Name: visualization of high speed liquid jet impaction on a moving surface
Uploaded: 2015-04-17T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface at JoVE.com

The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and L.B. Foster Rail Technologies, Corp. jointly supported this research through the NSERC Collaborative Research and Development Grant program.

1. Spinning Disk Device
<ol>
	<li>Identify desired test conditions and record test conditions in a table (e.g., ambient temperature, fluid properties, jet and surface speed, etc.).</li>
	<li>Preparation of Materials
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare glycerin-water or PEO-glycerin-water solutions for the impingement tests.
		<ol>
			<li>In the case of PEO-glycerin-water tests, gradually dissolve 4.5 g of PEO powder (viscosity-average molecular weights of one million and four million) into 1495.5 g of distilled water...

<ol>
	<li>Cotter, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Top+of+Rail+Friction+Control:+Reductions+in+Fuel+and+Greenhouse+Gas+Emissions.">Top of Rail Friction Control: Reductions in Fuel and Greenhouse Gas Emissions.</a> Proc. Of the 2005 Conference of the International Heavy Haul Association (Rio de Janeiro). , 327-334 (2005).</li><li>Eadie, D. T., Bovey, E., Kalousek, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+friction+control+in+effective+management+of+the+wheel/rail+interface).">The role of friction control in effective management of the wheel/rail interface).</a> Railway Technical Conference. , (2002).</li><li>Stock, R., Eadie, D. T., Elvidge, D., Oldknow, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influencing+rolling+contact+fatigue+through+top+of+rail+friction+modifier+application&#8211;A+full+scale+wheel&#8211;rail+test+rig+study.">Influencing rolling contact fatigue through top of rail friction modifier application&#8211;A full scale wheel&#8211;rail test rig study.</a> Wear. 271 (1), 134-142 (2011).</li><li>Eadie, D. T., Santoro, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Top-of-rail+friction+control+for+curve+noise+mitigation+and+corrugation+rate+reduction.">Top-of-rail friction control for curve noise mitigation and corrugation rate reduction.</a> Journal of Sound and Vibration. 293 (3), 747-757 (2006).</li><li>Tomeoka, M., Kabe, N., Tanimoto, M., Miyauchi, E., Nakata, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Friction+control+between+wheel+and+rail+by+means+of+on-board+lubrication.">Friction control between wheel and rail by means of on-board lubrication.</a> Wear. 253 (1), 124-129 (2002).</li><li>Chiu-Webster, S., Lister, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+fall+of+a+viscous+thread+onto+a+moving+surface:+a+&#8216;fluid-mechanical+sewing+machine.">The fall of a viscous thread onto a moving surface: a &#8216;fluid-mechanical sewing machine.</a> Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 569 (1), 124-129 (2006).</li><li>Hlod, A., Aarts, A. C. T., Van De Ven, A. A. F., Peletier, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mathematical+model+of+falling+of+a+viscous+jet+onto+a+moving+surface.">Mathematical model of falling of a viscous jet onto a moving surface.</a> European Journal of Applied Mathematics. 18 (06), 659-677 (2007).</li><li>Gradeck, M., Kouachi, A., Dani, A., Arnoult, D., Borean, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+and+numerical+study+of+the+hydraulic+jump+of+an+impinging+jet+on+a+moving+surface.">Experimental and numerical study of the hydraulic jump of an impinging jet on a moving surface.</a> Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 30 (3), 193-201 (2006).</li><li>Fujimoto, H., Suzuki, Y., Hama, T., Takuda, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+Characteristics+of+Circular+Liquid+Jet+Impinging+on+a+Moving+Surface+Covered+with+a+Water+Film.">Flow Characteristics of Circular Liquid Jet Impinging on a Moving Surface Covered with a Water Film.</a> ISIJ international. 51 (9), 1497-1505 (2011).</li><li>Keshavarz, B., Green, S. I., Davy, M. H., Eadie, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Newtonian+liquid+jet+impaction+on+a+high-speed+moving+surface.">Newtonian liquid jet impaction on a high-speed moving surface.</a> International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow. 32 (6), 1216-1225 (2011).</li><li>Keshavarz, B., Green, S. I., Eadie, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastic+liquid+jet+impaction+on+a+high+speed+moving+surface.">Elastic liquid jet impaction on a high speed moving surface.</a> AIChE Journal. 58 (11), 3568-3577 (2012).</li><li>Moulson, J. B. T., Green, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+ambient+air+on+liquid+jet+impingement+on+a+moving+substrate.">Effect of ambient air on liquid jet impingement on a moving substrate.</a> Physics of Fluids. 25 (10), 102106 (2013).</li><li>Sterling, G. E. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+experimental+study+on+jet+impingement+on+a+very+high+speed+moving+surface.">An experimental study on jet impingement on a very high speed moving surface.</a> UBC M.A.Sc. Thesis. , (2012).</li><li>Povarov, O. A., Nazarov, O. I., Ignat'evskaya, L. A., Nikol'skii, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+of+drops+with+boundary+layer+on+rotating+surfaces.">Interaction of drops with boundary layer on rotating surfaces.</a> Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics. 31 (6), 1453-1456 (1976).</li><li>Fathi, S., Dickens, P., Fouchal, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regimes+of+droplet+train+impact+on+a+moving+surface+in+an+additive+manufacturing+process.">Regimes of droplet train impact on a moving surface in an additive manufacturing process.</a> Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 210 (3), 550-559 (2010).</li><li>Bird, J. C., Tsai, S. S., Stone, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inclined+to+splash:+triggering+and+inhibiting+a+splash+with+tangential+velocity.">Inclined to splash: triggering and inhibiting a splash with tangential velocity.</a> New Journal of Physics. 11 (6), 063017 (2009).</li><li>Range, K., Feuillebois, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+surface+roughness+on+liquid+drop+impact.">Influence of surface roughness on liquid drop impact.</a> Journal of Colloid and Interface science. 203 (1), 16-30 (1998).</li><li>Crooks, R., Boger, D. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+fluid+elasticity+on+drops+impacting+on+dry+surfaces.">Influence of fluid elasticity on drops impacting on dry surfaces.</a> Journal of Rheology. 44 (4), 973-996 (2000).</li></ol>

The projectile used for the air cannon set-up is composed of a lightweight, wooden base. Though the wooden material chips slightly after numerous tests, it has been found to absorb kinetic energy more effectively than projectiles composed of materials such as plastic or metal, which tend to shatter upon impacting the stop mechanism. The dimensions of the wooden projectile are designed to closely match the steel barrel interior, thus restricting air leakage. A 1/8&#8221; thick rubber sheet secured between two layers of pl...

This research aims to determine strategies for applying LFM (Liquid Friction Modifier) in liquid jet form onto a moving surface while attaining high degrees of transfer efficiency and uniform deposition results. Achieving this objective involves developing a comprehensive understanding of factors that affect liquid jet impingement on moving surfaces.
The project is motivated by a need to improve the efficiency of lubrication application techniques used in the rail sector. As a means of reducing fuel consumption and locomotive maintenance costs, a thin film of friction modifying agent is now being applied to the upper rail surface of conventional railroad tracks. Recent studies have shown that applying one type of water-based LFM for top of rail (TOR) friction control reduced energy consumption levels by 6% and rail and wheel flange wear by in excess of 50%1,2. Other studies have shown that applying LFM to rail tracks reduces lateral force and noise levels as well as, more importantly, track corrugation and damage from rolling contact fatigue, which is a major cause of derailments3,4. These results were further confirmed in field tests on the Tokyo subway system5.
LFMs are currently dispensed from air blast atomizers attached to dozens of locomotives throughout Canada and the United States. In this form of application, LFM is applied to the top of railroad tracks by atomizers mounted beneath moving rail cars. This mode of LFM application is difficult to implement on many railroad locomotives because the required high-volume and high-pressure air supply levels may not be attainable. Air-blast spray nozzles are also believed to produce highly irregular rail coverage when operated in a crosswind, as crosswinds cause fine spray droplets to deviate from their original trajectory. Crosswinds are also known to be implicated in nozzle fouling, likely for the same reason. Due to problems associated with air blast atomizers, the rail sector is currently seeking alternative approaches to LFM application onto rail tracks. One viable solution involves dispensing LFM by means of a continuous (not-atomized) liquid jet, as liquid jets are less susceptible to crosswind effects due to their lower drag-to-inertia ratio. Additionally, because the high air pressure and volume levels needed for atomizing nozzles are not required in liquid jet spray technologies, the latter act as more streamlined and robust spraying mechanisms that maintain effective control over the rate of LFM application.
An area of similar physics, droplet impingement, has been studied intensively. It was found by several researchers that for droplet impingement on a moving dry smooth surface, splashing behavior is dependent on many parameters including viscosity, density, surface tension and the normal component of the impact velocity14,15. Bird et al. demonstrated that both the normal and tangential velocities were of critical importance16. Range et al. and Crooks et al. have shown that for droplet impingement on a stationary dry surface, surface roughness decreases the splash threshold significantly (i.e., it makes the droplet more prone to splash)17,18.
Despite its practical importance, jet impingement on moving surfaces has received little attention in the academic literature. Chiu-Webster and Lister performed an extensive series of experiments that examined steady and unsteady viscous jet impingement on a moving surface, and the authors developed a model for the steady flow case6. Hlod et al. modeled the flow by means of a third-order ODE on a domain of unknown length under an additional integral condition and compared predicted configurations with experimental results7. However, the Reynolds numbers examined in both of these studies are much lower than those associated with typical railroad LFM applications. Gradeck et al. numerically and experimentally investigated the flow field of water jet impingement onto a moving substrate under various jet velocity, surface velocity, and nozzle diameter conditions8. Fujimoto et al. additionally investigated flow characteristics of a circular water jet impinging onto a moving substrate covered by a thin film of water9. However, these two projects used relatively large nozzle diameters and lower surface and jet velocities compared to those employed in the present work. Furthermore, though previous experimental, numerical, and analytical studies provide a large body of data, the majority have focused on heat transfer parameters rather than on liquid flow processes such as jet splashing behavior. The experimental method provided in the present research thus contributes to liquid jet application technologies by refining such techniques under conditions involving smaller jet nozzle diameters and high-speed jet and surface velocities. The present method also refines knowledge on fundamental fluid mechanics problems associated with moving contact lines.
The studies mentioned above have generally involved the interaction of a low speed jet with a low speed moving surface. There have been comparatively few studies of laminar high speed jet impingement onto high-speed moving surfaces. During high speed liquid jet impaction the jet liquid spreads radially in the vicinity of the impingement location, forming a thin lamella. This lamella is then convected downstream by the viscous forcing imposed by the moving surface, producing a characteristic U-shaped lamella. Keshavarz et al. have reported on experiments employing Newtonian and elastic liquid jets impinging onto high-speed surfaces. They classified impingement processes into two distinct types: &#8220;deposition&#8221; and &#8220;splash&#8221;10. For impingement to be classified as deposition, the jet liquid must adhere to the surface, whereas splash is characterized by a liquid lamella that separates from the surface, and subsequently breaks up into droplets. A third impingement regime has also been described &#8212; &#8220;splatter&#8221;. In this, comparatively rare, regime the lamella remains attached to the surface, as for &#8220;deposition&#8221;, but fine droplets are ejected from near the leading edge of the lamella. In a subsequent study of non-Newtonian fluid effects, Keshavarz et al. concluded that the splash/deposition threshold is mainly determined by the Reynolds and Deborah numbers, whereas the jet impingement angle and jet velocity to surface velocity ratios only have a minor effect11. In experiments conducted under variable ambient air pressures, Moulson et al. discovered that the splash/deposition threshold Reynolds number dramatically increases with decreasing ambient air pressure (i.e., higher ambient pressures make jets more prone to splash), while decreasing ambient air pressure below a certain threshold suppresses splash completely12. This finding strongly suggests that aerodynamic forces acting on the lamella play a crucial role in causing lamella lift-off and subsequent splash. In recent work on high-speed impingement on a high-speed substrate, Sterling showed that for substrate speed and jet conditions close to the splash threshold, splash may be triggered by very small localized surface roughness and minor jet unsteadiness. He also showed that under these conditions lamella lift-off and reattachment is a stochastic process13.
The experimental protocol described here may be used to study other physical situations involving the interaction of a fluid with a moving high speed surface. For example, the same approach could be used to study helicopter blade-vortex interaction (provided that the vortex fluid was colored with tracer particles) and robotic spraying of surfaces.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Equipment for Air Cannon Set-Up</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30-gallon air tank</td>
			<td>Steel Fab</td>
			<td>A10028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solenoid actuated poppet valve</td>
			<td>Parker Hannifin Corp.</td>
			<td>#16F24C2164A3F4C80</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5&#34;NPT rubber hose</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rectangular steel tubing</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stop mechanism</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless steel plates</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wooden projectile</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1kw high-intensity incandescent light</td>
			<td>Photographic Analysis Ltd.</td>
			<td>T986851</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light diffuser sheet</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optic sensor</td>
			<td>BANNER</td>
			<td>SM312LV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Equipment for Spinning Disc Set-Up</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motor</td>
			<td>WEG</td>
			<td>TEFC-W22</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bearings</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disk</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiber optic light source</td>
			<td>Fiberoptics Technology Incorporated</td>
			<td>MO150AC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High intensity LED array</td>
			<td>Torshare Ltd.</td>
			<td>TF10CA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum</td>
			<td>Ridge Tool Company</td>
			<td>WD09450</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Interrupter</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Shared Equipment for Both Devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phantom v611 high-speed cine camera</td>
			<td>Vision Research Inc.</td>
			<td>V611</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phantom v12 high-speed cine camera</td>
			<td>Vision Research Inc.</td>
			<td>V12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zoom 7000 lens</td>
			<td>Navitar Inc.</td>
			<td>Zoom 7000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zoom 6000 lens</td>
			<td>Navitar Inc.</td>
			<td>Zoom 6000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Compressed nitrogen tank</td>
			<td>Praxair Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure regulator</td>
			<td>Praxair Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>PRS20124351CGA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hose for compressed nitrogen</td>
			<td>Swagelok Company</td>
			<td>SS-CT8SL8SL8-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hose for liquid</td>
			<td>Swagelok Company</td>
			<td>SS-7R8TA8TA8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Accumulator</td>
			<td>Accumulators, Inc.</td>
			<td>A131003XS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solenoid Valve</td>
			<td>Solenoid Solutions Inc.</td>
			<td>2223X-A440-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure transducer</td>
			<td>WIKA Instruments Ltd</td>
			<td>#50398083</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nozzle assembly</td>
			<td>Customized</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly(ethylene oxide)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualization of high speed liquid jet impaction on a moving surface

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds between 0 and 25 m/sec) and a spinning disk device (for examining surface speeds between 15 and 100 m/sec). The air cannon linear traverse is a pneumatic energy-powered system that is designed to accelerate a metal rail surface mounted on top of a wooden projectile. A pressurized cylinder fitted with a solenoid valve rapidly releases pressurized air into the barrel, forcing the projectile down the cannon barrel. The projectile travels beneath a spray nozzle, which impinges a liquid jet onto its metal upper surface, and the projectile then hits a stopping mechanism. A camera records the jet impingement, and a pressure transducer records the spray nozzle backpressure. The spinning disk set-up consists of a steel disk that reaches speeds of 500 to 3,000 rpm via a variable frequency drive (VFD) motor. A spray system similar to that of the air cannon generates a liquid jet that impinges onto the spinning disc, and cameras placed at several optical access points record the jet impingement. Video recordings of jet impingement processes are recorded and examined to determine whether the outcome of impingement is splash, splatter, or deposition. The apparatuses are the first that involve the high speed impingement of low-Reynolds-number liquid jets on high speed moving surfaces. In addition to its rail industry applications, the described technique may be used for technical and industrial purposes such as steelmaking and may be relevant to high-speed 3D printing.

As discussed in the introductory section, the three main behaviors associated with liquid jet impingement are deposition, splatter and splash. These jet impingement behaviors are observed using video data recorded by high-speed cine cameras positioned at various optical points. Examples of still images, obtained from the video recordings, which depict the three liquid jet outcomes are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3A depicts liquid jet deposition, in which the jet flows in a completely strai...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface at JoVE.com

Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface

Two experimental devices for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device and a spinning disk device. The apparatuses are used to determine optimal approaches to the application of liquid friction modifier (LFM) onto rail tracks for top-of-rail friction control.

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds ...

visualization-of-high-speed-liquid-jet-impaction-on-a-moving-surface

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Digital fringe projection (DFP) techniques provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;Like the human eyes and brain, DFP uses triangulation between matching points in two views of the same scene at different angles to compute depth.&#160;However, unlike a stereo-based method, DFP uses a digital video projector to replace one of the cameras1. The projector rapidly projects a known sinusoidal pattern onto the subject, and the surface of the subject distorts these patterns in the camera&#8217;s field of view. Three distorted patterns (fringe images) from the camera can be used to compute the depth using triangulation.
Unlike other 3D measurement methods, DFP techniques lead to systems that tend to be faster, lower in equipment cost, more flexible, and easier to develop.&#160;DFP systems can also achieve the same measurement resolution as the camera.&#160;For this reason, DFP and other digital structured light techniques have recently been the focus of intense research (as summarized in1-5). Taking advantage of DFP, the graphics processing unit, and optimized algorithms, we have developed a system capable of 30&#160;Hz 3D video data acquisition, reconstruction, and display for over 300,000 measurement points per frame6,7.&#160;Binary defocusing DFP methods can achieve even greater speeds8.
Diverse applications can benefit from DFP techniques. Our collaborators have used our systems for facial function analysis9, facial animation10, cardiac mechanics studies11, and fluid surface measurements, but many other potential applications exist.&#160;This video will teach the fundamentals of DFP techniques and illustrate the design and operation of a binary defocusing DFP system.

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High-speed Particle Image Velocimetry Near Surfaces

Multi-dimensional and transient flows play a key role in many areas of science, engineering, and health sciences but are often not well understood. The complex nature of these flows may be studied using particle image velocimetry (PIV), a laser-based imaging technique for optically accessible flows. Though many forms of PIV exist that extend the technique beyond the original planar two-component velocity measurement capabilities, the basic PIV system consists of a light source (laser), a camera, tracer particles, and analysis algorithms. The imaging and recording parameters, the light source, and the algorithms are adjusted to optimize the recording for the flow of interest and obtain valid velocity data. 
Common PIV investigations measure two-component velocities in a plane at a few frames per second. However, recent developments in instrumentation have facilitated high-frame rate (&gt; 1 kHz) measurements capable of resolving transient flows with high temporal resolution. Therefore, high-frame rate measurements have enabled investigations on the evolution of the structure and dynamics of highly transient flows. These investigations play a critical role in understanding the fundamental physics of complex flows.
A detailed description for performing high-resolution, high-speed planar PIV to study a transient flow near the surface of a flat plate is presented here. Details for adjusting the parameter constraints such as image and recording properties, the laser sheet properties, and processing algorithms to adapt PIV for any flow of interest are included.

A procedure for studying transient flows near boundaries using high-resolution, high-speed particle image velocimetry (PIV) is described here. PIV is a non-intrusive measurement technique applicable to any optically accessible flow by optimizing several parameter constraints such as the image and recording properties, the laser sheet properties, and analysis algorithms.

Multi-dimensional and transient flows play a key role in many areas of science, engineering, and health sciences but are often not well understood. The ...

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of biosensing devices. We report on a protocol of using KrF and ArF lasers irradiating Si (001) samples immersed in a liquid environment with low number of pulses and operating at moderately low pulse fluences to induce Si wettability modification. Wafers immersed for up to 4 hr in a 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution did not show measurable change in their initial contact angle (CA) ~75&#176;. However, the 500-pulse KrF and ArF lasers irradiation of such wafers in a microchamber filled with 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution at 250 and 65 mJ/cm2, respectively, has decreased the CA to near 15&#176;, indicating the formation of a superhydrophilic surface. The formation of OH-terminated Si (001), with no measurable change of the wafer&#8217;s surface morphology, has been confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements. The selective area irradiated samples were then immersed in a biotin-conjugated fluorescein-stained nanospheres solution for 2 hr, resulting in a successful immobilization of the nanospheres in the non-irradiated area. This illustrates the potential of&#160;the method for selective area biofunctionalization and fabrication of advanced Si-based biosensing architectures. We also describe a similar protocol of irradiation of wafers immersed in methanol (CH3OH) using ArF laser operating at pulse fluence of 65 mJ/cm2 and in situ formation of a strongly hydrophobic surface of Si (001) with the CA of 103&#176;. The XPS results indicate ArF laser induced formation of Si&#8211;(OCH3)x compounds responsible for the observed hydrophobicity. However, no such compounds were found by XPS on the Si surface irradiated by KrF laser in methanol, demonstrating the inability of the KrF laser to photodissociate methanol and create -OCH3 radicals.

We report on a process of in situ alteration of HF treated Si (001) surface into a hydrophilic or hydrophobic state by irradiating samples in microfluidic chambers filled with&#160;H2O2/H2O solution (0.01%-0.5%) or methanol solutions using pulsed UV laser of a relative low pulse fluence.

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of ...

Three-dimensional Particle Tracking Velocimetry for Turbulence Applications: Case of a Jet Flow

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic recording of image sequences. The basic components, features, constraints and optimization tips of a 3D-PTV topology consisting of a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter are described and discussed in this article. The technique is applied to the intermediate flow field (5 &#60;x/d &#60;25) of a circular jet at Re &#8776; 7,000. Lagrangian flow features and turbulence quantities in an Eulerian frame are estimated around ten diameters downstream of the jet origin and at various radial distances from the jet core. Lagrangian properties include trajectory, velocity and acceleration of selected particles as well as curvature of the flow path, which are obtained from the Frenet-Serret equation. Estimation of the 3D velocity and turbulence fields around the jet core axis at a cross-plane located at ten diameters downstream of the jet is compared with literature, and the power spectrum of the large-scale streamwise velocity motions is obtained at various radial distances from the jet core.

A three-dimensional particle tracking velocimetry (3D-PTV) system based on a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter is described here. The technique is applied to a jet flow from a circular pipe in the vicinity of ten diameters downstream at Reynolds number Re &#8776; 7,000.

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic ...

High-speed Continuous-wave Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Spectrometer for Material Analysis

Recent years have witnessed a significant increase in the use of spontaneous Brillouin spectrometers for non-contact analysis of soft matter, such as aqueous solutions and biomaterials, with fast acquisition times. Here, we discuss the assembly and operation of a Brillouin spectrometer that uses stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) to measure stimulated Brillouin gain (SBG) spectra of water and lipid emulsion-based tissue-like samples in transmission mode with &lt;10 MHz spectral-resolution and &lt;35 MHz Brillouin-shift measurement precision at &lt;100 ms. The spectrometer consists of two nearly counter-propagating continuous-wave (CW) narrow-linewidth lasers at 780 nm whose frequency detuning is scanned through the material Brillouin shift. By using an ultra-narrowband hot rubidium-85 vapor notch filter and a phase-sensitive detector, the signal-to-noise-ratio of the SBG signal is significantly enhanced compared to that obtained with existing CW-SBS spectrometers. This improvement enables measurement of SBG spectra with up to 100-fold faster acquisition times, thereby facilitating high spectral-resolution and high-precision Brillouin analysis of soft materials at high speed.

We describe the construction of a rapid continuous-wave-stimulated-Brillouin-scattering (CW-SBS) spectrometer. The spectrometer employs single-frequency diode-lasers and an atomic vapor notch-filter to acquire transmission spectra of turbid/non-turbid samples with high spectral-resolution at speeds up to 100-fold faster than those of existing CW-SBS spectrometers. This improvement enables high-speed Brillouin material analysis.

Recent years have witnessed a significant increase in the use of spontaneous Brillouin spectrometers for non-contact analysis of soft matter, such as ...

Preparation and High-temperature Anti-adhesion Behavior of a Slippery Surface on Stainless Steel

Anti-adhesion surfaces with high-temperature resistance have a wide application potential in electrosurgical instruments, engines, and pipelines. A typical anti-wetting superhydrophobic surface easily fails when exposed to a high-temperature liquid. Recently, Nepenthes-inspired slippery surfaces demonstrated a new way to solve the adhesion problem. A lubricant layer on the slippery surface can act as a barrier between the repelled materials and the surface structure. However, the slippery surfaces in previous studies rarely showed high-temperature resistance. Here, we describe a protocol for the preparation of slippery surfaces with high-temperature resistance. A photolithography-assisted method was used to fabricate pillar structures on stainless steel. By functionalizing the surface with saline, a slippery surface was prepared by adding silicone oil. The prepared slippery surface maintained the anti-wetting property for water, even when the surface was heated to 300 &#176;C. Also, the slippery surface exhibited great anti-adhesion effects on soft tissues at high temperatures. This type of slippery surface on stainless steel has applications in medical devices, mechanical equipment, etc.

Slippery surfaces provide a new way to solve the adhesion problem. This protocol describes how to fabricate slippery surfaces at high temperatures. The results demonstrate that the slippery surfaces showed anti-wetting for liquids and a remarkable anti-adhesion effect on soft tissues at high temperatures.

Anti-adhesion surfaces with high-temperature resistance have a wide application potential in electrosurgical instruments, engines, and pipelines. A ...

Impacts of Free-falling Spheres on a Deep Liquid Pool with Altered Fluid and Impactor Surface Conditions

Vertical impacts of spheres on clean water have been the subject of numerous water entry investigations characterizing cavity formation, splash crown ascension and Worthington jet stability. Here, we establish experimental protocols for examining splash dynamics when smooth free-falling spheres of varying wettability, mass, and diameter impact the free surface of a deep liquid pool modified by thin penetrable fabrics and liquid surfactants. Water entry investigations provide accessible, easily assembled and executed experiments for studying complex fluid mechanics. We present herein a tunable protocol for characterizing splash height, flow separation metrics, and impactor kinematics, and representative results which might be acquired if reproducing our approach. The methods are applicable when characteristic splash dimensions remain below approximately 0.5 m. However, this protocol may be adapted for greater impactor release heights and impact velocities, which augurs well for translating results to naval and industry applications.

This protocol demonstrates the basic experimental configuration for water entry experiments with free-falling spheres. Methods for the alteration of liquid surface with penetrable fabrics, the preparation of chemically non-wetting spheres, and steps for splash visualization and data extraction are discussed.

Vertical impacts of spheres on clean water have been the subject of numerous water entry investigations characterizing cavity formation, splash crown ...

Determination of Aggregate Surface Morphology at the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)

Here, we present a comprehensive method to illustrate the uneven distribution of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) around the aggregate and the effect of aggregate surface morphology on the formation of ITZ. First, a model concrete sample is prepared with a spherical ceramic particle in roughly the central part of the cement matrix, acting as a coarse aggregate used in common concrete/mortar. After curing until the designed age, the sample is scanned by X-ray computed tomography to determine the relative location of the ceramic particle inside the cement matrix. Three locations of the ITZ are chosen: above the aggregate, on the side of the aggregate, and below the aggregate. After a series of treatments, the samples are scanned with a SEM-BSE detector. The resultant images were further processed using a digital image processing method (DIP) to obtain quantitative characteristics of the ITZ. The surface morphology is characterized at the pixel level based on the digital image. Thereafter, K-means clustering method is used to illustrate the effect of surface roughness on ITZ formation.

Determination of Aggregate Surface Morphology at the Interfacial Transition Zone ITZ

Hereby, we proposed a protocol to illustrate the effect of aggregate surface morphology on the ITZ microstructure. The SEM-BSE image were quantitatively analyzed to obtain ITZ's porosity gradient via digital image processing and a K-means clustering algorithm was further employed to establish a relationship between porosity gradient and surface roughness.

Here, we present a comprehensive method to illustrate the uneven distribution of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) around the aggregate and the effect ...

High Throughput Analysis of Liquid Droplet Impacts

Experimental studies of liquid drop impacts on surfaces are often restricted in their scope due to the large range of possible experimental parameters such as material properties, impact conditions, and experimental configurations. Compounding this, drop impacts are often studied using data-rich high-speed photography, so that it is difficult to analyze many experiments in a detailed and timely manner. The purpose of this method is to enable efficient study of droplet impacts with high-speed photography by using a systematic approach. Equipment is aligned and calibrated to produce videos that can be accurately processed by a custom image processing code. Moreover, the file structure setup and workflow described here ensure efficiency and clear organization of data processing, which is carried out while the researcher is still in the lab. The image processing method extracts the digitized outline of the impacting droplet in each frame of the video, and processed data are stored for further analysis as required. The protocol assumes that a droplet is released vertically under gravity, and impact is recorded by a camera viewing from side-on with the drop illuminated using shadowgraphy. Many similar experiments involving image analysis of high-speed events could be addressed with minor adjustment to the protocol and equipment used.

This protocol enables efficient collection of experimental high-speed images of liquid drop impacts, and speedy analysis of those data in batches. To streamline these processes, the method describes how to calibrate and set up apparatus, generate an appropriate data structure, and deploy an image analysis script.

Experimental studies of liquid drop impacts on surfaces are often restricted in their scope due to the large range of possible experimental parameters ...