We are grateful to Takashi Murayama, Ei-ichiro Saita, Iou Ven Chang, and Hitomi Ohtaki for their technical assistance and comments on the manuscript. Strains were provided by the Caenorhabditis Genetics Center, which is funded by the NIH National Center for Research Resources (NCRR). This work was supported by funding from Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University.

1. Recipes
<ol>
	<li>NGM agar plates (step 2.1.)
	<ol>
		<li>To prepare 6 cm NGM plates, dissolve 2.5 g of peptone, 3 g of NaCl, and 17 g of agar in 850 mL of doubly deionized H2O (ddH2O). Bring the total volume to 972 mL with ddH2O.</li>
		<li>After autoclaving, cool down to ~65 &#176;C and add 1 mL of 5 mg/mL cholesterol dissolved in ethanol, 1 mL each of 1 M CaCl2 and 1 M MgSO4, and 25 mL of 1 M potassium phosphate (pH 6.0). After mixing well, dispense 8 mL each to 6 cm (in diameter) Petri dishes.</li>
		<li>Keep the plates with lids on a bench at room temperature (RT) for 1 day, and then keep them in plasticware in a cold room until use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare Luria-Bertani (LB) medium (step 2.1.) by dissolving 10 g of tryptone, 5 g of yeast extract, and 10 g of NaCl in 1 L of ddH2O. Adjust the pH to 7.0 with 5 N NaOH (several drops) and sterilize by autoclaving.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare LB plates by adding 15 g of agar to LB medium. After autoclaving, cool down to ~60 &#176;C and dispense 12 mL each to 9 cm (in diameter) Petri dishes. Keep plates in plasticware in a cold room until use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To make an animal collector (step 2.4.), attach nylon mesh (30 &#181;m mesh size) to the bottom of a clear acrylic cylindrical pipe (3.5 cm in length, 3 cm in external diameter, 2 mm in wall thickness) with glue.</li>
	<li>To make 0.25% aqueous gelatin solution (step 2.4.), dissolve 0.25 g of gelatin in 100 mL of ddH2O. Sterilize by autoclaving.</li>
	<li>Chemotaxis assay plates (step 5.1.)
	<ol>
		<li>To make agar plates for chemotaxis assay, dissolve 15 g of agar in 993 mL of ddH2O by autoclaving, and cool down the solution to ~65 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Then, add 5 mL of autoclaved 1 M potassium phosphate (pH 6.0), 1 mL of 1 M CaCl2, and&#160;1 mL of 1 M MgSO4 to the agar solution. All of these solutions are separately sterilized by autoclaving.</li>
		<li>Dispense 10 mL of the mixed solution to a 6 cm Petri dish. Place these plates with lids on a bench at RT for two days, and then put them on wet paper towels in plasticware at RT until use. These plates can be used for up to 10 days.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To make chemotaxis assay buffer (step 5.4.), mix 5 mL of 1 M potassium phosphate (pH 6.0), 1 mL of 1 M CaCl2, 1 mL of 1 M MgSO4, and 993 mL of ddH2O. Separately sterilize all these solutions by autoclaving.</li>
	<li>To make a 40 mL CS/US mixture solution (1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl [pH 4.0]) (step 3.1. and step 4.1.), add 0.4 mL of absolute 1-propanol and 4 &#181;L of 5 M HCl (0.1 mM at final concentration) to 39.6 mL of ddH2O. Keep the solution at RT.</li>
	<li>To make ddH2O, treat tap water 2x with water purification systems (refer to Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Prepare a liquid culture (OD600 = ~0.7) of Escherichia coli OP50 by inoculating a fresh colony with a toothpick into 10 mL of LB medium and incubating at 37 &#176;C for 7-8 h. Bacteria cultivated for a longer period can affect the outcome of conditioning, perhaps due to secondary metabolites.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of synchronized&#160;&#160;C.&#160; elegans
<ol>
	<li>Using standard methods26, cultivate animals on 6 cm NGM plates (step 1.1.). NGM plates are prepared by spreading 0.2 mL of an E. coli OP50 liquid culture in LB medium (see step 1.9.) and incubating at RT for no more than 24 h (old bacteria can affect the outcome of conditioning). 
	NOTE: C. elegans learning and memory are extremely sensitive to mechanical, chemical, and temperature stresses. Therefore, it is highly recommended to cultivate animals, maintain all reagents including water, and perform all assays at RT between 17 &#176;C and 20 &#176;C. Physical and mechanical stimulation such as vortexing, rough pipetting, and centrifugation must be avoided. Fresh 1-propanol should be used every 3 months at the longest for an unknown reason. Importantly, animals must be cultivated with plenty of food as starvation can seriously affect the outcome of conditioning.</li>
	<li>On day 1, pick and place five well-fed gravid animals (put more mutant animals that lay eggs slowly) on each of the four 6 cm NGM plates with a platinum worm picker, and let them lay ~50 eggs for 3 h at RT to obtain a synchronized population of adult animals. Stop egg laying by removing parent animals from the plates with a platinum worm picker. 
	NOTE: Seeded plates should be kept at RT to minimize stress to the animals.</li>
	<li>Cultivate the animals at RT for about 5 days, which is the time it takes for animals to reach their mature adult stage, not the young adult stage. 
	NOTE: The cultivation period between 4.5 days and 5.5 days should be adjusted depending on the conditions since younger adult animals are more sensitive to the chemicals used for conditioning than mature adult animals (Supplemental Figure 1). After conditioning, younger adult animals may show lower chemotaxis index (C.I.) values.</li>
	<li>Collect ~200 adult animals in an animal collector (see step 1.4.) by washing each plate with 1 mL of 0.25% aqueous gelatin (step 1.4.) This aqueous gelatin prevents adhesion of the animals to the surface of plastics such as pipette tips.</li>
	<li>Wash the animals in the collector with ddH2O (step 1.8.) by very gently moving the collector up and down 2x in ~10 mL of ddH2O. Repeat this process 2x more (3x in total) with ~10 mL of ddH2O each to prevent bacterial contamination. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Bacterial contamination seriously affects the chemotaxis of animals.</li>
</ol>
3. Mass training for short-term associative learning and memory
NOTE: See Figure 1 for the massed training workflow.
<ol>
	<li>Gently immerse the animal collector containing ~200 animals in 40 mL of a mixture of 1% 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0 after mixing with 1-propanol; see step 1.7.) in a crystallizing dish for ~1 s. 
	NOTE: For the control animals, do the same but dip only in 1% aqueous 1-propanol. It would be better to treat animals with HCl (pH 4.0) only as another control.</li>
	<li>Wash the animals in the collector by very gently immersing the collector 1x in 10 mL of ddH2O in a well of a 6-well tissue culture plate. 
	NOTE: This washing step must be very gentle and only be done 1x as extensive washing may prevent learning.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 3.1. and 3.2. 10x without interruption (inter-trial interval [ITI], 0 min). 
	&#8203;NOTE: Use fresh ddH2O each time at RT.</li>
	<li>Place the collector on an E. coli OP50 lawn on a 6 cm NGM plate for 10 min at RT in order for the animals to rest.</li>
	<li>Wash the animals in the collector with ddH2O by very gently moving the collector up and down 2x in ~10 mL of ddH2O. Repeat this process 2x more (3x in total) with ~10 mL of ddH2O each to prevent bacterial contamination.</li>
	<li>Proceed to chemotaxis assay as described below (step 5).</li>
</ol>
4. Spaced training for long-term associative learning and memory
NOTE: See Figure 2 for spaced training workflow.
<ol>
	<li>Gently immerse an animal collector containing ~200 animals in 40 mL of a mixture of 1% 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0 after mixing with 1-propanol; see step 1.7.) in a crystallizing dish for ~1.0 s. 
	NOTE: Do the same with 1% aqueous 1-propanol only as a control. It would be better to treat animals with HCl (pH 4.0) only as another control.</li>
	<li>Wash the animals in the collector by very briefly immersing the collector 1x in 10 mL of ddH2O in a well of a 6-well tissue culture plate. 
	NOTE: This washing must be very brief as extensive washing may prevent learning.</li>
	<li>Place the collector on an E. coli OP50 lawn on an NGM agar plate in a 6 cm (in diameter) Petri dish for 10 min at RT in order for the animals to rest. 
	NOTE: This resting for 10 min as ITI&#160;is crucial for the animals to consolidate memories for the formation of LTM.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 4.1.-4.3. 10x.</li>
	<li>Wash the animals in the collector with ddH2O by very gently moving the collector up and down 2x in ~10 mL of ddH2O, which is kept at RT. Repeat this process 2x more (3x in total) with ~10 mL of ddH2O each to prevent bacterial contamination.</li>
	<li>Proceed to chemotaxis assay as described below (step 5.).</li>
</ol>
5. Chemotaxis assay
<ol>
	<li>Prepare agar plates for chemotaxis assay in 6 cm plastic Petri dishes (see step 1.5.).</li>
	<li>Transfer animals in the collector (step 2.5.), which is placed on a flat surface of a plastic Petri dish lid, to a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube with 1 mL of 0.25% aqueous gelatin using a sawed-off pipette tip with a &#62;1 mm (inner diameter) opening. 
	NOTE: It is important to use a sawed-off pipette tip to minimize shear stress on animals.</li>
	<li>Remove the supernatant from the tube after the animals settle at the bottom of the tube by gravity for ~1 min (do not centrifuge).</li>
	<li>Gently resuspend the animals in 1 mL of chemotaxis assay buffer (see step 1.6.) and let them settle down by gravity to the bottom of the tube for ~1 min (do not centrifuge). Remove as much supernatant as possible by pipetting.</li>
	<li>Meantime, diagonally spot 4 &#181;L each of 5% aqueous 1-propanol at two places and spot 4 &#181;L each of ddH2O at two other places in the same way, as shown in Figure 3A. For chemotaxis assay of mutants that have lower sensitivity to 1-propanol, spot higher concentrations of aqueous 1-propanol that result in ~0.6 chemotaxis index (C.I.) values of na&#239;ve mutants, as shown in Supplemental Table 1. 
	NOTE: It is important to complete the spotting procedures as quickly as possible. Spot 5% aqueous 1-propanol since 1% aqueous 1-propanol is too weak to attract animals in the chemotaxis assay. In contrast, use 1% aqueous 1-propanol for conditioning since animals treated with higher concentrations of aqueous 1-propanol than 1% show lower C.I. values.</li>
	<li>Spot 6 &#181;L portions of the animal suspension in chemotaxis assay buffer (step 5.4.) containing ~60 animals at the center of three plates for chemotaxis assay using a sawed-off pipette tip with a ~1.0 mm (inner diameter) opening. Remove liquid as much as possible with a laboratory tissue wick without touching the animals and place a lid on the plate. 
	NOTE: It is important to complete these procedures as quickly as possible.</li>
	<li>Allow the animals to move freely on the plate for 10 min at RT, and then transfer the plate into a glass Petri dish on ice for 3 min to stop chemotaxis. Then, keep the plate in a refrigerator until counting the number of animals on the plate.</li>
	<li>Count the number of animals in four sections, except for those in the center circle, under a stereomicroscope and calculate the chemotaxis index (C.I.) using the equation shown in Figure 3B. From the C.I. values, calculate learning index (L.I.) values as the difference between the C.I. value of the reference animals and the C.I. value of the conditioned animals (L.I. = C.I.reference- C.I.conditioned). 
	NOTE: The C.I. value of the reference animals (C.I.reference) is the mean value of the C.I. values of animals conditioned with 1% aqueous 1-propanol only.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

In the present study, all the reagents were kept at an RT of ~18 &#176;C on average, and animals were cultivated on a bench at the RT to avoid stress to the animals. Furthermore, all the experimental procedures were carried out at the RT. Animals were initially cultivated in an incubator at 20 &#176;C and then conditioned on a bench at ~24 &#176;C using reagents at the RT. Under these conditions, the outcomes of the conditioning were very variable. At the low RT, C. elegans grows slowly and should be cultivated longer than at 20 &#176;C until the animals reach the mature adulthood stage, as younger adult animals are more sensitive to the chemicals used for conditioning than mature adult animals and may show lower C.I. values.
The most critical step for successful conditioning is the washing of animals with ddH2O immediately after each chemical treatment. Therefore, mechanical and temperature stresses should be minimized by using sawed-off pipet tips, keeping reagents at RT, and very gently washing the animals by very slowly moving the animal collector up and down in ddH2O. Thorough washing of the animals each time after conditioning may affect learning and memory. The conditions of the chemotaxis assay plates also severely affect the outcomes. Too dry or too wet plates prevent smooth locomotion of the animals. Plates were prepared as described in step 1.; a good plate is one for which the 4 &#181;L spots of ddH2O or 5% aqueous 1-propanol are completely absorbed by the agar in approximately 5 min after spotting. As described above, animal ages are also critical for successful conditioning. Young adult animals are sensitive to mechanical and chemical treatment, resulting in variable outcomes, although very aged animals may not be suitable for conditioning either.
The shelf life of 1-propanol depends on brands and lots and is less than 3 months at RT. When the C.I. values of na&#239;ve animals get worse, it would be recommended to use fresh 1-propanol for the conditioning and chemotaxis assay.
The formation of memory by massed training was not affected by the treatment of animals with translation inhibitors (cycloheximide and anisomycin) and a transcription inhibitor (actinomycin D), while the formation of memory by the spaced training was markedly inhibited by the inhibitors20,21. Furthermore, the former memory decayed by cold shock, while the latter was retained for a longer period than the former and was resistant to cold shock. These results demonstrate that the former is STM and the latter is LTM, respectively20,21. However, the memory formed by the massed training may consist of STM and middle-term (intermediate-term) memory since STM is weakly dependent upon the CREB transcription factor (Figure 5A). This is consistent with the result that the STM was retained for more than 1 h20,21. The formation of both STM and LTM is highly dependent on nmr-1, which is expressed only in six pairs of neurons (AVA, AVD, AVE, RIM, AVG, and PVC) in C. elegans27,28. In these neurons, therefore, NMDA receptors may act as a molecular coincidence detector of 1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0) signals for synaptic plasticity, where the synaptic strengthening required for both STM and LTM can result from coincidental firing of pre- and post-synaptic neurons29,30,31,32,33.&#160;Therefore, the aversive associative memory may form among the interneurons.
The methods described in the present study should be applicable for appetitive olfactory learning and short-term and long-term associative memory using 1-nonanol as the CS and potassium chloride as the US21. It is interesting to compare the neuronal circuits that are involved in the formation of appetitive and aversive memories.

Learning and memory are vital for animals to survive and reproduce by efficiently navigating changing environments. C. elegans is an attractive model organism to study learning and memory at the molecular and cellular levels because of the simplicity of its nervous system, whose chemical and electrical wiring diagrams were completely reconstructed from serial electron micrographs of thin sections1,2,3.
C. elegans learns to associate cultivation temperature with starvation and migrates away from its growth temperature with an aversive memory lasting for several hours4,5.&#160;Conditioning C. elegans with sodium chloride (NaCl) in the absence of food leads to a reduction in chemotaxis toward NaCl6,7,8. When paired with food, butanone attraction is enhanced as a result of appetitive learning9,10,11. Although these phenomena are interpreted as associative learning and memory10,12, the distinction between associative learning and non-associative sensitization, habituation, and adaptation is not clear in the C. elegans learning and memory paradigm13,14. Indeed, animals conditioned with butanone and food deprivation (aversive conditioning) showed depressed coupling of the butanone sensory neuron AWCON to target neurons by insulin signals from other neurons, including AIA interneurons, while animals conditioned with butanone and food (appetitive conditioning) showed enhanced coupling of AWCON to target neurons15. The insulin signaling causes gene expression changes induced by nuclear EGL-4 and other transcriptional regulators16,17. Thus, this aversive and appetitive learning and memory has analogies with non-associative habituation and sensitization, respectively, of presynaptic sensory neurons in the gill-withdrawal reflex in Aplysia18,19.
By pairing two chemicals as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US), we and others have developed protocols for the conditioning of C. elegans to form associative learning and memory without using food or starvation as the US20,21,22,23. In the present study, the protocols are modified to condition animals with 1-propanol and hydrochloric acid (HCl, pH 4.0) as the CS and US, respectively, for aversive learning and short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Na&#239;ve C. elegans is attracted by 1-propanol24 and repelled by acid25. When conditioned with a mixture of 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0), C. elegans was no longer or very weakly attracted to 1-propanol.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
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			<td>500 mL beaker</td>
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			<td>B-500-H32</td>
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			<td>10 &#181;L pipette tips</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>H-104-96RS-Q</td>
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			<td>0.2 mL pipette tips</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>TTW110RS-Q</td>
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			<td>1.0 mL pipette tips</td>
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			<td>H-111-R100NS-Q</td>
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			<td>1.5 mL plastic tubes</td>
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			<td>2 mL plastic tubes</td>
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			<td>0030120094</td>
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			<td>10 mL Serological pipettes</td>
			<td>As One</td>
			<td>2-5237-04</td>
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			<td>50 mL Serological pipettes</td>
			<td>As One</td>
			<td>2-5237-06</td>
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			<td>6-well cell culture plate</td>
			<td>Costar</td>
			<td>3516</td>
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			<td>Aron Alpha (Glue for plastic)</td>
			<td>Toagosei</td>
			<td>High Speed EX</td>
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			<td>Autoclave</td>
			<td>Tomy Digital Biology</td>
			<td>SX-300</td>
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			<td>Bacto agar</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>214010</td>
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			<td>Bacto peptone</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>211677</td>
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			<td>Bottle top 0.2 &#181;m filter units</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>566-0020</td>
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			<td>Bunsen burner</td>
			<td>EISCO</td>
			<td>SKU&#160;CH0089A</td>
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			<td>Calcium chloride dihydrate</td>
			<td>Nacalai Tesque</td>
			<td>06730-15</td>
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			<td>C. elegans mutant strains</td>
			<td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center</td>
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			<td>Cholesterol</td>
			<td>Wako Pure Chemical Industries</td>
			<td>034-03002</td>
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			<td>Clear acrylic cylindrical pipe</td>
			<td>Asahi Kasei</td>
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			<td>3.5 cm (length), 30 mm (external diameter), 2 mm (thickness)</td>
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			<td>Crystallizing dish</td>
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			<td>3140-80</td>
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			<td>Dental burner</td>
			<td>Phoenix-Dent</td>
			<td>APT-3</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Di-potassium hydrogen phosphate</td>
			<td>Nacalai Tesque</td>
			<td>28726-05</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>E. coli OP50</td>
			<td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Electric pipetter</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific</td>
			<td>4-000-101</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Gelatin</td>
			<td>Wako Pure Chemical Industries</td>
			<td>073-06295</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Glass Petri dishes (10 cm in diameter)</td>
			<td>As One&#160;</td>
			<td>Trade FLAT Mark</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Heating magnetic stirrer</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SP131324</td>
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			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Nacalai Tesque</td>
			<td>37345-15</td>
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			<td>Incubator</td>
			<td>SANYO</td>
			<td>MIR-553</td>
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			<td>Kimwipes S-200</td>
			<td>Nippon Paper Crecia</td>
			<td>62011</td>
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			<td>Laboratory coat</td>
			<td>TOYO LINT FREE</td>
			<td>FH240C</td>
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			<td>Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate</td>
			<td>Nacalai Tesque</td>
			<td>21002-85</td>
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			<td>Magnetic stirrer bar</td>
			<td>SANSYO</td>
			<td>93-5412</td>
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			<td>Metal spatula</td>
			<td>FUJIFILM Wako</td>
			<td>647-06531</td>
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			<td>Nitrile gloves</td>
			<td>Kimberly-Clark</td>
			<td>KC100</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Nylon mesh (mesh size: 30 &#956;m)</td>
			<td>SEFAR</td>
			<td>NY30-HD</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>P10 pipetman</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F144802</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>P200 pipetman</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F123600</td>
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			<td>P1000 pipetman</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F123602</td>
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			<td>pH meter</td>
			<td>HORIBA&#160;</td>
			<td>Navi F-52</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Plastic Petri dishes (9 cm in diameter)</td>
			<td>IWAKI</td>
			<td>SH90-15E</td>
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			<td>Plastic Petri dishes (6 cm in diameter)</td>
			<td>SARSTEDT</td>
			<td>82.1194.500</td>
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			<td>Plastic weighing boats</td>
			<td>As One</td>
			<td>1-5233-01</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Platinum wire for a worm pick</td>
			<td>Nilaco</td>
			<td>PT-351265</td>
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			<td>1-Propanol</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>279544</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Potassium dihydrogen phosphate</td>
			<td>Nacalai Tesque</td>
			<td>28721-55</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Safety goggles</td>
			<td>Kimberly-Clark</td>
			<td>#25646</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Nacalai Tesque</td>
			<td>31320-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereomicroscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>SZX16</td>
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		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tooth picks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Water purification sysytem</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>Elix Essential 10 UV</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Water urification sysytem</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>Milli-Q Synthesis A10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Weighing balance</td>
			<td>METTLER&#160;</td>
			<td>TOREDO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wild type C. elegans strain N2</td>
			<td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

aversive associative learning and memory formation by pairing two chemicals in caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an attractive model organism to study learning and memory at molecular and cellular levels because of the simplicity of its nervous system, whose chemical and electrical wiring diagrams were completely reconstructed from serial electron micrographs of thin sections. Here, we describe detailed protocols for the conditioning of C. elegans by massed and spaced training for the formation of short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), respectively. By pairing 1-propanol and hydrochloric acid as conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, respectively, C. elegans was successfully trained to form aversive associative STM and LTM. While na&#239;ve animals were attracted to 1-propanol, the trained animals were no longer or very weakly attracted to 1-propanol. Like in other organisms such as Aplysia and Drosophila, "learning and memory genes" play essential roles in memory formation. Particularly, NMDA-type glutamate receptors, expressed in only six pairs of interneurons in C. elegans, are required for the formation of both STM and LTM, possibly as a coincidence factor. Therefore, the memory trace may reside among the interneurons.

C. elegans was conditioned by massed training to form short-term aversive associative memory by pairing 1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0) as the CS and US, respectively. According to the protocol described above, synchronized animals were cultivated on a bench at an RT of 18 &#176;C for 5 days and were very gently washed 2x with ddH2O at an RT of 18 &#176;C. Then, the animals were conditioned with a mixture of 1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0) for 1 s. We also trained animals with ddH2O only, 1% aqueous 1-propanol only, and HCl (pH 4.0) only as references. After the conditioning, the animals were washed 1x with ddH2O. We repeated the conditioning 10x without interruption (no ITIs). Successful conditioning was achieved by repeating the procedure more than 7x up to 10x. Conditioning more than 10x resulted in less efficient learning21. After the training, the animals rested on bacterial food for 10 min at RT (18 &#176;C). After being washed with ddH2O 3x, the animals were transferred to a microcentrifuge tube by suspending in 0.25% aqueous gelatin and settled down to the bottom by gravity. After removing the supernatant as much as possible, the animals were gently resuspended in chemotaxis assay buffer and then allowed to settle down to the bottom of the tube by gravity.
After removing as much supernatant as possible, the animal suspension was spotted on the center circle of a chemotaxis assay plate, which was kept at an RT of 18 &#176;C, and then animals were allowed to freely move on the plate for 10 min at an RT of 18 &#176;C. C.I. values were calculated using the equation shown in Figure 3B. As shown in Figure 4A, animals conditioned with the mixture of 1% 1-propanol and HCl were no longer attracted to 5% 1-propanol spotted on agar plates for chemotaxis assay, whereas na&#239;ve and reference animals were similarly attracted to 5% 1-propanol. After the massed training (step 3.), the memory was no longer observed within 3 h20. Furthermore, the memory formed by the massed training was sensitive to cold shock20. These results demonstrate that C. elegans successfully formed aversive STM by massed training.
Animals were also conditioned by spaced training 10x with a 10 min ITI between the training steps (step 4.). During the ITI, the collector with animals was placed on a bacterial lawn on a 6 cm NGM plate at an RT of 18 &#176;C. Animals conditioned by the spaced training with a mixture of 1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0) were no longer attracted to 5% 1-propanol in comparison to animals treated with 1% 1-propanol only, HCl (pH 4.0) only, or ddH2O only (Figure 4B). After the spaced training, the animals retained the memory for more than 12 h20,21. Moreover, the memory did not form when animals were treated with translation or transcription inhibitors and was resistant to cold shock20,21. Therefore, C. elegans successfully formed aversive LTM by spaced training.
We also examined the effects of mutations in &#34;learning and memory genes&#34; on the formation of STM and LTM. The crh-1 gene encodes the ubiquitous transcription factor cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), glr-1 and nmr-1 encode &#945;-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptor subunits, respectively, and stau-1 encodes the double-stranded RNA-binding protein Staufen isoform. These genes play essential roles in classical conditioning in C. elegans, Drosophila, Aplysia, and mice. Using a mixture of 1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0), the formation of STM and LTM was dependent on all the genes (Figures 5A,B).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Experimental schematic of massed training. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Experimental schematic of spaced training. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Chemotaxis assay and chemotaxis index. (A) Schematic representation of a chemotaxis assay plate. Petri dishes (6 cm in diameter) were separated into four areas as shown, and 4 &#956;L each of 5% aqueous 1-propanol or ddH2O were diagonally spotted at two places each, 2 cm away from the center. (B) Chemotaxis index values were calculated from the equation shown by counting the number of animals in areas &#34;a&#34; and &#34;b&#34; after the completion of the chemotaxis. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Chemotaxis index values of animals conditioned with chemicals. Synchronized wild-type N2 animals were conditioned with chemicals indicated by (A) massed training 10x or (B) spaced training 10x. Flowcharts of the massed and spaced training protocols used are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. After the conditioning, the animals were free to move for 10 min on a 6 cm agar plate for chemotaxis assay at an RT of 18 &#176;C. C.I. values were calculated using the equation shown in Figure 3B. Data for this figure are provided in Supplemental Table 1. Data from the na&#239;ve animals were replotted in both figure panels. Bar plot shows the 1st quartile, median, and 3rd quartile. Asterisks (*P &#60; 0.05) indicate statistically significant differences determined by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett&#39;s multiple comparison test. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig05.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Learning index values of conditioned mutant animals. Synchronized wild-type N2 and mutant animals indicated were conditioned with a mixture of 1% aqueous 1-propanol and HCl (pH 4.0) by (A) massed training 10x or (B) spaced training 10x. Flowcharts of the massed and spaced training protocols used are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. After the conditioning, the animals were free to move for 10 min on a 6 cm agar plate for chemotaxis assay at an RT of 18 &#176;C. Data for this figure are provided in Supplemental Table 2. Bar plot shows the 1st quartile, median, and 3rd quartile. Asterisks (*P &#60; 0.05) indicate statistically significant differences determined by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett&#39;s multiple comparison test. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/64137fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Supplemental Figure 1: Young adult animals are sensitive to chemical treatment. Day 4 and day 5 wild-type N2 animals after hatching were massed-trained 10x with HCl, pH 4.0, without interruption and were then assayed for chemotaxis to 5% aqueous 1-propanol. Bars are means &#177; S.E.M. (n = 19). Asterisks (*P &#60; 0.05) indicate statistically significant differences determined by two-way ANOVA followed by the Tukey-Kramer post-hoc test. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/Supplementary Figure S1.zip" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplemental Table 1: Data corresponding to Figure 4. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/Supplemental Table S1.zip" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
Supplemental Table 2: Data corresponding to Figure 5. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64137/Supplemental Table S2.zip" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Aversive Associative Learning and Memory Formation by Pairing Two Chemicals in Caenorhabditis elegans at JoVE.com

Aversive Associative Learning and Memory Formation by Pairing Two Chemicals in Caenorhabditis elegans

We have previously developed protocols for Caenorhabditis elegans to form short- and long-term associative memories by massed and spaced training, respectively. Here, detailed protocols are described for the conditioning of C. elegans by pairing 1-propanol and hydrochloric acid as conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, respectively, to form aversive associative memory.

Aversive Associative Learning and Memory Formation by Pairing Two Chemicals in Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an attractive model organism to study learning and memory at molecular and cellular levels because of the ...

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

2.3K Views.  Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University. We have previously developed protocols for Caenorhabditis elegans to form short- and long-term associative memories by massed and spaced training, respectively. Here, detailed protocols are described for the conditioning of C. elegans by pairing 1-propanol and hydrochloric acid as conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, respectively, to form aversive associative memory.

Video: Aversive Associative Learning and Memory Formation by Pairing Two Chemicals in Caenorhabditis elegans

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment through neuron-specific detection of food and chemical odors1, 2, and can associate nutritive states with chemical odors3, temperature4, and the pathogenicity of a food source5.
Here, we describe assays of C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. We modified an aversive olfactory learning paradigm6 to instead produce a positive response; the assay involves starving ~400 worms, then feeding the worms in the presence of the AWC neuron-sensed volatile chemoattractant butanone at a concentration that elicits a low chemotactic index (similar to Toroyama et al.7). A standard population chemotaxis assay1 tests the worms' attraction to the odorant immediately or minutes to hours after conditioning.
After conditioning, wild-type animals' chemotaxis to butanone increases ~0.6 Chemotaxis Index units, its "Learning Index". Associative learning is dependent on the presence of both food and butanone during training. Pairing food and butanone for a single conditioning period ("massed training") produces short-term associative memory that lasts ~2 hours. Multiple conditioning periods with rest periods between ("spaced training") yields long-term associative memory (&lt;40 hours), and is dependent on the cAMP Response Element Binding protein (CREB),6 a transcription factor required for long-term memory across species.8
Our protocol also includes image analysis methods for quick and accurate determination of chemotaxis indices. High-contrast images of animals on chemotaxis assay plates are captured and analyzed by worm counting software in MatLab. The software corrects for uneven background using a morphological tophat transformation.9 Otsu's method is then used to determine a threshold to separate worms from the background.10 Very small particles are removed automatically and larger non-worm regions (plate edges or agar punches) are removed by manual selection. The software then estimates the size of single worm by ignoring regions that are above a specified maximum size and taking the median size of the remaining regions. The number of worms is then estimated by dividing the total area identified as occupied by worms by the estimated size of a single worm.
We have found that learning and short- and long-term memory can be distinguished, and that these processes share similar key molecules with higher organisms.6,8 Our assays can quickly test novel candidate genes or molecules that affect learning and short- or long-term memory in C. elegans that are relevant across species.

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Here we describe methods to test C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. These population assays employ the worms abilities to chemotax toward volatile odorants, and form positive associations upon pairing food with the chemoattractant butanone. Increasing the number of conditioning periods induces long-term memory.

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment ...

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

Amylopathy is a term that describes abnormal synthesis and accumulation of amyloid beta (A&beta;) in tissues with time. A&beta; is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is found in Lewy body dementia, inclusion body myositis and cerebral amyloid angiopathy 1-4. Amylopathies progressively develop with time. For this reason simple organisms with short lifespans may help to elucidate molecular aspects of these conditions. Here, we describe experimental protocols to study A&beta;-mediated neurodegeneration using the worm Caenorhabditis elegans. Thus, we construct transgenic worms by injecting DNA encoding human A&beta;42 into the syncytial gonads of adult hermaphrodites. Transformant lines are stabilized by a mutagenesis-induced integration. Nematodes are age synchronized by collecting and seeding their eggs. The function of neurons expressing A&beta;42 is tested in opportune behavioral assays (chemotaxis assays). Primary neuronal cultures obtained from embryos are used to complement behavioral data and to test the neuroprotective effects of anti-apoptotic compounds.

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

We describe methods to study aspects of amylopathies in the worm C. elegans. We show how to construct worms expressing human A&beta;42 in neurons and how to test their function in behavioral assays. We further show how to obtain primary neuronal cultures that can be used for pharmacological testing.

Amylopathy is a term that describes abnormal synthesis and accumulation of amyloid beta (A&beta;) in tissues with time. A&beta; is a hallmark of ...

A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation

Rat pups during a critical postnatal period (&#8804; 10 days) readily form a preference for an odor that is associated with stimuli mimicking maternal care. Such a preference memory can last from hours, to days, even life-long, depending on training parameters. Early odor preference learning provides us with a model in which the critical changes for a natural form of learning occur in the olfactory circuitry. An additional feature that makes it a powerful tool for the analysis of memory processes is that early odor preference learning can be lateralized via single naris occlusion within the critical period. This is due to the lack of mature anterior commissural connections of the olfactory hemispheres at this early age. This work outlines behavioral protocols for lateralized odor learning using nose plugs. Acute, reversible naris occlusion minimizes tissue and neuronal damages associated with long-term occlusion and more aggressive methods such as cauterization. The lateralized odor learning model permits within-animal comparison, therefore greatly reducing variance compared to between-animal designs. This method has been used successfully to probe the circuit changes in the olfactory system produced by training. Future directions include exploring molecular underpinnings of odor memory using this lateralized learning model; and correlating physiological change with memory strength and durations.

This protocol introduces lateralized early odor preference learning in rats using acute single naris occlusion. Lateralized learning permits the examination of behavioral outcomes and underpinning biological mechanisms within the same animals, reducing variance induced by between-animal designs. This protocol can be used to investigate molecular mechanisms underpinning early odor learning.

Rat pups during a critical postnatal period (&#8804; 10 days) readily form a preference for an odor that is associated with stimuli mimicking maternal ...

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, interest in the cognitive processes of nonmodel species, typically within an ecological context, has also become an emerging field of study. In particular, interest in the cognitive processes in reptiles is growing although experimental studies on reptilian cognition are sparse. The few reptilian studies that have experimentally tested for spatial learning and memory have used rodent paradigms modified for use in reptiles. However, ecologically important aspects of the physiology and behavior of this taxonomic group must be taken into account when testing for spatially based cognition. Here, we describe modifications of the dry land Barnes maze and associated testing protocol that can improve performance when probing for spatial learning and memory ability in small squamate reptiles. The described paradigm and procedures were successfully used with male side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), demonstrating that spatial learning and memory can be assessed in this taxonomic group with an ecologically relevant apparatus and protocol.

This paper describes a modification of the Barnes maze, a standard rodent paradigm used to assess spatial memory and learning, for use in small squamate reptiles.

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are specialized sites of synaptic innervation modulated by activity and serve as substrates for learning and memory. Recently, dendritic spines have been described for DD GABAergic neurons as the input sites from presynaptic cholinergic neurons in the motor circuit of Caenorhabditis elegans. This synaptic circuit can now serve as a powerful new in vivo model of spine morphogenesis and function that exploits the facile genetics and ready accessibility of C. elegans to live-cell imaging. 
This protocol describes experimental strategies for assessing DD spine structure and function. In this approach, a super-resolution imaging strategy is used to visualize the intricate shapes of actin-rich dendritic spines. To evaluate the DD spine function, the light-activated opsin, Chrimson, stimulates the presynaptic cholinergic neurons, and the calcium indicator, GCaMP, reports the evoked calcium transients in postsynaptic DD spines. Together, these methods comprise powerful approaches for identifying genetic determinants of dendritic spines in C. elegans that could also direct spine morphogenesis and function in the brain.

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are important cellular features of the nervous system. Here live imaging methods are described for assessing the structure and function of dendritic spines in C. elegans.&#160;These approaches support the development of mutant screens for genes that define dendritic spine shape or function.

Dendritic spines are specialized sites of synaptic innervation modulated by activity and serve as substrates for learning and memory. Recently, dendritic ...

In vivo Assessment of Microtubule Dynamics and Orientation in Caenorhabditis elegans Neurons

In neurons, microtubule orientation has been a key assessor to identify axons that have plus-end out microtubules and dendrites that generally have mixed orientation. Here we describe methods to label, image, and analyze the microtubule dynamics and growth during the development and regeneration of touch neurons in C. elegans. Using genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of microtubule tips, we imaged the axonal microtubules. The local changes in microtubule behavior that initiates axon regeneration following axotomy can be quantified using this protocol. This assay is adaptable to other neurons and genetic backgrounds to investigate the regulation of microtubule dynamics in various cellular processes.

In vivo Assessment of Microtubule Dynamics and Orientation in Caenorhabditis elegans Neurons

A protocol for imaging the dynamic microtubules in vivo using fluorescently labeled End binding protein has been presented. We described the methods to label, image, and analyze the dynamic microtubules in the Posterior lateral microtubule (PLM) neuron of C. elegans.

In neurons, microtubule orientation has been a key assessor to identify axons that have plus-end out microtubules and dendrites that generally have mixed ...

Aversive Associative Learning and Memory Formation by Pairing Two Chemicals in Caenorhabditis elegans

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C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

In vivo Assessment of Microtubule Dynamics and Orientation in Caenorhabditis elegans Neurons