The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and L.B. Foster Rail Technologies, Corp. jointly supported this research through the NSERC Collaborative Research and Development Grant program.

1. Spinning Disk Device
<ol>
	<li>Identify desired test conditions and record test conditions in a table (e.g., ambient temperature, fluid properties, jet and surface speed, etc.).</li>
	<li>Preparation of Materials
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare glycerin-water or PEO-glycerin-water solutions for the impingement tests.
		<ol>
			<li>In the case of PEO-glycerin-water tests, gradually dissolve 4.5 g of PEO powder (viscosity-average molecular weights of one million and four million) into 1495.5 g of distilled water...

<ol>
	<li>Cotter, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Top+of+Rail+Friction+Control:+Reductions+in+Fuel+and+Greenhouse+Gas+Emissions.">Top of Rail Friction Control: Reductions in Fuel and Greenhouse Gas Emissions.</a> Proc. Of the 2005 Conference of the International Heavy Haul Association (Rio de Janeiro). , 327-334 (2005).</li><li>Eadie, D. T., Bovey, E., Kalousek, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+friction+control+in+effective+management+of+the+wheel/rail+interface).">The role of friction control in effective management of the wheel/rail interface).</a> Railway Technical Conference. , (2002).</li><li>Stock, R., Eadie, D. T., Elvidge, D., Oldknow, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influencing+rolling+contact+fatigue+through+top+of+rail+friction+modifier+application&#8211;A+full+scale+wheel&#8211;rail+test+rig+study.">Influencing rolling contact fatigue through top of rail friction modifier application&#8211;A full scale wheel&#8211;rail test rig study.</a> Wear. 271 (1), 134-142 (2011).</li><li>Eadie, D. T., Santoro, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Top-of-rail+friction+control+for+curve+noise+mitigation+and+corrugation+rate+reduction.">Top-of-rail friction control for curve noise mitigation and corrugation rate reduction.</a> Journal of Sound and Vibration. 293 (3), 747-757 (2006).</li><li>Tomeoka, M., Kabe, N., Tanimoto, M., Miyauchi, E., Nakata, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Friction+control+between+wheel+and+rail+by+means+of+on-board+lubrication.">Friction control between wheel and rail by means of on-board lubrication.</a> Wear. 253 (1), 124-129 (2002).</li><li>Chiu-Webster, S., Lister, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+fall+of+a+viscous+thread+onto+a+moving+surface:+a+&#8216;fluid-mechanical+sewing+machine.">The fall of a viscous thread onto a moving surface: a &#8216;fluid-mechanical sewing machine.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 569 (1), 124-129 (2006).</li><li>Hlod, A., Aarts, A. C. T., Van De Ven, A. A. F., Peletier, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mathematical+model+of+falling+of+a+viscous+jet+onto+a+moving+surface.">Mathematical model of falling of a viscous jet onto a moving surface.</a> European Journal of Applied Mathematics. 18 (06), 659-677 (2007).</li><li>Gradeck, M., Kouachi, A., Dani, A., Arnoult, D., Borean, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+and+numerical+study+of+the+hydraulic+jump+of+an+impinging+jet+on+a+moving+surface.">Experimental and numerical study of the hydraulic jump of an impinging jet on a moving surface.</a> Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 30 (3), 193-201 (2006).</li><li>Fujimoto, H., Suzuki, Y., Hama, T., Takuda, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+Characteristics+of+Circular+Liquid+Jet+Impinging+on+a+Moving+Surface+Covered+with+a+Water+Film.">Flow Characteristics of Circular Liquid Jet Impinging on a Moving Surface Covered with a Water Film.</a> ISIJ international. 51 (9), 1497-1505 (2011).</li><li>Keshavarz, B., Green, S. I., Davy, M. H., Eadie, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Newtonian+liquid+jet+impaction+on+a+high-speed+moving+surface.">Newtonian liquid jet impaction on a high-speed moving surface.</a> International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow. 32 (6), 1216-1225 (2011).</li><li>Keshavarz, B., Green, S. I., Eadie, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastic+liquid+jet+impaction+on+a+high+speed+moving+surface.">Elastic liquid jet impaction on a high speed moving surface.</a> AIChE Journal. 58 (11), 3568-3577 (2012).</li><li>Moulson, J. B. T., Green, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+ambient+air+on+liquid+jet+impingement+on+a+moving+substrate.">Effect of ambient air on liquid jet impingement on a moving substrate.</a> Physics of Fluids. 25 (10), 102106 (2013).</li><li>Sterling, G. E. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+experimental+study+on+jet+impingement+on+a+very+high+speed+moving+surface.">An experimental study on jet impingement on a very high speed moving surface.</a> UBC M.A.Sc. Thesis. , (2012).</li><li>Povarov, O. A., Nazarov, O. I., Ignat'evskaya, L. A., Nikol'skii, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+of+drops+with+boundary+layer+on+rotating+surfaces.">Interaction of drops with boundary layer on rotating surfaces.</a> Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics. 31 (6), 1453-1456 (1976).</li><li>Fathi, S., Dickens, P., Fouchal, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regimes+of+droplet+train+impact+on+a+moving+surface+in+an+additive+manufacturing+process.">Regimes of droplet train impact on a moving surface in an additive manufacturing process.</a> Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 210 (3), 550-559 (2010).</li><li>Bird, J. C., Tsai, S. S., Stone, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inclined+to+splash:+triggering+and+inhibiting+a+splash+with+tangential+velocity.">Inclined to splash: triggering and inhibiting a splash with tangential velocity.</a> New Journal of Physics. 11 (6), 063017 (2009).</li><li>Range, K., Feuillebois, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+surface+roughness+on+liquid+drop+impact.">Influence of surface roughness on liquid drop impact.</a> Journal of Colloid and Interface science. 203 (1), 16-30 (1998).</li><li>Crooks, R., Boger, D. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+fluid+elasticity+on+drops+impacting+on+dry+surfaces.">Influence of fluid elasticity on drops impacting on dry surfaces.</a> Journal of Rheology. 44 (4), 973-996 (2000).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The projectile used for the air cannon set-up is composed of a lightweight, wooden base. Though the wooden material chips slightly after numerous tests, it has been found to absorb kinetic energy more effectively than projectiles composed of materials such as plastic or metal, which tend to shatter upon impacting the stop mechanism. The dimensions of the wooden projectile are designed to closely match the steel barrel interior, thus restricting air leakage. A 1/8&#8221; thick rubber sheet secured between two layers of pl...

This research aims to determine strategies for applying LFM (Liquid Friction Modifier) in liquid jet form onto a moving surface while attaining high degrees of transfer efficiency and uniform deposition results. Achieving this objective involves developing a comprehensive understanding of factors that affect liquid jet impingement on moving surfaces.
The project is motivated by a need to improve the efficiency of lubrication application techniques used in the rail sector. As a means of reducing fuel consumption and locomotive maintenance costs, a thin film of friction modifying agent is now being applied to the upper rail surface of conventional railroad tracks. Recent studies have shown that applying one type of water-based LFM for top of rail (TOR) friction control reduced energy consumption levels by 6% and rail and wheel flange wear by in excess of 50%1,2. Other studies have shown that applying LFM to rail tracks reduces lateral force and noise levels as well as, more importantly, track corrugation and damage from rolling contact fatigue, which is a major cause of derailments3,4. These results were further confirmed in field tests on the Tokyo subway system5.
LFMs are currently dispensed from air blast atomizers attached to dozens of locomotives throughout Canada and the United States. In this form of application, LFM is applied to the top of railroad tracks by atomizers mounted beneath moving rail cars. This mode of LFM application is difficult to implement on many railroad locomotives because the required high-volume and high-pressure air supply levels may not be attainable. Air-blast spray nozzles are also believed to produce highly irregular rail coverage when operated in a crosswind, as crosswinds cause fine spray droplets to deviate from their original trajectory. Crosswinds are also known to be implicated in nozzle fouling, likely for the same reason. Due to problems associated with air blast atomizers, the rail sector is currently seeking alternative approaches to LFM application onto rail tracks. One viable solution involves dispensing LFM by means of a continuous (not-atomized) liquid jet, as liquid jets are less susceptible to crosswind effects due to their lower drag-to-inertia ratio. Additionally, because the high air pressure and volume levels needed for atomizing nozzles are not required in liquid jet spray technologies, the latter act as more streamlined and robust spraying mechanisms that maintain effective control over the rate of LFM application.
An area of similar physics, droplet impingement, has been studied intensively. It was found by several researchers that for droplet impingement on a moving dry smooth surface, splashing behavior is dependent on many parameters including viscosity, density, surface tension and the normal component of the impact velocity14,15. Bird et al. demonstrated that both the normal and tangential velocities were of critical importance16. Range et al. and Crooks et al. have shown that for droplet impingement on a stationary dry surface, surface roughness decreases the splash threshold significantly (i.e., it makes the droplet more prone to splash)17,18.
Despite its practical importance, jet impingement on moving surfaces has received little attention in the academic literature. Chiu-Webster and Lister performed an extensive series of experiments that examined steady and unsteady viscous jet impingement on a moving surface, and the authors developed a model for the steady flow case6. Hlod et al. modeled the flow by means of a third-order ODE on a domain of unknown length under an additional integral condition and compared predicted configurations with experimental results7. However, the Reynolds numbers examined in both of these studies are much lower than those associated with typical railroad LFM applications. Gradeck et al. numerically and experimentally investigated the flow field of water jet impingement onto a moving substrate under various jet velocity, surface velocity, and nozzle diameter conditions8. Fujimoto et al. additionally investigated flow characteristics of a circular water jet impinging onto a moving substrate covered by a thin film of water9. However, these two projects used relatively large nozzle diameters and lower surface and jet velocities compared to those employed in the present work. Furthermore, though previous experimental, numerical, and analytical studies provide a large body of data, the majority have focused on heat transfer parameters rather than on liquid flow processes such as jet splashing behavior. The experimental method provided in the present research thus contributes to liquid jet application technologies by refining such techniques under conditions involving smaller jet nozzle diameters and high-speed jet and surface velocities. The present method also refines knowledge on fundamental fluid mechanics problems associated with moving contact lines.
The studies mentioned above have generally involved the interaction of a low speed jet with a low speed moving surface. There have been comparatively few studies of laminar high speed jet impingement onto high-speed moving surfaces. During high speed liquid jet impaction the jet liquid spreads radially in the vicinity of the impingement location, forming a thin lamella. This lamella is then convected downstream by the viscous forcing imposed by the moving surface, producing a characteristic U-shaped lamella. Keshavarz et al. have reported on experiments employing Newtonian and elastic liquid jets impinging onto high-speed surfaces. They classified impingement processes into two distinct types: &#8220;deposition&#8221; and &#8220;splash&#8221;10. For impingement to be classified as deposition, the jet liquid must adhere to the surface, whereas splash is characterized by a liquid lamella that separates from the surface, and subsequently breaks up into droplets. A third impingement regime has also been described &#8212; &#8220;splatter&#8221;. In this, comparatively rare, regime the lamella remains attached to the surface, as for &#8220;deposition&#8221;, but fine droplets are ejected from near the leading edge of the lamella. In a subsequent study of non-Newtonian fluid effects, Keshavarz et al. concluded that the splash/deposition threshold is mainly determined by the Reynolds and Deborah numbers, whereas the jet impingement angle and jet velocity to surface velocity ratios only have a minor effect11. In experiments conducted under variable ambient air pressures, Moulson et al. discovered that the splash/deposition threshold Reynolds number dramatically increases with decreasing ambient air pressure (i.e., higher ambient pressures make jets more prone to splash), while decreasing ambient air pressure below a certain threshold suppresses splash completely12. This finding strongly suggests that aerodynamic forces acting on the lamella play a crucial role in causing lamella lift-off and subsequent splash. In recent work on high-speed impingement on a high-speed substrate, Sterling showed that for substrate speed and jet conditions close to the splash threshold, splash may be triggered by very small localized surface roughness and minor jet unsteadiness. He also showed that under these conditions lamella lift-off and reattachment is a stochastic process13.
The experimental protocol described here may be used to study other physical situations involving the interaction of a fluid with a moving high speed surface. For example, the same approach could be used to study helicopter blade-vortex interaction (provided that the vortex fluid was colored with tracer particles) and robotic spraying of surfaces.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Equipment for Air Cannon Set-Up</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30-gallon air tank</td>
			<td>Steel Fab</td>
			<td>A10028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solenoid actuated poppet valve</td>
			<td>Parker Hannifin Corp.</td>
			<td>#16F24C2164A3F4C80</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5&#34;NPT rubber hose</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rectangular steel tubing</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stop mechanism</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless steel plates</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wooden projectile</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1kw high-intensity incandescent light</td>
			<td>Photographic Analysis Ltd.</td>
			<td>T986851</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light diffuser sheet</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optic sensor</td>
			<td>BANNER</td>
			<td>SM312LV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Equipment for Spinning Disc Set-Up</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motor</td>
			<td>WEG</td>
			<td>TEFC-W22</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bearings</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disk</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiber optic light source</td>
			<td>Fiberoptics Technology Incorporated</td>
			<td>MO150AC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High intensity LED array</td>
			<td>Torshare Ltd.</td>
			<td>TF10CA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum</td>
			<td>Ridge Tool Company</td>
			<td>WD09450</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Interrupter</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Shared Equipment for Both Devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phantom v611 high-speed cine camera</td>
			<td>Vision Research Inc.</td>
			<td>V611</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phantom v12 high-speed cine camera</td>
			<td>Vision Research Inc.</td>
			<td>V12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zoom 7000 lens</td>
			<td>Navitar Inc.</td>
			<td>Zoom 7000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zoom 6000 lens</td>
			<td>Navitar Inc.</td>
			<td>Zoom 6000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Compressed nitrogen tank</td>
			<td>Praxair Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure regulator</td>
			<td>Praxair Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>PRS20124351CGA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hose for compressed nitrogen</td>
			<td>Swagelok Company</td>
			<td>SS-CT8SL8SL8-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hose for liquid</td>
			<td>Swagelok Company</td>
			<td>SS-7R8TA8TA8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Accumulator</td>
			<td>Accumulators, Inc.</td>
			<td>A131003XS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solenoid Valve</td>
			<td>Solenoid Solutions Inc.</td>
			<td>2223X-A440-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure transducer</td>
			<td>WIKA Instruments Ltd</td>
			<td>#50398083</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nozzle assembly</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly(ethylene oxide)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualization of high speed liquid jet impaction on a moving surface

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds between 0 and 25 m/sec) and a spinning disk device (for examining surface speeds between 15 and 100 m/sec). The air cannon linear traverse is a pneumatic energy-powered system that is designed to accelerate a metal rail surface mounted on top of a wooden projectile. A pressurized cylinder fitted with a solenoid valve rapidly releases pressurized air into the barrel, forcing the projectile down the cannon barrel. The projectile travels beneath a spray nozzle, which impinges a liquid jet onto its metal upper surface, and the projectile then hits a stopping mechanism. A camera records the jet impingement, and a pressure transducer records the spray nozzle backpressure. The spinning disk set-up consists of a steel disk that reaches speeds of 500 to 3,000 rpm via a variable frequency drive (VFD) motor. A spray system similar to that of the air cannon generates a liquid jet that impinges onto the spinning disc, and cameras placed at several optical access points record the jet impingement. Video recordings of jet impingement processes are recorded and examined to determine whether the outcome of impingement is splash, splatter, or deposition. The apparatuses are the first that involve the high speed impingement of low-Reynolds-number liquid jets on high speed moving surfaces. In addition to its rail industry applications, the described technique may be used for technical and industrial purposes such as steelmaking and may be relevant to high-speed 3D printing.

As discussed in the introductory section, the three main behaviors associated with liquid jet impingement are deposition, splatter and splash. These jet impingement behaviors are observed using video data recorded by high-speed cine cameras positioned at various optical points. Examples of still images, obtained from the video recordings, which depict the three liquid jet outcomes are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3A depicts liquid jet deposition, in which the jet flows in a completely strai...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface at JoVE.com

Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface

Two experimental devices for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device and a spinning disk device. The apparatuses are used to determine optimal approaches to the application of liquid friction modifier (LFM) onto rail tracks for top-of-rail friction control.

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds ...

visualization-of-high-speed-liquid-jet-impaction-on-a-moving-surface

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11.3K Görüntüleme.  University of British Columbia. Two experimental devices for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device and a spinning disk device. The apparatuses are used to determine optimal approaches to the application of liquid friction modifier (LFM) onto rail tracks for top-of-rail friction control.