We thank Dr. R. Howard Berg, Director of the Integrated Microscopy Facility at the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, for his guidance and help with confocal microscopy. The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

1. Labeling of Defensins with Fluorophores
<ol>
	<li>Select a fluorophore that has minimum effect on the antimicrobial properties as well as the uptake and localization of defensin inside the living cell. 
	NOTE: Selecting optimal fluorophore depends on specific experimental objectives. The spectral and chemical properties, photostability, size and charge of the fluorophore should also be considered.</li>
	<li>Label defensin with the selected fluorophore using an appropriate peptide labeling kit available from com...

<ol>
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A., Thevissen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modes+of+antifungal+action+and+in+planta+functions+of+plant+defensins+and+defensin-like+peptides.">Modes of antifungal action and in planta functions of plant defensins and defensin-like peptides.</a> Fungal Biol Rev. 26 (4), 109-120 (2013).</li><li>Kaur, J., Sagaram, U. S., Shah, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+plant+defensins+be+used+to+engineer+durable+commercially+useful+fungal+resistance+in+crop+plants?.">Can plant defensins be used to engineer durable commercially useful fungal resistance in crop plants?.</a> Fungal Biol. Rev. 25 (3), 128-135 (2011).</li><li>Vriens, K., Cammue, B. P. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fungal+sphingolipids+as+targets+for+the+development+of+selective+antifungal+therapeutics.">Fungal sphingolipids as targets for the development of selective antifungal therapeutics.</a> Curr. Drug Targets. 6 (8), 923-928 (2005).</li><li>Thevissen, K., Kristensen, H. H., Thomma, B. P. H. J., Cammue, B. P. A., Francois, I. E. J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Therapeutic+potential+of+antifungal+plant+and+insect+defensins.">Therapeutic potential of antifungal plant and insect defensins.</a> Drug Discov. Today. 12 (21-22), 966-971 (2007).</li><li>Aerts, A. M., Fran&#231;ois, I. E. J. A., Cammue, B. P. 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B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antifungal+Pisum+sativum+Defensin+1+Interacts+with+Neurospora+crassa+Cyclin+F+Related+to+the+Cell+Cycle.">Antifungal Pisum sativum Defensin 1 Interacts with Neurospora crassa Cyclin F Related to the Cell Cycle.</a> Biochemistry. 46 (4), 987-996 (2007).</li><li>El-Mounadi, K., Islam, K. T., Hernandez-Ortiz, P., Read, N. D., Shah, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antifungal+mechanisms+of+a+plant+defensin+MtDef4+are+not+conserved+between+the+ascomycete+fungi+Neurospora+crassa+and+Fusarium+graminearum.">Antifungal mechanisms of a plant defensin MtDef4 are not conserved between the ascomycete fungi Neurospora crassa and Fusarium graminearum.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 100 (3), 542-559 (2016).</li><li>Baxter, A. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Tomato+Defensin+TPP3+Binds+Phosphatidylinositol+(4,5)-Bisphosphate+via+a+Conserved+Dimeric+Cationic+Grip+Conformation+To+Mediate+Cell+Lysis.">The Tomato Defensin TPP3 Binds Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-Bisphosphate via a Conserved Dimeric Cationic Grip Conformation To Mediate Cell Lysis.</a> Mol. and Cell. Biol. 35 (11), 1964-1978 (2015).</li><li>Kvansakul, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Binding+of+phosphatidic+acid+by+NsD7+mediates+the+formation+of+helical+defensin-lipid+oligomeric+assemblies+and+membrane+permeabilization.">Binding of phosphatidic acid by NsD7 mediates the formation of helical defensin-lipid oligomeric assemblies and membrane permeabilization.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, 11202-11207 (2016).</li><li>Poon, I. K. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphoinositide-mediated+oligomerization+of+a+defensin+induces+cell+lysis.">Phosphoinositide-mediated oligomerization of a defensin induces cell lysis.</a> eLife. 3, e01808 (2014).</li><li>Mu&#241;oz, A., Read, N. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live-cell+imaging+and+analysis+shed+light+on+the+complexity+and+dynamics+of+antimicrobial+Peptide+action.">Live-cell imaging and analysis shed light on the complexity and dynamics of antimicrobial Peptide action.</a> Front. Immunol. 3, 248 (2012).</li><li>Hayes, B. M. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+and+mechanism+of+action+of+the+plant+defensin+NaD1+as+a+new+member+of+the+antifungal+drug+arsenal+against+candida+albicans.">Identification and mechanism of action of the plant defensin NaD1 as a new member of the antifungal drug arsenal against candida albicans.</a> Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 57 (8), 3667-3675 (2013).</li><li>Mu&#241;oz, A., Marcos, J. F., Read, N. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Concentration-dependent+mechanisms+of+cell+penetration+and+killing+by+the+de+novo+designed+antifungal+hexapeptide+PAF26.">Concentration-dependent mechanisms of cell penetration and killing by the de novo designed antifungal hexapeptide PAF26.</a> Mol. Microbiol. 85 (1), 89-106 (2012).</li><li>Eaton, C. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+guanine+nucleotide+exchange+factor+RIC8+regulates+conidial+germination+through+G&#945;+proteins+in+Neurospora+crassa.">The guanine nucleotide exchange factor RIC8 regulates conidial germination through G&#945; proteins in Neurospora crassa.</a> PLoS One. 7 (10), e48026 (2012).</li><li>Leslie, J. F., Summerell, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Fusarium. laboratory manual. , (2006).</li><li>Broekaert, W. F., Terras, F. R. G., Cammue, B. P. 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Sci. 106 (46), 19375-19380 (2009).</li><li>Nair, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Better+prediction+of+sub-cellular+localization+by+combining+evolutionary+and+structural+information.">Better prediction of sub-cellular localization by combining evolutionary and structural information.</a> Proteins Struct. Funct. Bioinform. 53 (4), 917-930 (2003).</li><li>Scott, M. S., Calafell, S. J., Thomas, D. Y., Hallett, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Refining+protein+subcellular+localization.">Refining protein subcellular localization.</a> PLoS Comput. Biol. 1 (6), e66 (2005).</li><li>Shagaghi, N., Bhave, M., Palombo, E., Clayton, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revealing+the+sequence+of+interactions+of+PuroA+peptide+with+Candida+albicans+cells+by+live-cell+imaging.">Revealing the sequence of interactions of PuroA peptide with Candida albicans cells by live-cell imaging.</a> Sci. Rep. 7, 43542 (2017).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this study, a reliable live-cell imaging methodology with the use of fluorescently labeled antifungal defensins was described to study the kinetics of the internalization of these peptides into fungal cells and to determine their subcellular targets. This method is a powerful tool to visualize the dynamics of the interaction between defensins and fungal cells temporally and spatially.
Various methods have been used to study the internalization and intracellular localization of plant defensi...

Plants have evolved a sophisticated innate immune system for defense against the microbial plant pathogens1. They express numerous gene-encoded host defense peptides with putative antimicrobial activity2. Indeed, many of these peptides display antimicrobial activity in vitro3. Defensins comprise one of the largest groups of host defense peptides in the plant kingdom4. These cysteine-rich, cationic peptides exhibit potent growth inhibitory activity against fungal and oomycete pathogens at micromolar concentrations and represent one of the first lines of defense against these pathogens5,6. Because of their potent antifungal activity, defensins can be exploited in agribiotechnological applications to generate disease resistant crops. Constitutive overexpression of several plant defensins has been shown to enhance disease resistance in the greenhouse and field tests of transgenic crops6. It is important to unravel the mechanisms of action (MOA) of these antifungal peptides in order to fully harness their potential as effective tools for crop protection. However, the MOA of these plant defensins are poorly understood. Current evidence suggests that they exhibit different MOA5,6,7,8. Some defensins act extracellularly on fungi and target specific cell wall/plasma membrane resident sphingolipids, disrupt membrane integrity and activate cellular toxicity pathways9,10,11. Recently, however, antifungal defensins that translocate into fungal cells have been discovered12,13,14. Some of these defensins bind to membrane-resident bioactive phospholipids, form oligomeric complexes and permeabilize plasma membranes15,16,17. Thus, some aspects of the MOA of plant defensins have been elucidated. However, the MOA of plant defensins likely involve a complex set of events which have not yet been identified and integrated into a comprehensive model. In particular, there remains a major gap in our understanding of the cellular targets of these peptides.
With recent advances in microscopy technologies and the development of new fluorescent probes, live-cell imaging techniques are now frequently used to study the MOA of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). These techniques complement widely used methods such as immunolocalization, electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy or X-ray tomography18, which have been employed mostly to analyze the effects of antifungal peptides on the morphology and growth of fungal cells including the study of cell wall integrity, alterations in cell growth/branching patterns, as well as plasma membrane permeabilization and killing. Nevertheless, these studies have been limited to imaging cells at a certain time point after treatment with the peptides instead of performing time-lapse imaging on the same cells to monitor their dynamic changes in response to defensin challenge. In recent years, use of fluorescently labeled peptides in conjunction with live cell imaging using confocal microscopy has enabled real-time visualization of the dynamics of AMP&#8211;microbe interactions. Both naturally purified and chemically synthesized antifungal peptides can be tagged with fluorescent labels (e.g., DyLight, rhodamine, BODIPY, or Alexa Fluor based dyes) and directly observed during their interaction with cells by time-lapse live-cell imaging. The use of these labeled peptides has significantly increased our understanding of the different aspects of their MOA including mode of entry, subcellular localization, intracellular trafficking, and sites of antifungal action within living fungal cells18.
Recently, several studies have shown that various antifungal peptides including plant defensins are internalized by living fungal cells12,14,19,20. The MOA of these defensins likely involve interaction with intracellular targets. We have recently reported the antifungal action of a plant defensin MtDef4 in two ascomycete fungi, Neurospora crassa and Fusarium graminearum. MtDef4 was shown to use different pathways for fungal cell entry and subcellular localization in these fungi14. This study used chemically synthesized tetramethyl rhodamine (TAMRA)-labeled MtDef4 in combination with vital fluorescent dyes (the membrane selective dye, FM4-64; membrane-permeant dye, SYTOX Green; the cell death reporter dye, propidium iodide) and metabolic inhibitors. These analyses demonstrated the kinetics of the internalization of MtDef4, its mechanisms of intracellular transportation and its subcellular targets14.
Here, a protocol for live-cell imaging using confocal microscopy is presented. The protocol utilizes fluorescently labeled peptides in combination with vital fluorescent dyes to study plant defensin-fungal interactions, in particular, the pathways of translocation and the intracellular targets of defensins in fungal cells.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>FM4-64 Dye</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>T13320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DyLight 550 Antibody Labeling Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>84530</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Bottom Microwell Dishes</td>
			<td>Mat TeK</td>
			<td>P35G-1.5-10-C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mira cloth</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore Corp</td>
			<td>475855-1R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SP8-X confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ software</td>
			<td>FiJi</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For Image analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imaris software</td>
			<td>Bitplane</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For Image analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

live-cell imaging of fungal cells to investigate modes of entry and subcellular localization of antifungal plant defensins

Small cysteine-rich defensins are one of the largest groups of host defense peptides present in all plants. Many plant defensins exhibit potent in vitro antifungal activity against a broad-spectrum of fungal pathogens and therefore have the potential to be used as antifungal agents in transgenic crops. In order to harness the full potential of plant defensins for diseases control, it is crucial to elucidate their mechanisms of action (MOA). With the advent of advanced microscopy techniques, live-cell imaging has become a powerful tool for understanding the dynamics of the antifungal MOA of plant defensins. Here, a confocal microscopy based live-cell imaging method is described using two fluorescently labeled plant defensins (MtDef4 and MtDef5) in combination with vital fluorescent dyes. This technique enables real-time visualization and analysis of the dynamic events of MtDef4 and MtDef5 internalization into fungal cells. Importantly, this assay generates a wealth of information including internalization kinetics, mode of entry and subcellular localization of these peptides. Along with other cell biological tools, these methods have provided critical insights into the dynamics and complexity of the MOA of these peptides. These tools can also be used to compare the MOA of these peptides against different fungi.

Live cell imaging was carried out to track and compare the internalization and subcellular localization of two defensins, MtDef4 and MtDef5, from Medicago truncatula; in fungal cells. TMR-MtDef4 was chemically synthesized while MtDef5 was labeled with Dylight550 (Dylight550-MtDef5). Conidia were incubated with either defensin in combination with the membrane selective dye FM4-64. Figure 1 shows that TMR-MtDef4 has different trafficking pathways in <e...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live-cell Imaging of Fungal Cells to Investigate Modes of Entry and Subcellular Localization of Antifungal Plant Defensins at JoVE.com

Live-cell Imaging of Fungal Cells to Investigate Modes of Entry and Subcellular Localization of Antifungal Plant Defensins

Plant defensins play an important role in plant defense against pathogens. For effective use of these antifungal peptides as antifungal agents, understanding their modes of action (MOA) is critical. Here, a live-cell imaging method is described to study critical aspects of the MOA of these peptides.

Small cysteine-rich defensins are one of the largest groups of host defense peptides present in all plants. Many plant defensins exhibit potent in vitro ...

The overall goal of this live-cell imaging method is to study critical aspects of the mechanisms of action of antifungal plant defensins in fungal cells. With the advent of advanced confocal microscopy techniques, live-cell imaging has become a powerful tool to study the modes of action of antifungal plant defensins. Making use of this technology, here we present a method to help answer key question in understanding the modes of action of antifungal plant defensins.Our focuses are how these peptides are internalized into the fungal cells and how these peptides are localized into the cell organelles or diffused in the cytoplasm. To make a conidial suspension of PH-1 strain of Fusarium graminearum, first set up cultures of the strain on plates containing complete medium. Culture them at 28 degrees Celsius over five days.To produce conidia, inoculate four 10-millimeter diameter plugs of the five-day-old culture into 50 milliliters of carboxymethyl cellulose medium. Culture these plugs for four to seven days at 28 degrees Celsius on a rotary shaker set to 180 rpm. When the cultures have a red color, the conidia have formed.To collect the conidia in a suspension, vortex the liquid culture, and filter one milliliter of it through two layers of filtration material, into a two-milliliter microcentrifuge tube. Centrifuge the suspension for two minutes, and discard the supernatant. Then, wash the pellet with one milliliter of sterile water, and repeat the centrifugation.Next, resuspend the pellet in one milliliter of 2x SFM. Then, count the conidia using a hemocytometer, and adjust the density of the suspension to 100, 000 conidia per milliliter. To make a Neurospora crassa conidial suspension, transfer conidia from stock cultures to a slant tube containing Vogel's agar medium, and incubate the tubes at room temperature under constant light for five days.After five days, transfer a small amount of growing culture, using an inoculation loop, to a microcentrifuge tube containing two milliliters of Vogel's liquid medium. Be sure to mix the conidia off the loop. Then, filter the suspension, centrifuge it, and resuspend the pellet of conidia in Vogel's medium without a wash step.Finally, adjust the final suspension to 100, 000 conidia per milliliter. To make a germlings preparation for confocal microscopy, pipette 50 microliters of conidia suspension onto a 35-millimeter culture dish, and let the conidia germinate for three to six hours at room temperature. For confocal microscopy, pipette 50 microliters of conidial suspension into a 10-millimeter microwell of glass-bottom dish.Then, at the predetermined minimal inhibitory concentration, add 50 microliters of fluorescently labeled defensins to the suspension, and incubate the conidia with the labeled defensins for 2.5 hours at room temperature. After the incubation, add two microliters of the membrane selective dye FM4-64, for a final concentration of five micromolar. Then, incubate the culture for 30 minutes at room temperature prior to examining the conidia.To set up the confocal microscope, select the white light laser. Use the 488-nanometer and 550-nanometer lasers to excite the rhodamine-labeled defensins and the FM4-64 dye, respectively. Set these lasers to an intensity of 1%Then, set the detection wavelengths to 580 to 700 nanometers for the rhodamine-labeled defensin and from 690 to 800 nanometers for the FM4-64 dye.Now, collect the images. For time-lapse imaging, add 50 microliters of conidial suspension into a glass-bottom microwell dish. Next, mount the microwell dish on the microscope, and find the cells under low power.Then, switch to a 100x, 1.44 oil objective. To observe the DyLight550-labeled defensins, set the laser line to 550 nanometers for excitation and from 560 to 600 nanometers for detection. Next, set the scan mode to xyzt.Then, set the Z-position, the zoom, the frequency of image capture, and so forth, as needed. Now, to the conidial suspension, add 50 microliters of fluorophore-labeled defensins at the minimal inhibitory concentration of three micromolar, and add two microliters of membrane selective dye FM4-64 for a final concentration of five micromolar. Then, refocus the optics if needed.Before capturing images, place small pieces of wet filter paper in the microwell dish to prevent evaporation. Then, process with capturing an image every 3.5 minutes over 2.5 hours. Live-cell imaging was carried out to track and compare the internalization and subcellular localization of two defensins from Medicago truncatula.Chemically synthesized rhodamine-labeled defensin four was trafficked differently in Neurospora crassa and Fusarium graminearum. FM4-64 labeled the plasma membranes of both fungi. However, in Fusarium, defensin four is diffused in the cytoplasm.Whereas, in Neurospora, it is transported to vesicular bodies. For comparison, defensin five was visualized using a DyLight550 label in Neurospora crassa, along with plasma membrane labeling by FM4-64. Time-lapse imaging shows that this defensin enters the cells within 30 to 40 minutes and then diffuses through the cytoplasm.This differs from the trafficking of defensin four, which enters the cells and remains trapped within the vesicular bodies even after three hours. In summary, live-cell imaging is a powerful tool to increase our understanding of the modes of action of antifungal plant differences. With other vital fluorescent dyes and cellular markers, it has the flexibility to be modified for other antimicrobial peptides.Ultimately, this technique can help to develop new strategies for use of antimicrobial peptides as an antifungal agent in agriculture and medicine.

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6.6K Görüntüleme.  Donald Danforth Plant Science Center. The overall goal of this live-cell imaging method is to study critical aspects of the mechanisms of action of antifungal plant defensins in fungal cells. With the advent of advanced confocal microscopy techniques, live-cell imaging has become a powerful tool to study the modes of action of antifungal plant defensins. Making use of this technology, here we present a method to help answer key question in understanding the modes of action of antifungal plant defensins.Our focuses are how ...