaction. Due to this lack of information, and also because, like any immunoprecipitation, conditions must be re-optimized for new sets of experimental conditions, the ChIP assay is susceptible to inaccurate or poorly quantitative results.
Our protocol is ultimately derived from seminal work on transcription factor:DNA interactions1,2 , but incorporates a number of improvements to sensitivity and reproducibility for difficult-to-obtain cell types. The protocol has been used successfully3,4 , both using qPCR to quantify DNA enrichment, or using a semi-quantitative variant of the below protocol.
This quantitative analysis of PCR-amplified material is performed computationally, and represents a limiting factor in the assay. Important controls and other considerations include the use of an isotype-matched antibody, as well as evaluation of a control region of genomic DNA, such as an intergenic region predicted not to be bound by the protein under study (or anticipated not to show changes under the experimental conditions). In addition, a standard curve of input material for every ChIP sample is used to derive absolute levels of enrichment in the experimental material. Use of standard curves helps to take into account differences between primer sets, regardless of how carefully they are designed, and also efficiency differences throughout the range of template concentrations for a single primer set. Our protocol is different from others that are available5-8 in that we extensively cover the later, analysis phase.

We describe a robust method for chromatin immunoprecipitation using primary T cells. The method is founded on standard approaches, but uses a specific set of conditions and reagents that improve efficiency for limited a quantities of cells. Importantly, a detailed description of the data analysis phase is presented.

הכרומטין immunoprecipitation יעיל באמצעות כמויות מגבילות של ביומסה

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a  widely-used method for determining the interactions of different proteins with  DNA in chromatin of living ...

Chromosome Preparation From Cultured Cells

Chromosome (cytogenetic) analysis is widely used for the detection of chromosome instability. When followed by G-banding and molecular techniques such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), this assay has the powerful ability to analyze individual cells for aberrations that involve gains or losses of portions of the genome&#160;and rearrangements involving one or more chromosomes. In humans, chromosome abnormalities occur in approximately 1 per 160 live births1,2, 60-80% of all miscarriages3,4, 10% of stillbirths2,5, 13% of individuals with congenital heart disease6, 3-6% of infertility cases2, and in many patients with developmental delay&#160;and birth defects7. Cytogenetic analysis of malignancy is routinely used by researchers and clinicians, as observations of clonal chromosomal abnormalities have been shown to have both diagnostic and prognostic significance8,9.&#160; Chromosome isolation is invaluable for gene therapy and stem cell research of organisms including nonhuman primates and rodents10-13.
Chromosomes can be isolated from cells of live tissues, including blood lymphocytes, skin fibroblasts, amniocytes, placenta, bone marrow, and tumor specimens. Chromosomes are analyzed at the metaphase stage of mitosis, when they are most condensed and therefore more clearly visible. The first step of the chromosome isolation technique involves the disruption of the spindle fibers by incubation with Colcemid, to prevent the cells from proceeding to the subsequent anaphase stage. The cells are then treated with a hypotonic solution and preserved in their swollen state with Carnoy&#39;s fixative. The cells are then dropped on to slides and can then be utilized for a variety of procedures. G-banding involves trypsin treatment followed by staining with Giemsa to create characteristic light and dark bands. The same procedure to isolate chromosomes can be used for the preparation of cells for procedures such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), and spectral karyotyping (SKY)14,15.

Chromosomes can be isolated from live cells such as lymphocytes or skin fibroblasts, and from organisms including humans or mice. These chromosome preparations can be further utilized for routine G-banding and molecular cytogenetic procedures such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), and spectral karyotyping (SKY).

הכנת כרומוזום מתאים בתרבית

Chromosome (cytogenetic) analysis is widely used for the detection of chromosome instability. When followed by G-banding and molecular techniques such as ...

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy has revolutionized the understanding of meiotic cell-cycle events by providing temporal and spatial data that is often not seen by imaging fixed cells. Budding yeast has proved to be an important model organism to study meiotic chromosome segregation because many meiotic genes are highly conserved. Time-lapse microscopy of meiosis in budding yeast allows the monitoring of different meiotic mutants to show how the mutation disrupts meiotic processes. However, many proteins function at multiple points in meiosis. The use of loss-of-function or meiotic null mutants can therefore disrupt an early process, blocking or disturbing the later process and making it difficult to determine the phenotypes associated with each individual role. To circumvent this challenge, this protocol describes how the proteins can be conditionally depleted from the nucleus at specific stages of meiosis while monitoring meiotic events using time-lapse microscopy. Specifically, this protocol describes how the cells are synchronized in prophase I, how the anchor away technique is used to deplete proteins from the nucleus at specific meiotic stages, and how time-lapse imaging is used to monitor meiotic chromosome segregation. As an example of the usefulness of the technique, the kinetochore protein Ctf19 was depleted from the nucleus at different time points during meiosis, and the number of chromatin masses was analyzed at the end of meiosis II. Overall, this protocol can be adapted to deplete different nuclear proteins from the nucleus while monitoring the meiotic divisions.

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse microscopy is a valuable tool for studying meiosis in budding yeast. This protocol describes a method that combines cell-cycle synchronization, time-lapse microscopy, and conditional depletion of a target protein to demonstrate how to study the function of a specific protein during meiotic chromosome segregation.

שימוש במיקרוסקופיה של קיטועי זמן ודלדול גרעיני ספציפי לשלב של חלבונים כדי לחקור מיוזה ב- S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy has revolutionized the understanding of meiotic cell-cycle events by providing temporal and spatial data that is often ...