Este trabalho foi financiado por uma doação do Instituto Nacional de Artrite e Doenças da Pele músculo-esqueléticas, NIH RO1AR054458.

1. Rotulagem de hMSCs com Endorem <ol><li> As células são cultivadas a 80% confluência pelo menos 18 horas antes de rotulagem. </li><li> Durante este tempo, a mídia rotulagem é preparada adicionando Endorem à amostra com uma dose de 100 ug Fe / ml de soro livre de mídia. </li><li> Depois que as células são cultivadas de confluência, a cultura da mídia é aspirado e as células são lavadas com PBS 1x ou soro livre de mídia. </li><li> Em seguida, enxágüe a solução é aspirada e da mídia rotulagem previamente preparado é adicionado. As células são então incubados a 37 ° C, 5% de CO 2 para 4 horas. </li><li> Após a incubação de 4 horas, rotulagem mídia é aspirado e as células são lavadas com PBS e tripsinizados como de costume. </li><li> Uma vez tripsinizados, as células são lavadas 3x com PBS e centrifugado a 400rcf por 5 minutos. </li><li> Após esta etapa de lavagem, as células são ressuspendidas, contados, avaliadas quanto a viabilidade, e usado quando necessário para a experimentação. </li></ol> 2. Preparando Agarose <ol><li> Depois que as células foram marcadas é hora de preparar a solução de agarose. </li><li> Em uma escala bem, 80mg de agarose em pó são pesados ​​e adicionados 2 ml de PBS. </li><li> Esta solução é, então, suavemente sacudida e autoclavada. </li><li> Depois de aproximadamente 40 min, a solução de agarose líquido pode ser retirado da autoclave. O volume deve ser medido e ajustado em conformidade com PBS pré-aquecido. </li><li> Então a solução é resfriada a 42 ° C </li></ol> 3. Criando MASI <ol><li> Quando a solução de agarose atingiu a temperatura desejada, as células são contadas e centrifugado pela última vez em um tubo Eppendorf de 1,5 ml. </li><li> Após a centrifugação, o sobrenadante é descartado e as células são misturadas com o DMEM para chegar a uma concentração de 30 x 10 6 células / ml. </li><li> Agora as células são misturadas com a 42 ° C agarose quente. </li><li> A ponta da pipeta frio pode causar agarose para solidificar no interior da ponta, portanto é aconselhável para pré-aquecer a ponta por pipetagem quente estéril PBS cima e para baixo </li><li> Agora, o mesmo volume de agarose como meios de comunicação é retomada e misturado com a célula-media suspensão, de modo que uma suspensão homogênea é criado. </li><li> Manter o tubo Eppendorf dentro de um banho de água pré-aquecida enquanto mistura de modo que a agarose não esfriar o suficiente para solidificar. </li><li> Quando a suspensão é homogênea, as células são implantadas no defeito. </li></ol><img src="/files/ftp_upload/1793/1793fig1.jpg" alt="Figura 1" /> Figura 1. Coronal T2 SE (TR 4000 ms / TE 18,27 ms) de uma amostra de patela com hMSCs implantado em defeitos da cartilagem.

<ol>
	<li>Mauck, R. L., Yuan, X., Tuan, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chondrogenic+differentiation+and+functional+maturation+of+bovine+mesenchymal+stem+cells+in+long-term+agarose+culture.">Chondrogenic differentiation and functional maturation of bovine mesenchymal stem cells in long-term agarose culture.</a> Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 14, 179-189 (2006).</li><li>Pittenger, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multilineage+potential+of+adult+human+mesenchymal+stem+cells.">Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells.</a> Science. 284, 143-147 (1999).</li><li>Rahfoth, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transplantation+of+allograft+chondrocytes+embedded+in+agarose+gel+into+cartilage+defects+of+rabbits.">Transplantation of allograft chondrocytes embedded in agarose gel into cartilage defects of rabbits.</a> Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 6, 50-65 (1998).</li><li>Henning, T. D., Boddington, S., Daldrup-Link, H. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Labeling+hESCs+and+hMSCs+with+iron+oxide+nanoparticles+for+non-invasive+in+vivo+tracking+with+MR+imaging.">Labeling hESCs and hMSCs with iron oxide nanoparticles for non-invasive in vivo tracking with MR imaging.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2008).</li></ol>

O protocolo descrito fornece uma maneira reproduzível para rotular MSCs com nanopartículas de óxido de ferro e implante essas MSCs rotulados em defeitos da cartilagem. Essa técnica permite não-invasivo representação de transplantes de células-tronco em defeitos da cartilagem com ressonância magnética, que permite uma detecção precoce de falha MASI. A luxação ou de efluxo das células marcadas pode ser diagnosticada com base em um desaparecimento do rótulo do site transplante em imagens de MR. Um diagnóst...

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		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
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		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
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<tr>
<td>D-MEM High Glucose</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>D5648</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>PBS (Ca++, Mg++ free)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>GIBCO</td>
<td>14190-144</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Trypsin-EDTA 0.05%</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>25399-120</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>FBS</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hyclone</td>
<td>SH30071.03</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>GIBCO</td>
<td>15140-122</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Ferumoxides (Endorem)</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Guerbet</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Agarose Typ VII</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>A9045</td>
<td>Dilute Agarose in PBS to final concentration of 4%</td>
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implantation of ferumoxides labeled human mesenchymal stem cells in cartilage defects

O campo da engenharia de tecidos integra os princípios da engenharia de biologia celular e medicina para a regeneração de células e tecidos específicos funcional. Matriz associada implantes de células-tronco (MASI) visam regenerar defeitos da cartilagem devido à artrite traumática ou lesões nas articulações. Células-tronco adultas mesenquimais (CTMs) têm a capacidade de se diferenciar em células da linhagem condrogênicos e têm mostrado resultados promissores para celular baseado em tecnologias de reparação da cartilagem articular. Autólogo MSCs pode ser isolado de uma variedade de tecidos, pode ser expandida em culturas de células, sem perder seu potencial de diferenciação, e demonstraram diferenciação condrogênicos in vitro e in vivo 1, 2. A fim de proporcionar a retenção local e viabilidade de MSCs transplantado em defeitos de cartilagem, um andaime é necessário, que também suporta a diferenciação e proliferação subsequente. A arquitetura da formação de tecido scaffold guias e permite a matriz extracelular, produzida pelas células-tronco, a se expandir. Investigações anteriores demonstraram que a 2% agarose andaime pode apoiar o desenvolvimento de cartilagem hialina estável e não induzir respostas imunes 3. Retenção a longo prazo de células-tronco transplantadas em MASI é fundamental para a regeneração da cartilagem. Rotulagem de CTMs com nanopartículas de óxido de ferro permite a longo prazo no rastreamento vivo com técnicas não invasivas RM 4. Esta apresentação vai demonstrar técnicas para a rotulagem MSCs com nanopartículas de óxido de ferro, a geração de células-agarose construções e implantação dessas construções em defeitos da cartilagem. As construções rotulado pode ser rastreado de forma não invasiva com MR-Imaging.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Implantation of Ferumoxides Labeled Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Cartilage Defects at JoVE.com

Implantation of Ferumoxides Labeled Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Cartilage Defects

Objetivo da apresentação é mostrar um método altamente reprodutível para gerar matriz associada implantes de células-tronco em defeitos da cartilagem, que pode ser visualizado com ressonância magnética. As células estaminais são rotulados com FDA-approved Ferumoxides, misturado com agarose, implantado em defeitos da cartilagem e fotografada com um scanner MR 7T.

Implantação de Ferumoxides identificadas células-tronco mesenquimais em defeitos da cartilagem

The field of tissue engineering integrates the principles of engineering, cell biology and medicine towards the regeneration of specific cells and ...

implantation-ferumoxides-labeled-human-mesenchymal-stem-cells

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.5K visualizações.  Medical Center, University of California San Francisco. Objetivo da apresentação é mostrar um método altamente reprodutível para gerar matriz associada implantes de células-tronco em defeitos da cartilagem, que pode ser visualizado com ressonância magnética. As células estaminais são rotulados com FDA-approved Ferumoxides, misturado com agarose, implantado em defeitos da cartilagem e fotografada com um scanner MR 7T.

Vídeo: Implantation of Ferumoxides Labeled Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Cartilage Defects

Isolation and Animal Serum Free Expansion of Human Umbilical Cord Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs) and Endothelial Colony Forming Progenitor Cells (ECFCs)

The umbilical cord is a rich source for progenitor cells with high proliferative potential including mesenchymal stromal cells (also termed mesenchymal stem cells, MSCs) and endothelial colony forming progenitor cells (ECFCs). Both cell types are key players in maintaining the integrity of tissue and are probably also involved in regenerative processes and tumor formation.
To study their biology and function in a comparative manner it is important to have both cells types available from the same donor. It may also be beneficial for regenerative purposes to derive MSCs and ECFCs from the same tissue.
Because cellular therapeutics should eventually find their way from bench to bedside we established a new method to isolate and further expand progenitor cells without the use of animal protein. Pooled human platelet lysate (pHPL) replaced fetal bovine serum in all steps of our protocol to completely avoid contact of the cells to xenogeneic proteins.
This video demonstrates a methodology for the isolation and expansion of progenitor cells from one umbilical cord.
All materials and procedures will be described.

Isolation and Animal Serum Free Expansion of Human Umbilical Cord Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells MSCs and Endothelial Colony Forming Progenitor Cells ECFCs

This protocol describes the isolation and subsequent expansion of mesenchymal stromal cells and endothelial colony forming cells without the use of animal serum to generate autologous pairs for experimental transplantation purposes.

Isolamento e animais de Expansão de soro livre de cordão umbilical humano Derivado células mesenquimais estromais (MSCs) e endoteliais Células Progenitoras Colony Forming (ECFCs)

The umbilical cord is a rich source for progenitor cells with high proliferative potential including mesenchymal stromal cells (also termed mesenchymal ...

Biologia

Peptides from Phage Display Library Modulate Gene Expression in Mesenchymal Cells and Potentiate Osteogenesis in Unicortical Bone Defects

Two novel synthetic peptides accelerate bone formation and can be delivered using a collagen matrix. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects on bone repair in a unicortical defect model. Treatment of mesenchymal cells produced an increase in alkaline phosphatase activity, showed nodule formation by the cells, and increased the expression of genes for runx2, osterix, bone sialoprotein, and osteocalcin. A collagen sponge soaked with peptide promoted repair of bone defects, whereas the control was less effective. The results from this study demonstrated that mesenchymal cells treated with peptide in vitro differentiate towards osteogenesis, and, that peptides delivered in vivo using a collagen sponge promote the repair of unicortical defects.

A phage display library was used to identify peptide sequences that target bone. The objective was to investigate the effect of these peptides on mesenchymal cell differentiation and to determine their effect on bone regeneration.

Peptídeos de Phage Biblioteca Mostrar modular a expressão de genes em células mesenquimais e potenciar a osteogênese em defeitos ósseos unicorticais

Two novel synthetic peptides accelerate bone formation and can be delivered using a collagen matrix. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects ...

Reprogramming Human Somatic Cells into Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) Using Retroviral Vector with GFP

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) are pluripotent and an invaluable cellular sources for in vitro disease modeling and regenerative medicine1. It has been previously shown that human somatic cells can be reprogrammed to pluripotency by ectopic expression of four transcription factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and Myc) and become induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)2-4 . Like hESCs, human iPSCs are pluripotent and a potential source for autologous cells. Here we describe the protocol to reprogram human fibroblast cells with the four reprogramming factors cloned into GFP-containing retroviral backbone4. Using the following protocol, we generate human iPSCs in 3-4 weeks under human ESC culture condition. Human iPSC colonies closely resemble hESCs in morphology and display the loss of GFP fluorescence as a result of retroviral transgene silencing. iPSC colonies isolated mechanically under a fluorescence microscope behave in a similar fashion as hESCs. In these cells, we detect the expression of multiple pluripotency genes and surface markers.

Reprogramming Human Somatic Cells into Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells iPSCs Using Retroviral Vector with GFP

A method to generate human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) via retrovirus-mediated ectopic expression of OCT4, SOX2, KLF4 and MYC is described. A practical way to identify human iPSC colonies based on GFP expression is also discussed.

Reprogramação de células somáticas humanas em células tronco pluripotentes induzidas (iPSCs) usando vetor retroviral com GFP

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) are pluripotent and an invaluable cellular sources for in vitro disease modeling and regenerative medicine1. It has ...

Induction and Analysis of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is essential for proper morphogenesis during development. Misregulation of this process has been implicated as a key event in fibrosis and the progression of carcinomas to a metastatic state. Understanding the processes that underlie EMT is imperative for the early diagnosis and clinical control of these disease states. Reliable induction of EMT in vitro is a useful tool for drug discovery as well as to identify common gene expression signatures for diagnostic purposes. Here we demonstrate a straightforward method for the induction of EMT in a variety of cell types. Methods for the analysis of cells pre- and post-EMT induction by immunocytochemistry are also included. Additionally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of this method through antibody-based array analysis and migration/invasion assays.

A straightforward method is described for the induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in a variety of cell types. Methods for the analysis of cells in EMT states by immunocytochemistry are included.

Indução e Análise de epitelial para mesenquimal Transição

Epithelial  to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is essential for proper morphogenesis during  development. Misregulation of this  process has been implicated ...

Isolation and Culture of Dental Epithelial Stem Cells from the Adult Mouse Incisor

Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie tooth regeneration and renewal has become a topic of great interest1-4, and the mouse incisor provides a model for these processes. This remarkable organ grows continuously throughout the animal&#39;s life and generates all the necessary cell types from active pools of adult stem cells housed in the labial (toward the lip) and lingual (toward the tongue) cervical loop (CL) regions. Only the dental stem cells from the labial CL give rise to ameloblasts that generate enamel, the outer covering of teeth, on the labial surface. This asymmetric enamel formation allows abrasion at the incisor tip, and progenitors and stem cells in the proximal incisor ensure that the dental tissues are constantly replenished. The ability to isolate and grow these progenitor or stem cells in vitro allows their expansion and opens doors to numerous experiments not achievable in vivo, such as high throughput testing of potential stem cell regulatory factors. Here, we describe and demonstrate a reliable and consistent method to culture cells from the labial CL of the mouse incisor.

The continuously growing mouse incisor provides a model for studying renewal of dental tissues from dental epithelial stem cells (DESCs). A robust system for consistently and reliably obtaining these cells from the incisor and expanding them in vitro is reported here.

Isolamento e Cultura da Dental epiteliais células-tronco do Adulto Rato Incisivo

Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie tooth regeneration and renewal has become a topic of great interest1-4, and the mouse ...

Efficient Generation Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Human Somatic Cells with Sendai-virus

A few years ago, the establishment of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) ushered in a new era in biomedicine. Potential uses of human iPSCs include modeling pathogenesis of human genetic diseases, autologous cell therapy after gene correction, and personalized drug screening by providing a source of patient-specific and symptom relevant cells. However, there are several hurdles to overcome, such as eliminating the remaining reprogramming factor transgene expression after human iPSCs production. More importantly, residual transgene expression in undifferentiated human iPSCs could hamper proper differentiations and misguide the interpretation of disease-relevant in vitro phenotypes. With this reason, integration-free and/or transgene-free human iPSCs have been developed using several methods, such as adenovirus, the piggyBac system, minicircle vector, episomal vectors, direct protein delivery and synthesized mRNA. However, efficiency of reprogramming using integration-free methods is quite low in most cases.
Here, we present a method to isolate human iPSCs by using Sendai-virus (RNA virus) based reprogramming system. This reprogramming method shows consistent results and high efficiency in cost-effective manner.

Here, we present our established method to reprogram human somatic cells into transgene-free human iPSCs with Sendai virus, which shows consistent outcome and enhanced efficiency.

Eficiente Geração induzida pelo homem células-tronco pluripotentes a partir de células somáticas humanas com Sendai-vírus

A few years ago, the establishment of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) ushered in a new era in biomedicine. Potential uses of human iPSCs ...

Profiling Individual Human Embryonic Stem Cells by Quantitative RT-PCR

Heterogeneity of stem cell population hampers detailed understanding of stem cell biology, such as their differentiation propensity toward different lineages. A single cell transcriptome assay can be a new approach for dissecting individual variation. We have developed the single cell qRT-PCR method, and confirmed that this method works well in several gene expression profiles. In single cell level, each human embryonic stem cell, sorted by OCT4::EGFP positive cells, has high expression in OCT4, but a different level of NANOG expression. Our single cell gene expression assay should be useful to interrogate population heterogeneities.

Single cell gene expression assay is needed for understanding stem cell heterogeneities.

Profiling Individual células estaminais embrionárias humanas por RT-PCR quantitativo

Heterogeneity of stem cell population hampers detailed understanding of stem cell biology, such as their differentiation propensity toward different ...

A Simple Benchtop Filtration Method to Isolate Small Extracellular Vesicles from Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

The ultracentrifugation-based process is considered the common method for small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolation. However, the yield from this isolation method is relatively lower, and these methods are inefficient in separating sEV subtypes. This study demonstrates a simple benchtop filtration method to isolate human umbilical cord-derived MSC small extracellular vesicles (hUC-MSC-sEVs), successfully separated by ultrafiltration from the conditioned medium of hUC-MSCs. The size distribution, protein concentration, exosomal markers (CD9, CD81, TSG101), and morphology of the isolated hUC-MSC-sEVs were characterized with nanoparticle tracking analysis, BCA protein assay, western blot, and transmission electron microscope, respectively. The isolated hUC-MSC-sEVs&#39; size was 30-200 nm, with a particle concentration of 7.75 &#215; 1010 particles/mL and a protein concentration of 80 &#181;g/mL. Positive bands for exosomal markers CD9, CD81, and TSG101 were observed. This study showed that hUC-MSC-sEVs were successfully isolated from hUC-MSCs conditioned medium, and characterization showed that the isolated product fulfilled the criteria mentioned by Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles 2018 (MISEV 2018).

This protocol demonstrates how to isolate human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells&#39; small extracellular vesicles (hUC-MSC-sEVs) with a simple lab-scale benchtop setting. The size distribution, protein concentration, sEVs markers, and morphology of isolated hUC-MSC-sEVs are characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis, BCA protein assay, western blot, and transmission electron microscope, respectively.

Um Método Simples de Filtração de Bancada para Isolar Pequenas Vesículas Extracelulares de Células-Tronco Mesenquimais Humanas

The ultracentrifugation-based process is considered the common method for small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolation. However, the yield from this ...

Isolation, Characterization, and Therapeutic Application of Extracellular Vesicles from Cultured Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous membrane nanoparticles released by most cell types, and they are increasingly recognized as physiological regulators of organismal homeostasis and important indicators of pathologies; in the meantime, their immense potential to establish accessible and controllable disease therapeutics is emerging. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can release large amounts of EVs in culture, which have shown promise to jumpstart effective tissue regeneration and facilitate extensive therapeutic applications with good scalability and reproducibility. There is a growing demand for simple and effective protocols for collecting and applying MSC-EVs. Here, a detailed protocol is provided based on differential centrifugation to isolate and characterize representative EVs from cultured human MSCs, exosomes, and microvesicles for further applications. The adaptability of this method is shown for a series of downstream approaches, such as labeling, local transplantation, and systemic injection. The implementation of this procedure will address the need for simple and reliable MSC-EVs collection and application in translational research.

The present protocol describes the differential centrifugation for isolating and characterizing representative EVs (exosomes and microvesicles) from cultured human MSCs. Further applications of these EVs are also explained in this article.

Isolamento, Caracterização e Aplicação Terapêutica de Vesículas Extracelulares a partir de Células-Tronco Mesenquimais Humanas Cultivadas

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous membrane nanoparticles released by most cell types, and they are increasingly recognized as physiological ...

Isolamento e caracterização de células-tronco derivadas do tecido adiposo

Isolation and Identification of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived from Adipose Tissue of Sprague Dawley Rats

Adult mesenchymal cells have revolutionized molecular and cell biology in recent decades. They can differentiate into different specialized cell types, in addition to their great capacity for self-renewal, migration, and proliferation. Adipose tissue is one of the least invasive and most accessible sources of mesenchymal cells. It has also been reported to have higher yields compared to other sources, as well as superior immunomodulatory properties. Recently, different procedures for obtaining adult mesenchymal cells from different tissue sources and animal species have been published. After evaluating the criteria of some authors, we standardized a methodology that is applicable to different purposes and easily reproducible. A pool of stromal vascular fraction (SVF) from perirenal and epididymal adipose tissue allowed us to develop primary cultures with optimal morphology and functionality. The cells were observed adhered to the plastic surface for 24 h, and exhibited a fibroblast-like morphology, with prolongations and a tendency to form colonies. Flow cytometry (FC) and immunofluorescence (IF) techniques were used to assess the expression of the membrane markers CD105, CD9, CD63, CD31, and CD34. The ability of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) to differentiate into the adipogenic lineage was also assessed using a cocktail of factors (4 &#181;M insulin, 0.5 mM 3-methyl-iso-butyl-xanthine, and 1 &#181;M dexamethasone). After 48 h, a gradual loss of fibroblastoid morphology was observed, and at 12 days, the presence of lipid droplets positive to oil red staining was confirmed. In summary, a procedure is proposed to obtain optimal and functional ASC cultures for application in regenerative medicine.

Autor em destaque: Isolamento e identificação de células-tronco mesenquimais derivadas do tecido adiposo de ratos Sprague Dawley  

This protocol describes a methodology for isolating and identifying adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from Sprague Dawley rats.

Isolamento e Identificação de Células-Tronco Mesenquimais Derivadas do Tecido Adiposo de Ratos Sprague Dawley

Adult mesenchymal cells have revolutionized molecular and cell biology in recent decades. They can differentiate into different specialized cell types, in ...