This work has been supported by Western Kentucky University&#8217;s Ogden College of Science and Engineering, including internal support from the Department of Chemistry and from the Office of Research (RCAP 13-8032). The assistance of Dr. John Andersland at the WKU Microscopy Facility (SEM images) and Associate Professor Yan Cao of the WKU Institute for Combustion Science and Engineering (BET analysis) has been central to conducting this work.

1. Preparation of Emulsion
<ol>
	<li>Emulsion Contents
	<ol>
		<li>Mass an appropriate amount of salt to produce 10 ml of 0.03-M solution. For platinum(IV) chloride measure 0.101 g, for zinc(II) chloride (ZnCl2) measure 0.032 g, and sodium chloride (NaCl) measure 0.018 g.</li>
		<li>In individual test tubes, dissolve each salt into 10 ml of DI water. Set aside for later use.</li>
		<li>Use a 20-ml, sealable glass vial for the contents throughout this procedure. Tare a balance to the glass vial.</li>
		<li>Weigh vinyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane by slowly pouring it over a stir rod and into the glass vial resting on the zeroed scale. Weigh out 1.02 g (equivalent to 1.080 ml). 
		NOTE: The high viscosity of this polymer makes pipetting impractical.</li>
		<li>Pipette 1.02 ml of n-Heptane to the vial. Add 2 drops of non-ionic surfactant (sorbitan monoleate) to the vial. Pipette 0.3 ml of salt solution and 0.45 ml of DI-water to the vial.</li>
		<li>Seal the glass vial by screwing the lid on tightly. Shake vigorously for 60 sec to initiate the emulsion before beginning sonication.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Construction of Water-bath Sonicator Apparatus
	<ol>
		<li>Fill sonicator with water up to the minimum fill line. Add 250 ml of tap water to a 400-ml beaker. Fill the 400-ml beaker with ice so that the water level is just at the rim.</li>
		<li>Place this beaker inside the water-bath sonicator. Check the fill-line on the sonicator, adjusting if needed. Place a ring stand directly beside the water-bath sonicator.</li>
		<li>Using two ring stand clamps, position them so that an arm is extended out, perpendicular to the ring stand and another one is extended towards the water bath so that it is pointing downwards into the beaker filled with ice water. Attach another clamp to the ring stand with a thermometer down in the 400-ml beaker so that the temperature can be monitored throughout sonication.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Emulsification Procedure
	<ol>
		<li>Place the emulsion-containing vial so that it is fully submerged in the 400-ml beaker by securing it into the clamp protruding down into the beaker.</li>
		<li>Ensure that the glass vial containing the PDMS mixture is not touching the sides of the beaker to eliminate heat caused by friction.</li>
		<li>Turn on the sonicator and set sonication time for 7 min. Because the emulsion is very heat sensitive, ensure that the temperature inside the beaker is between 0 and 5 &#176;C throughout sonication. Start sonication once the temperature inside the beaker is desirable.</li>
		<li>After 7 min of sonication, remove the vial and gently shake/swirl for 1 min, holding the top of the vial to eliminate any clumps that might form in the emulsion.</li>
		<li>Dispose of the contents of the beaker. Refill with 250 ml of water and add ice to the fill to within 1 cm the top of the beaker.</li>
		<li>Place the vial back in the clamp. Submerge it under the ice water to resume sonication for 7 min.</li>
		<li>Repeat steps 1.3.3 to 1.3.6 for a total of eight, 7-min sonication periods, or until the sonication appears to be homogenous and no clumps are present. Store at RT. 
		NOTE: The emulsification should be stable for several days, but can be recovered by sonication as above in 7-min intervals until it appears homogenous. Store at RT.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Cross-linking
<ol>
	<li>Setup for Addition of Triethoxysilane/Surfactant Solution
	<ol>
		<li>Pipette 5.4 ml triethoxysilane into a test tube. Place in a test tube rack under the hood for later use.</li>
		<li>Fill a 400-ml beaker with ice water and place it under the hood. Next to the 400-ml beaker place a ring stand with a clamp attached, extended directly over the opening of the beaker. This will be the ice-bath for the addition of triethoxysilane.</li>
		<li>Place a hot plate on the other side of the ring stand. Fill an 800-ml beaker with approximately 700 ml of tap water. Place it on the hot plate.</li>
		<li>Turn on the hot plate and maintain a temperature of 75 to 85 &#176;C inside the 800-ml beaker. Attach a clamp with a thermometer to the ring stand so the temperature of the water inside the 800-ml beaker can be monitored.</li>
		<li>Produce the surfactant solution by dissolving 0.5 g of sodium dodecyl sulfate to 375 ml of water (4.62 mM). Add approximately 10 ml of surfactant solution to a clean, empty test tube.</li>
		<li>Attach another clamp to the ring stand under the hood with the surfactant test tube secured such that its liquid level is below the surface of the water inside the 800-ml beaker. Allow 10 min for thermal equilibration.</li>
		<li>Wet a piece of filter paper and place it in the top of a small funnel. Place the stem of the funnel inside a 250-ml Erlenmeyer flask and place the flask under the hood.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Addition of Triethoxysilane
	<ol>
		<li>Place the emulsion vial in the clamp over the ice-water beaker inside the hood. Position the PDMS mixture in the clamp so that the vial contents are below the surface of the water. The addition of triethoxysilane causes an exothermic reaction, so the emulsion must be kept cold in order to maintain its structure.</li>
		<li>Remove the lid from the glass vial to avoid gaseous build up.</li>
		<li>Slowly pour the test tube containing triethoxysilane into the glass vial in a continuous stream over a period of approximately 10 sec (roughly 0.5 ml/sec). 
		CAUTION: The addition of triethoxysilane initiates an exothermic reaction and the release of caustic hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas. The vial will become extremely hot and a toxic gas will evolve from the mixture. DO NOT STIR the contents while adding the triethoxysilane.</li>
		<li>After adding triethoxysilane completely, gently stir the contents with a glass stir rod while wearing a heat protective glove. Wait for 2 min or until gas stops evolving from the vial.</li>
		<li>Following cross-linking, there is no phase separation visible in the sample. If clumps are present, seal the vial and shake rigorously for 20 sec while holding the vial by the lid.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Bead production
	<ol>
		<li>Use a clean, glass Pasteur pipette to draw the cross-linked emulsion from the glass vial. Add the cross-linked emulsion drop-wise to the surfactant solution (which should be maintained between 75 and 85 &#176;C) into the test tube taking as little time as possible in between drops.</li>
		<li>30 sec to 1 min after the addition of the emulsion, the surfactant solution will slowly begin to evolve gas as solids begin to form inside the test tube.</li>
		<li>While wearing heat protective gloves, take the test tube out of the clamp and pour its entire contents into the filtration apparatus under the hood. Filter for 5 min. Remove the filter paper from the filter.</li>
		<li>Transfer the filtered solids onto a watch glass and separate beads for O/N drying under the hood. Cleaning of the beads can be postponed indefinitely. Store dried beads at RT in a sealed glass vial until needed, and clean immediately prior to use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Bead Cleaning
	<ol>
		<li>Create another filtration apparatus under the hood and place the dried beads inside the funnel on top of the filter paper.</li>
		<li>Use a plastic wash bottle filled with DI-water to rinse the beads gently, moving them around slightly to ensure all the beads are rinsed.</li>
		<li>Let the beads dry for 1 hr by placing them on a watch glass under the hood. Use a wash bottle filled with hexanes to rinse the beads using the same method for rinsing with water.</li>
		<li>Place the beads on a watch glass. Place the watch glass and the beads under the hood to dry.</li>
		<li>After the beads are completely dry, place them in a small sealable glass vial and store at RT for future use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Mounting the Beads for SEM Analysis and SEM Settings
	<ol>
		<li>Place a strip of double-sided carbon conductive tape on top of the stub onto which the beads will be mounted. Using scissors, trim around the stub to ensure no tape hangs over the edges.</li>
		<li>Place a piece of filter paper under the stub on a flat surface. Remove the top layer from the tape so that the adhesive underside is exposed.</li>
		<li>Gently pour the beads over the stub. Some beads will stick to the tape, but most will bounce off and land on the filter paper. Pour these back into the vial if they stayed on the filter paper. Repeat if necessary, washing any beads (according to 2.4.2 to 2.4.5) that become contaminated.</li>
		<li>To ensure the beads are secure on the stub, use a bulb syringe and lightly blow very closely to the stub surface. Pour more beads over the stub if only a few adhered to the tape. Ensure that all beads are secure before placing the stub into the SEM chamber and evacuating it.</li>
		<li>Once the samples have been mounted properly they are now ready to undergo SEM analysis15. Collect images in LOW VAC mode at 15 keV to optimize the resolution of the bead&#8217;s surface features.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The beads produced using this protocol (and by adjusting the electrolyte concentration and identity) are fundamentally different from those produced with a low-ionic strength emulsion, as seen by comparison of Figure 1A to the other SEM images in Figure 1. Our initial report used PtCl4 with the intention of further catalyzing the polymerization cross-linking at the aqueous-aliphatic interface14. In that report, large concave indentations were seen. Since that report...

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is one of the most widely used silicone compounds. Its biocompatibility has led to widespread use in implant and other biomedical engineering structures1,2. It is trivially cross-linked into elastic structures using an organosilyl compound (such as triethoxysilane), a simple and reliable procedure which has made it useful for cast polymer applications where some flexibility is required3. Once cross-linked, PDMS is largely inert, particularly in biological conditions, and is therefore useful for a variety of food and medical applications4,5. Ease of casting, chemical inertness, and hydrophobicity have made it a natural choice for microfluidic devices6,7. Its affinity for non-halogenated, non-polar organic compounds has made it a popular stationary phase in separations chemistry8-10. 
Recently, microbubble fabrications have been used to generate porous beads for use as catalyst structural substrates or in chemical separations11,12. In both applications, ideal materials will have a maximized surface-area-to-volume (SAV) ratio for best efficiency. In a microbubble fabrication process, microstructuring of materials is typically accomplished by isolating the polymer in aliphatic &#8220;microbubbles&#8221; by emulsification in an aqueous continuous phase. The initial report of microporous PDMS beads produced them by mechanical emulsification of two phases (aliphatic and aqueous)13. The stock PDMS liquid (and its cross-linking agent) is dissolved into the aliphatic phase, which is structured into microscopic beads by being forced to cavitate within the (continuous) aqueous phase. The emulsification is stabilized by the addition of a non-ionic surfactant. When the emulsion is added dropwise to a heated bath, solid beads form by agglomeration of the microbubbles into clusters of tiny spheres of cross-linked PDMS. Our goal in this protocol is to modify this procedure to develop beads with an inverted porosity to improve the SAV ratio of the material.
As reported previously, control of the beads can be directed to some extent by the aliphatic:aqueous ratios in the emulsion. However, we have reported recently that addition of platinum(IV) chloride (PtCl4) inverts the porosity: materials are formed in which the PDMS is riddled with concave pores14. This indicates that the aqueous layer cavitates inside the aliphatic one, despite having similar aliphatic:aqueous ratios to those published in the original work13. The primary advantage of our method is that this concave porosity should naturally result in an increased SAV ratio, and thus, improved efficiency for analytical chemistry applications. While we are continuing to explore the specific effects of the addition of the platinum compound, we show here that the same effect can be accomplished using any aqueously soluble ionic compound, though perhaps to a reduced extent. Because our techniques also differ in some key aspects from what has been previously reported, we present our protocols here as a video to encourage others to extend our methods. Most notably, we use a common bath sonicator of the type used to clean glassware or other equipment, rather than the (considerably more expensive) probe sonicator often used in microbubble fabrication. This adjusted approach to the microbubble fabrication procedure could potentially be extended for the production of large quantities of bulk materials as well, creating porous sheets or slabs which could have applications for biomedical devices, aerospace and automotive industry, or substrates for chemical catalysis. Users seeking to generate high-SAV-ratio, microstructured materials using other similar polymers for such analyses may find that our protocols can be extended to any polymer for which the microbubble emulsion technique can be applied.

<table border="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly(dimethylsiloxane), vinyl terminated</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>68083-19-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>n-Heptane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>142-82-5</td>
			<td>Flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triethoxysilane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>998-30-1</td>
			<td>Flammable, Accutely Toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sorbitan Monoleate (Span-80)</td>
			<td>Fluker</td>
			<td>1338-43-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum (IV) Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>13454-96-1</td>
			<td>Accutely Toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zinc (II) Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7646-85-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7647-14-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2.8L Water Bath Sonicator</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97043-964</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

microbubble fabrication of concave-porosity pdms beads

Microbubble fabrication (by use of a fine emulsion) provides a means of increasing the surface-area-to-volume (SAV) ratio of polymer materials, which is particularly useful for separations applications. Porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) beads can be produced by heat-curing such an emulsion, allowing the interface between the aqueous and aliphatic phases to mold the morphology of the polymer. In the procedures described here, both polymer and crosslinker (triethoxysilane) are sonicated together in a cold-bath sonicator. Following a period of cross-linking, emulsions are added dropwise to a hot surfactant solution, allowing the aqueous phase of the emulsion to separate, and forming porous polymer beads. We demonstrate that this method can be tuned, and the SAV ratio optimized, by adjusting the electrolyte content of the aqueous phase in the emulsion. Beads produced in this way are imaged with scanning electron microscopy, and representative SAV ratios are determined using Brunauer&#8211;Emmett&#8211;Teller (BET) analysis. Considerable variability with the electrolyte identity is observed, but the general trend is consistent: there is a maximum in SAV obtained at a specific concentration, after which porosity decreases markedly.

Representative SEM images of beads arising from emulsions with different electrolyte conditions are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1A shows a bead similar to those obtained by DuFaud, et al.13, produced using our procedures, without the addition of any electrolyte. Beads shown in Figure 1B-D, resulting in different morphologies for each metal ion. For all images shown, 300 &#956;l of 0.03-M electrolyte solutions were used in place of 300 &#956;l of the DI ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microbubble Fabrication of Concave-porosity PDMS Beads at JoVE.com

Microbubble Fabrication of Concave-porosity PDMS Beads

Procedures used to generate microstructured concave-porosity polydimethylsiloxane beads are presented. Effects of electrolyte concentration and identity within the aqueous phase are particularly emphasized.

Microbubble fabrication (by use of a fine emulsion) provides a means of increasing the surface-area-to-volume (SAV) ratio of polymer materials, which is ...

microbubble-fabrication-of-concave-porosity-pdms-beads

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8.2K Views.  Western Kentucky University. Procedures used to generate microstructured concave-porosity polydimethylsiloxane beads are presented. Effects of electrolyte concentration and identity within the aqueous phase are particularly emphasized. 