This work was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). Video production was carried out in collaboration with the Center for Innovation in Teaching and Learning (CITL) at Memorial University of Newfoundland.

1. Chemicals and Purified Enzymes
<ol>
	<li>Procure the following materials: PDHC and KGDHC of porcine heart origin (or another purified mitochondrial flavoenzyme); H2O2 (30% solution), pyruvate, &#945;-ketoglutarate, NAD+, NADH, CoASH, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), mannitol, HEPES, sucrose, EGTA, 3-methyl-2-oxo valeric acid (KMV), superoxide dismutase (SOD), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), 10-Acetyl-3,7-dihydroxyphenoxazine reagent (AUR), and CPI-613.</li>
</ol>
2. ...

<ol>
	<li>Mailloux, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Teaching+the+fundamentals+of+electron+transfer+reactions+in+mitochondria+and+the+production+and+detection+of+reactive+oxygen+species.">Teaching the fundamentals of electron transfer reactions in mitochondria and the production and detection of reactive oxygen species.</a> Redox Biol. 4, 381-398 (2015).</li><li>Nicholls, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Forty+years+of+Mitchell's+proton+circuit:+From+little+grey+books+to+little+grey+cells.">Forty years of Mitchell's proton circuit: From little grey books to little grey cells.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta. 1777 (7-8), 550-556 (2008).</li><li>Brand, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+generation+of+superoxide+and+hydrogen+peroxide+as+the+source+of+mitochondrial+redox+signaling.">Mitochondrial generation of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide as the source of mitochondrial redox signaling.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 100, 14-31 (2016).</li><li>Massey, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+molecular+oxygen+by+flavins+and+flavoproteins.">Activation of molecular oxygen by flavins and flavoproteins.</a> J Biol Chem. 269 (36), 22459-22462 (1994).</li><li>Mailloux, R. J., Gardiner, D., O'Brien, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=2-Oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase+is+a+more+significant+source+of+O2(.-)/H2O2+than+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+in+cardiac+and+liver+tissue.">2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase is a more significant source of O2(.-)/H2O2 than pyruvate dehydrogenase in cardiac and liver tissue.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 97, 501-512 (2016).</li><li>Sies, H., Berndt, C., Jones, D. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+Stress.">Oxidative Stress.</a> Annu Rev Biochem. 86, 715-748 (2017).</li><li>Kuksal, N., Chalker, J., Mailloux, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Review.+Progress+in+understanding+the+molecular+oxygen+paradox+-+function+of+mitochondrial+reactive+oxygen+species+in+cell+signaling.">Review. Progress in understanding the molecular oxygen paradox - function of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species in cell signaling.</a> Biol Chem. , (2017).</li><li>Murphy, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+mitochondria+produce+reactive+oxygen+species.">How mitochondria produce reactive oxygen species.</a> Biochem J. 417 (1), 1-13 (2009).</li><li>Wong, H. S., Dighe, P. A., Mezera, V., Monternier, P. A., Brand, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+superoxide+and+hydrogen+peroxide+from+specific+mitochondrial+sites+under+different+bioenergetic+conditions.">Production of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide from specific mitochondrial sites under different bioenergetic conditions.</a> J Biol Chem. , (2017).</li><li>Harper, M. E., Green, K., Brand, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+efficiency+of+cellular+energy+transduction+and+its+implications+for+obesity.">The efficiency of cellular energy transduction and its implications for obesity.</a> Annu Rev Nutr. 28, 13-33 (2008).</li><li>Ambrus, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+reactive+oxygen+species+by+human+and+bacterial+pyruvate+and+2-oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase+multienzyme+complexes+reconstituted+from+recombinant+components.">Formation of reactive oxygen species by human and bacterial pyruvate and 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes reconstituted from recombinant components.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 89, 642-650 (2015).</li><li>Tretter, L., Adam-Vizi, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+reactive+oxygen+species+in+the+reaction+catalyzed+by+alpha-ketoglutarate+dehydrogenase.">Generation of reactive oxygen species in the reaction catalyzed by alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.</a> J Neurosci. 24 (36), 7771-7778 (2004).</li><li>Slade, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Examination+of+the+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+forming+and+quenching+potential+of+mouse+liver+mitochondria.">Examination of the superoxide/hydrogen peroxide forming and quenching potential of mouse liver mitochondria.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta. 1861 (8), 1960-1969 (2017).</li><li>O'Brien, M., Chalker, J., Slade, L., Gardiner, D., Mailloux, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+S-glutathionylation+alters+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+emission+from+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+complex.">Protein S-glutathionylation alters superoxide/hydrogen peroxide emission from pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 106, 302-314 (2017).</li><li>Quinlan, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+2-oxoacid+dehydrogenase+complexes+in+mitochondria+can+produce+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+at+much+higher+rates+than+complex+I.">The 2-oxoacid dehydrogenase complexes in mitochondria can produce superoxide/hydrogen peroxide at much higher rates than complex I.</a> J Biol Chem. 289 (12), 8312-8325 (2014).</li><li>Mailloux, R. J., Craig Ayre, D., Christian, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+mitochondrial+reactive+oxygen+species+production+by+GSH+mediated+S-glutathionylation+of+2-oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase.">Induction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production by GSH mediated S-glutathionylation of 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase.</a> Redox Biol. 8, 285-297 (2016).</li><li>Mailloux, R. J., Gardiner, D., O'Brien, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=2-Oxoglutarate+dehydrogenase+is+a+more+significant+source+of+O2(.-)/H2O2+than+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+in+cardiac+and+liver+tissue.">2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase is a more significant source of O2(.-)/H2O2 than pyruvate dehydrogenase in cardiac and liver tissue.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 97, 501-512 (2016).</li><li>Ambrus, A., Adam-Vizi, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+dihydrolipoamide+dehydrogenase+(E3)+deficiency:+Novel+insights+into+the+structural+basis+and+molecular+pathomechanism.">Human dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3) deficiency: Novel insights into the structural basis and molecular pathomechanism.</a> Neurochem Int. , (2017).</li><li>Young, A., Gardiner, D., Brosnan, M. E., Brosnan, J. T., Mailloux, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+levels+of+formate+activate+mitochondrial+superoxide/hydrogen+peroxide+release+from+mouse+liver+mitochondria.">Physiological levels of formate activate mitochondrial superoxide/hydrogen peroxide release from mouse liver mitochondria.</a> FEBS Lett. 591 (16), 2426-2438 (2017).</li><li>Fisher-Wellman, K. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+glutathione+depletion+reveals+a+novel+role+for+the+pyruvate+dehydrogenase+complex+as+a+key+H2O2-emitting+source+under+conditions+of+nutrient+overload.">Mitochondrial glutathione depletion reveals a novel role for the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex as a key H2O2-emitting source under conditions of nutrient overload.</a> Free Radic Biol Med. 65, 1201-1208 (2013).</li><li>Kussmaul, L., Hirst, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanism+of+superoxide+production+by+NADH:ubiquinone+oxidoreductase+(complex+I)+from+bovine+heart+mitochondria.">The mechanism of superoxide production by NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) from bovine heart mitochondria.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103 (20), 7607-7612 (2006).</li><li>Huang, L. 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I., Chinte, U., Du, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+of+glycerol-3-phosphate+dehydrogenase,+an+essential+monotopic+membrane+enzyme+involved+in+respiration+and+metabolism.">Structure of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, an essential monotopic membrane enzyme involved in respiration and metabolism.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 105 (9), 3280-3285 (2008).</li></ol>

There is nothing to disclose.

This protocol is advantageous since, 1) it eliminates any competing reactions that may otherwise interfere with H2O2 detection (e.g., antioxidant systems or other sources of ROS), 2) provides a direct assessment of the native rate of ROS release by a flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenase, 3) allows the comparison of the native ROS release rates of two or more purified flavin-based dehydrogenases, 4) can allow for a direct comparison of the rate of ROS release and enzyme activity, an...

The ultimate goal of nutrient metabolism is to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In mammalian cells, this occurs in mitochondria, double-membraned organelles that convert the energy stored in carbon into ATP. The production of ATP begins when carbon is combusted by mitochondria forming two electron carriers, NADH and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2)1. NADH and FADH2 are then oxidized by multi-subunit respiratory complexes I and II, respectively, and the liberated electrons are ferried to the terminal electron acceptor molecular oxygen (O2) at complex IV1. The thermodynamically favorable &#34;downhill&#34; transfer of electrons to O2 at the end of the chain is coupled to the export of protons into the intermembrane space by complexes I, III, and IV. This creates a transmembrane electrochemical gradient of protons (proton-motive force), a temporary form of Gibbs free energy that is tapped by complex V to make ATP2. Electron transfer reactions in mitochondria are not perfectly coupled to ATP production. At various points in the Krebs cycle and the respiratory chain, electrons can prematurely interact with O2 to form ROS3. The most biologically relevant ROS generated by mitochondria are O2&#9679;- and H2O2. Although O2&#9679;- is often considered the proximal ROS formed by mitochondria, it is now evident that sites of production form a mixture of O2&#9679;- and H2O2, which is associated with the free radical chemistry of flavin prosthetic groups4,5. At high levels, ROS can be dangerous, damaging biological constituents required for cell function resulting in oxidative distress6. However, at low amounts, mitochondrial ROS fulfill vital signaling functions. For instance, H2O2 release from mitochondria has been implicated in controlling T-cell activation, stress signaling (e.g., induction of Nrf2 signaling pathways), the induction of cell proliferation and differentiation, insulin signaling and release, and feeding behavior7. Considerable progress has been made in understanding the signaling function of ROS. However, important questions still remain in regard to which enzymes in mitochondria serve as the most important sources and how production is controlled.
ROS release by a site of production depends on several factors: 1) the concentration of the electron donating site, 2) the redox state of the electron donating site, 3) access to oxygen, and 4) the concentration and type of oxidation substrate3,8,9. In mitochondria, other factors like the concentration of NADH and membrane potential strength also influence ROS production8,10. For example, the rate of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production by purified PDHC or KGDHC increases with increasing NADH availability5,11. In this scenario, electrons are flowing backwards from NADH to the FAD center in the E3 subunit of PDHC or KGDHC, the site for O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production12. Similarly, the provision of NAD+ has the opposite effect, decreasing ROS release from KGDHC12. Thus, controlling entry or exit of electrons from sites of ROS production can alter how much O2&#9679;-/H2O2 is formed. For instance, blocking the E2 subunit of PDHC or KGDHC with CPI-613, a lipoic acid analog, results in an almost 90% decrease in O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production13. Similar results can be obtained with the chemical S-glutathionylation catalysts, diamide and disulfiram, which almost abolish O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production by PDHC or KGDHC via the conjugation of glutathione to the E2 subunit14. The trade-off for blocking electron flow through the E2 subunit of PDHC and KGDHC is a decrease in NADH production which diminishes ROS formation by the electron transport chain (e.g., complex III). This can also decrease ATP output by the electron transport chain. Overall, blocking electron entry to sites of ROS production can be a highly effective means of controlling O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production.
Mitochondria can contain up to 12 potential O2&#9679;-/H2O2 sources6. Most of these sites are flavin-containing enzymes which generate a mixture of O2&#9679;- and H2O2. Use of different substrate and inhibitor combinations have allowed for the identification of which respiratory complexes and mitochondrial dehydrogenases serve as high capacity O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming sites in different tissues3. PDHC and KGDHC have been shown to serve as high capacity O2&#9679;-/H2O2 emitting sites in muscle and liver mitochondria13,15. However, some difficulties remain in regard to the examination of the O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming potential of individual sites in mitochondria and the impact that different substrate and inhibitor combinations have on the activities of the enzymes. This is due to the presence of unwanted side reactions (e.g., formation of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 by sites other than the enzyme of interest), contaminating endogenous nutrients (e.g.,fatty acids) or organelles (e.g., peroxisomes which also form O2&#9679;-/H2O2), and use of inhibitors that lack selectivity, and/or use of compounds that do not fully inhibit ROS production. Certain inhibitors can also alter the mitochondrial bioenergetics and direction of electron flow, and this alters ROS release from other sites of production and confounds results. Absolute rates for O2&#9679;-/H2O2 release from individual sites in mitochondria are also difficult to quantify due to the high concentration of O2&#9679;- and H2O2 eliminating enzymes in the matrix and intermembrane space. Therefore, elimination of any competing reactions that can interfere with O2&#9679;-/H2O2 release measurements can be useful when identifying high capacity O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming sites.
Here, we present a simple method that allows for the simultaneous examination of O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production and NADH formation by purified flavin-dependent dehydrogenases. By using purified enzymes, unwanted ROS forming side reactions and ROS degrading enzymes can be eliminated allowing for a more accurate measure of native O2&#9679;-/H2O2 production rates for individual flavoenzymes. This method can be used to directly compare the O2&#9679;-/H2O2 forming capacity of different purified dehydrogenases or to screen potential site-specific inhibitors for O2&#9679;-/H2O2 release. Finally, measuring O2&#9679;-/H2O2 and NADH production simultaneously can allow for a real-time assessment of the relationship between enzyme activity and ROS release capacity.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P7032-10UN</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">purified flavoenzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">K1502-20UN</td>
			<td>purified flavoenzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">30% hydrogen peroxide solution</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">HX0640-5</td>
			<td>reagent, standard curves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NAD+</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N0632-1G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NADH</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N4505-100MG</td>
			<td>reagent, standard curves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">pyruvate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P2256-5G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">alpha-ketoglutarate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">75892-25G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CoASH</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C3019-25MG</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">thiamine pyrophosphate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C8754-1G</td>
			<td>reagent, activity/ROS release assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">mannitol</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M4125-100G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Hepes</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H3375-25G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">sucrose</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S7903-250G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">EGTA</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E3889-10G</td>
			<td>buffer component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">KMV</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">198978-5G</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release inhibitor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">CPI-613</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Santa Cruz</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">sc-482709</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release inhibitor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">SOD</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S9697-15KU</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">horseradish peroxidase</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P8375-1KU</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Amplex Ultra Red</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A36006</td>
			<td>reagent, ROS release detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Biotech Synergy 2 microplate reader</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">BioTek Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>microplate reader for assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Gen5 software</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">BioTek Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>software, used for collection of raw RFU</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Graphpad Prism</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Graphpad software</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>software, data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Microsoft EXCEL</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Microsoft</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>software, data analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

simultaneous measurement of superoxide/hydrogen peroxide and nadh production by flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenases

It has been reported that mitochondria can contain up to 12 enzymatic sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A majority of these sites include flavin-dependent respiratory complexes and dehydrogenases that produce a mixture of superoxide (O2&#9679;-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Accurate quantification of the ROS-producing potential of individual sites in isolated mitochondria can be challenging due to the presence of antioxidant defense systems&#160;and side reactions that also form O2&#9679;-/H2O2. Use&#160;of nonspecific inhibitors that can disrupt mitochondrial bioenergetics can also compromise measurements by altering&#160;ROS release from other sites of production. Here, we present an easy method for the simultaneous measurement of H2O2 release and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) production by purified flavin-linked dehydrogenases. For our purposes here, we have used purified pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) and &#945;-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC) of porcine heart origin as examples. This method allows for an accurate measure of native H2O2 release rates by individual sites of production by eliminating other potential sources of ROS and antioxidant systems. In addition, this method allows for a direct comparison of the relationship between H2O2 release and enzyme activity and the screening of the effectiveness and selectivity of inhibitors for ROS production. Overall, this approach can allow for the in-depth assessment of native rates of ROS release for individual enzymes prior to conducting more sophisticated experiments with isolated mitochondria or permeabilized muscle fiber.

Figure 3A provides a representative trace for the RFU collected during the simultaneous measurement of H2O2 and NADH production by purified KGDHC. The raw RFU data for each time interval is depicted in Figure 3B. The raw RFU data are then exported for analysis. By extrapolating from standard curves presented in Figure 2, the absolute amount of NADH and H2O2...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous Measurement of Superoxide/Hydrogen Peroxide and NADH Production by Flavin-containing Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases at JoVE.com

Simultaneous Measurement of Superoxide/Hydrogen Peroxide and NADH Production by Flavin-containing Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases

Mitochondria contain several flavin-dependent enzymes that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Monitoring ROS release from individual sites in mitochondria is challenging due to unwanted side reactions. We present an easy, inexpensive method for direct assessment of native rates for ROS release using purified flavoenzymes and microplate fluorometry.

It has been reported that mitochondria can contain up to 12 enzymatic sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A majority of these sites include ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to quantify the superoxide/hydrogen peroxide and NADH production rate of purified flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenases using microplate fluorometry. Mitrochondria can contain up to 12 different superoxide/hydrogen peroxide forming sites which have been identified using different substrate and inhibitor combinations with isolated mitochondria. However, some difficulties still remain in regard to accurately quantifying the release capacity of individual sites of production in isolated mitochondria.And this is associated with unwanted side reactions that also produce reactive oxygen species, but also the presence of antioxidants and the use of inhibitors that lack specificity in addition to the use of additives that can interfere with measurements. Here we present the method for the simultaneous measure of superoxide/hydrogen peroxide and NADH production by purified flavin-dependent mitochondrial dehydrogenases. This method is advantageous since it can allow for the direct and accurate quantification of the ROS-producing potential of individual sites of production by eliminating unwanted side reactions and any reactive oxygen species quenching systems.The simultaneous measure of both ROS and NADH production also allows for direct comparison of the superoxide/hydrogen peroxide forming potential and activity of individual enzymes which can be valuable for screening inhibitors for ROS production prior to conducting assays with mitochondria. For our purposes here, we will be using pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex of porcine heart origin as examples. Both are flavin-containing enzymes and known sources for reactive oxygen species.In addition, these two enzymes can be easily purified. The simultaneous measurement of superoxide/hydrogen peroxide and NADH is achieved by tracking changes in florescence. NADH has its own intrinsic florescence properties which allows for easy measurement of its production.Changes in superoxide/hydrogen peroxide meanwhile requires superoxide dismutatase, horseradish peroxidase and amplex ultrared reagent. In the presence of horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide, the amplex ultrared is converted from a non-fluorescent molecule to fluorescent resorufin. Superoxide dismutase ensures that any superoxide formed by the dehydrogenase being studied is converted to hydrogen peroxide.Prior to setting up the assay, working solutions are prepared. To streamline the assay, all reagents are added to the wells of a 96-well black plate in 20-microliter aliquots. The volume for each reaction in the well is 200 microliters, therefore working solutions are 10 times the concentration found in the reaction well.Next, program the microplate reader to run a kinetic assay for the dual measurement of NADH autoflorescence and resorufin florescence. This is done by first selecting Procedure and setting it to 25 degrees Celsius. Next, click Start Kinetic.Set the time to run for approximately five minutes followed by selection of a fluorescent read interval of 30 seconds. Next, click Read and set the fluorescent measurement parameters for your assay. Here the position of the probe, the wavelengths used for tracking changes in florescence and the wells that will be read are inputed into the software.The different channels for the fluorescent reads are also selected with one being dedicated to the autoflorescence of NADH, which is set to 376 nanometers excitation and 450 nanometer emission wavelengths. Changes in resorufin florescence are tracked at 565 nanometers and 600 nanometers. Once the assay conditions have been set up, individual wells are loaded with buffer and different reagents required to measure both NADH and superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production at the same time.The order for loading the wells with different reagents is as follows. First, the requisite amount of buffer is added to the well followed by the addition of 20 microliters of purified enzyme solution. The enzyme is equilibrated in the buffer for a few minutes inside the instrument.And then, the remaining reagents are added in the following order. Once the substrate has been added, press Start. The plate carrier will enter the reader and the protocol will be initiated.During the assay, realtime outputs for raw relative fluorescent units, or RFUs, can be tracked using the software. The user can flip between the different fluorescent reads by using the Data tab above the well layout. Note that curves for the different fluorescent reads can be selected.In addition, by holding Control on the keyboard and left-clicking on the wells, one can yield a composite graph allowing for the realtime comparisons of the different reactions. Upon completion of the experiment, the microplate carrier will exit the instrument. At this point, results in the representative graph for changes in RFU are exported to Excel.Raw RFU values are exported by first clicking on Data on the representative RFU graph. This will yield a table of raw RFU values for NADH and resorufin florescence. Not that raw RFU numbers corresponding to changes in NADH or resorufin florescence cannot be exported simultaneously.Once exported, results are organized for analysis. Using standard curves for NADH and resorufin florescence generated prior to conducting the assay, the amount of NADH in micromole and superoxide/hydrogen peroxide in picomole formed over time can be calculated. This can be followed by calculating the rate of NADH and superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production.For this procedure, it is vital to check the purity of your isolated flavin-containing dehydrogenase prior to conducting assays. This can be achieved by conducting a simple coomassie stain for proteins or by assaying the activity of the enzyme in the presence of different substrates. Note that it is advised that reducing agents like DTT should be omitted from the assay since it can serve as a substrate for superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production by flavin-linked dehydrogenases.Overall, this method is highly flexible in that it can be used to screen inhibitors for superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production and also allow for a direct comparison of the ROS-forming capacity of different flavin-linked mitochondrial dehydrogenases. After watching this video, you should have an intimate understanding of how to measure ROS and NADH production by purified dehydrogenases. This assay can serve as a stepping stone for more sophisticated experiments with isolated mitochondria.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

10.0K Görüntüleme.  Memorial University of Newfoundland. The overall goal of this procedure is to quantify the superoxide/hydrogen peroxide and NADH production rate of purified flavin-containing mitochondrial dehydrogenases using microplate fluorometry. Mitrochondria can contain up to 12 different superoxide/hydrogen peroxide forming sites which have been identified using different substrate and inhibitor combinations with isolated mitochondria. However, some difficulties still remain in regard to accurately quantifying the release capacity of indi...