The authors are grateful for the financial support of this work by the U.S. National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0719232, by the U.S. Department of Energy (DEFG02-01ER15129), and by Protea Biosciences, Inc. (Morgantown, WV). The authors would also like to thank Jessica A. Stolee for her help during the videotaping of the protocol.

The following protocol describes the major steps of the laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) experiment and provides representative examples for lateral and three-dimensional (3D) imaging for animal and plant tissue samples. Additional experimental and technical details can be obtained from elsewhere.1-6
1. Tissue Preparation and Mounting
<ol>
 <li>If sectioning is needed, use a cryomicrotome to section the tissue into 10-100 &mu;m thick slices at -10 to -20 &deg;C unless otherwise recommended for a particular tissue type.</li>
 <li>Mount sections onto a flat surface (e.g., chemically pre-cleaned glass slide) directly without chemical modifiers. For sectioned tissues, thaw-mount the sections and secure the sample holder to a Peltier-cooling stage immediately upon thaw-mounting to keep the tissue frozen at all times during analysis. This step is needed to minimize/prevent molecular migration in the section.</li>
 <li>If needed, use a heat sink equipped with a low-power fan to facilitate heat removal from the Peltier-stage to maintain the tissue frozen.</li>
 <li>In a humid environment over an extended period of time (1-2 hours), inspect for condensation of water or ice on the tissue surface. Water condensation on the tissue detrimentally affects the imaging performance in LAESI experiments.1</li>
 <li>If needed, use a room dehumidifier or place the cooled sample in an environmental chamber filled with an inert gas (e.g., dry nitrogen gas) to prevent condensation.1</li>
</ol>
2. Optimization of the LAESI Ion Source
The LAESI ion source consists of a mid-infrared laser, a series of optical elements for light steering and focusing as well as additional sample holders, cooling components, translation stages, and a solvent delivery system. Figure 1 demonstrates the typical arrangement of these elements with respect to the entrance of the atmospheric-pressure ion source of a mass spectrometer.
<ol>
 <li>As illustrated in Figure 1, position the sample 15-20 mm below the orifice of the mass spectrometer sampling cone (dOR-FP).</li>
 <li>Operate a mid-IR laser at 2.94 &mu;m wavelength and 10 Hz repetition rate. Attenuate the laser output to ~100 &mu;J/pulse energy.</li>
 <li>Use a combination of gold mirrors and a focusing lens transparent at the laser wavelength (e.g., a plano-convex CaF2 or ZnSe lens) to couple the laser pulse energy into the sample at normal incidence (see right incidence angle with respect to sample surface in Figure 1).</li>
 <li>Position the mid-infrared beam axis 5-8 mm in front of the orifice of the mass spectrometer sampling cone.</li>
 <li>Adjust the focusing lens position and the pulse energy of the laser beam to achieve tissue removal in the focal spot. The dimensions of the ablated volume determine the pixel (or voxel in three-dimensional imaging) size for the imaging application.</li>
 <li>Position a nanospray emitter in line with the inlet axis of the mass spectrometer and at an orifice-to-emitter tip distance of ~10 mm (see Figure 1).</li>
 <li>For the electrospray, prepare 50% methanol solution with 0.1% acetic acid or 0.1% ammonium acetate additive for positive or negative ion mode, respectively. Depending on the sample, other organic solvents, such as acetonitrile, isopropanol, etc., may replace methanol at concentrations appropriate for the analytical task. The stability of the electrospray is crucial for successful imaging. Depending on the solvent selection, the flow rate and the spraying voltage need to be adjusted to achieve stable spray.</li>
 <li>For reactive LAESI6 in imaging applications, the electrosprayed solution may contain reactants.</li>
 <li>Use a syringe pump to deliver the electrospray solution through the electrospray emitter at a flow rate of ~300 nL/min.</li>
 <li>If the mass spectrometer orifice is kept at a low voltage (&lt;500 V measured against ground), generate electrospray by applying high voltage directly to the electrospray emitter (e.g., 3000 V) or through a metal union. Otherwise, ground directly the electrospray emitter or through metal union to establish electrospray.</li>
 <li>Operate the electrospray source in cone-jet spraying mode for most efficient ion generation by LAESI. For the effect of operating variables on the spraying modes and their effect on the mass spectra, see discussions elsewhere.5,7,8</li>
 <li>Carefully adjust the relative distances of the LAESI setup to optimize for LAESI ion yield while keeping the laser beam, the emitter, and the orifice axes in the same plane. Please find detailed instructions elsewhere.5</li>
 <li>With an optical microscope, determine the lateral dimensions of the ablation crater on the sample.</li>
 <li>For three-dimensional LAESI imaging experiments, perform ablation with individual pulses and determine the depth of a voxel using, for example, the z-stack mode in optical microscopy.3</li>
</ol>
3. Molecular Imaging and Data Analysis
In the imaging experiment, the tissue sample is moved in the focal plane of the laser in X and Y directions with step sizes larger than or equal to the dimensions of the ablation spot. The spatial resolution is limited by the focusing of the incident laser beam.
<ol>
 <li>Select the area of interest on the sample surface and obtain the (X, Y) coordinates of the corresponding boundaries.</li>
 <li>Chose a gridding algorithm (e.g., adaptive grid, selected region imaging, rectangular grid, spiral pattern, Z scanning, etc.) with which to raster the sample surface with selected dwell time at each pixel over the area to be imaged.</li>
 <li>Use a three-axis translation stage and software that is capable of rastering the sample according to the predetermined grid.</li>
 <li>Calculate the total time required for imaging.</li>
 <li>Disable the data acquisition time limit of the mass spectrometer. If this is not possible, set the data acquisition time limit to the calculated imaging time value.</li>
 <li>Start the mid-infrared laser source at a repetition rate proper to produce sufficient signal-to-noise ratio in the mass spectrum within the dwell time at each pixel to perform a LAESI lateral imaging experiment. For 3D molecular imaging, use a spectrum acquisition rate higher than the laser source repetition rate to successfully mass-analyze the ions generated within a single laser pulse. Wait for the START signal to initiate the ablation sequence.</li>
 <li>Turn on the electrospray source. Make sure that there is enough solution for the full time required for imaging.</li>
 <li>Simultaneously START the acquisition of mass spectra, the mid-IR laser ablation, and the surface scanning.</li>
 <li>When the imaging run has finished, STOP the surface scanning, the mid-IR lasing, and the data acquisition.</li>
 <li>Disable the laser source.</li>
 <li>Turn off the high voltage.</li>
 <li>Switch off the syringe pump.</li>
 <li>Set the mass spectrometer to STANDBY mode.</li>
 <li>Turn off the Peltier-cooling electronics.</li>
 <li>Close inert gas flow if used.</li>
 <li>Use a software to correlate the absolute coordinates of the pixels in lateral imaging or the voxels in 3D analysis with the corresponding spectra.</li>
 <li>Plot the ion intensity signal for a selected m/z value against the absolute coordinates of analysis to obtain lateral and 3D molecular images.</li>
</ol>
4. Representative Results
Figure 2 gives representative results for some major tissue types and imaging modalities. Panel A depicts a case for an animal tissue section that has been frozen during the experiment to prevent dehydration.1 In addition, the sample was located in a dry nitrogen gas environment to avoid ambient water vapors from condensing on the sample surface. A 100-&mu;m-thick coronal section of a rat brain (Rattus norvegicus) was laterally imaged with LAESI. The anatomical regions of the brain (see optical image in panel A) show good correlation with the molecular image obtained for the plasmalogens PC(O-33:3) and/or PE(O-36:3) with m/z 728.559.
Panel B shows the 3D LAESI imaging of a Zebra plant (Aphelandra squarrosa) leaf tissue. Because leaves possess a natural defense mechanism against dehydration, the sample could be interrogated in the ambient environment.3 The obtained 3D molecular images revealed a variety of distribution patterns for primary and secondary metabolites. Among others, acacetin with m/z 285.076 was detected at higher ion counts in the yellow sectors of the second and third layers from the top with a homogeneous distribution in the others. This distribution agreed with the pattern of the variegation seen in the optical image.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2097/2097fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1. Schematic of the LAESI system (ES, electrospray emitter tip; OR, orifice of mass spectrometer sampling cone; FL, focusing lens; FP, focal point; P, Peltier cooling stage; HS, heat sink). A portion of the particulate matter expelled during mid-IR ablation (red dots) coalesces with the electrospray to yield charged droplets seeded with molecules and ions of the sample (green dots). The ions released from these droplets are analyzed and recorded by the mass spectrometer.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2097/2097fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> Figure 2. Representative results for lateral and 3D imaging with LAESI mass spectrometry. (A) The top panel depicts the optical image of a rat brain (Rattus norvegicus) coronal section and the molecular image obtained for the plasmalogens PC(O-33:3) and/or PE(O-36:3) with m/z 728.559. The white scale bar corresponds to 1 mm. Adapted with permission from (Reference 1). Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society. (B) The bottom panel shows the 3D imaging of a leaf from a variegated Zebra plant (Aphelandra squarrosa). Acacetin with m/z 285.076 was detected at higher ion counts in the yellow sectors of the second and third layers from the top with a homogeneous distribution in the others. Reprinted with permission from (Reference 3). Copyright 2009 American Chemical Society.

<ol>
	<li>Nemes, P., Woods, A. S., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+Imaging+of+Small+Metabolites+and+Lipids+in+Rat+Brain+Tissues+at+Atmospheric-Pressure+by+Laser+Ablation+Electrospray+Ionization+Mass+Spectrometry.">Simultaneous Imaging of Small Metabolites and Lipids in Rat Brain Tissues at Atmospheric-Pressure by Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.</a> Anal Chem. 82, 982-988 (2010).</li><li>Nemes, P., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+ablation+electrospray+ionization+for+atmospheric-pressure,+in+vivo,+and+imaging+mass+spectrometry.">Laser ablation electrospray ionization for atmospheric-pressure, in vivo, and imaging mass spectrometry.</a> Anal Chem. 79, 8098-8106 (2007).</li><li>Nemes, P., Barton, A. A., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+imaging+of+metabolites+in+tissues+under+ambient+conditions+by+laser+ablation+electrospray+ionization+mass+spectrometry.">Three-dimensional imaging of metabolites in tissues under ambient conditions by laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.</a> Anal Chem. 81, 6668-6675 (2009).</li><li>Nemes, P., Barton, A. A., Li, Y., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ambient+molecular+imaging+and+depth+profiling+of+live+tissue+by+infrared+laser+ablation+electrospray+ionization+mass+spectrometry.">Ambient molecular imaging and depth profiling of live tissue by infrared laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.</a> Anal Chem. 80, 4575-4582 (2008).</li><li>Nemes, P., Vertes, A., Nemes, S. S., Rubakhin, J. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+ablation+electrospray+ionization+for+atmospheric-pressure+molecular+imaging+mass+spectrometry.+Mass+Spectrometry+Imaging.">Laser ablation electrospray ionization for atmospheric-pressure molecular imaging mass spectrometry. Mass Spectrometry Imaging.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. , (2010).</li><li>Shrestha, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+analysis+of+lipids+and+small+metabolites+in+mouse+brain+tissue+by+AP+IR-MALDI+and+reactive+LAESI+mass+spectrometry.">Direct analysis of lipids and small metabolites in mouse brain tissue by AP IR-MALDI and reactive LAESI mass spectrometry.</a> Analyst. 135, 751-758 (2010).</li><li>Nemes, P., Marginean, I., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spraying+mode+effect+on+droplet+formation+and+ion+chemistry+in+electrosprays.">Spraying mode effect on droplet formation and ion chemistry in electrosprays.</a> Anal Chem. 79, 3105-3116 (2007).</li><li>Nemes, P., Goyal, S., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conformational+and+noncovalent+complexation+changes+in+proteins+during+electrospray+ionization.">Conformational and noncovalent complexation changes in proteins during electrospray ionization.</a> Anal Chem. 80, 387-395 (2008).</li><li>Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+imaging+by+Mid-IR+laser+ablation+mass+spectrometry.">Molecular imaging by Mid-IR laser ablation mass spectrometry.</a> Appl Phys A-Mater Sci Process. 93, 885-891 (2008).</li><li>Shrestha, B., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+metabolic+profiling+of+single+cells+by+laser+ablation+electrospray+ionization+mass+spectrometry.">In situ metabolic profiling of single cells by laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.</a> Anal Chem. 81, 8265-8271 (2009).</li><li>Cooks, R. G., Ouyang, Z., Takats, Z., Wiseman, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ambient+mass+spectrometry.">Ambient mass spectrometry.</a> Science. 311, 1566-1570 (2006).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

Different tissue types exhibit varying water content and tensile strength, which, in turn, can affect the ablation characteristics of the samples.9 To mitigate these effects, it is desired that the laser fluence, sample handling, and analysis protocols be revised when changing between major tissue types.
For single cell or higher resolution investigations, the mid-infrared light can be coupled into a sharpened optical fiber instead of a focusing lens.10 By positioning the fiber tip within close proximity of the selected cells in a tissue, LAESI analysis can be performed on a single-cell level.
As a label-free ion source for ambient ionization mass spectrometry,11 LAESI has shown great potential for the investigation of biochemical processes in tissues. With the added benefits of direct analysis, lateral and 3D imaging, LAESI is an emerging bioanalytical tool for profiling as well as imaging applications.

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atmospheric-pressure molecular imaging of biological tissues and biofilms by laesi mass spectrometry

Ambient ionization methods in mass spectrometry allow analytical investigations to be performed directly on a tissue or biofilm under native-like experimental conditions. Laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) is one such development and is particularly well-suited for the investigation of water-containing specimens. LAESI utilizes a mid-infrared laser beam (2.94 &mu;m wavelength) to excite the water molecules of the sample. When the ablation fluence threshold is exceeded, the sample material is expelled in the form of particulate matter and these projectiles travel to tens of millimeters above the sample surface. In LAESI, this ablation plume is intercepted by highly charged droplets to capture a fraction of the ejected sample material and convert its chemical constituents into gas-phase ions. A mass spectrometer equipped with an atmospheric-pressure ion source interface is employed to analyze and record the composition of the released ions originating from the probed area (pixel) of the sample. A systematic interrogation over an array of pixels opens a way for molecular imaging in the microprobe analysis mode. A unique aspect of LAESI mass spectrometric imaging is depth profiling that, in combination with lateral imaging, enables three-dimensional (3D) molecular imaging. With current lateral and depth resolutions of ~100 &mu;m and ~40 &mu;m, respectively, LAESI mass spectrometric imaging helps to explore the molecular structure of biological tissues. Herein, we review the major elements of a LAESI system and provide guidelines for a successful imaging experiment.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Atmospheric-pressure Molecular Imaging of Biological Tissues and Biofilms by LAESI Mass Spectrometry at JoVE.com

Atmospheric-pressure Molecular Imaging of Biological Tissues and Biofilms by LAESI Mass Spectrometry

Laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) is an atmospheric-pressure ion source for mass spectrometry. In the imaging mode, a mid-infrared laser probes the distributions of molecules across a tissue section or a biofilm. This technique presents a new approach for diverse bioanalytical studies carried out under native experimental conditions.

Ambient ionization methods in mass spectrometry allow analytical investigations to be performed directly on a tissue or biofilm under native-like ...

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14.1K Views.  George Washington University. Laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) is an atmospheric-pressure ion source for mass spectrometry. In the imaging mode, a mid-infrared laser probes the distributions of molecules across a tissue section or a biofilm. This technique presents a new approach for diverse bioanalytical studies carried out under native experimental conditions.

Video: Atmospheric-pressure Molecular Imaging of Biological Tissues and Biofilms by LAESI Mass Spectrometry

MALDI Sample Preparation: the Ultra Thin Layer Method

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) 1,2. The ultra-thin layer method involves the production of a substrate layer of matrix crystals (alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid) on the sample plate, which serves as a seeding ground for subsequent crystallization of a matrix/analyte mixture. Advantages of the ultra-thin layer method over other sample deposition approaches (e.g. dried droplet) are that it provides (i) greater tolerance to impurities such as salts and detergents, (ii) better resolution, and (iii) higher spatial uniformity. This method is especially useful for the accurate mass determination of proteins. The protocol was initially developed and optimized for the analysis of membrane proteins and used to successfully analyze ion channels, metabolite transporters, and receptors, containing between 2 and 12 transmembrane domains 2. Since the original publication, it has also shown to be equally useful for the analysis of soluble proteins. Indeed, we have used it for a large number of proteins having a wide range of properties, including those with molecular masses as high as 380 kDa 3. It is currently our method of choice for the molecular mass analysis of all proteins. The described procedure consistently produces high-quality spectra, and it is sensitive, robust, and easy to implement.

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS).

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption ...

Analyzing Large Protein Complexes by Structural Mass Spectrometry

Living cells control and regulate their biological processes through the coordinated action of a large number of proteins that assemble themselves into an array of dynamic, multi-protein complexes1. To gain a mechanistic understanding of the various cellular processes, it is crucial to determine the structure of such protein complexes, and reveal how their structural organization dictates their function. Many aspects of multi-protein complexes are, however, difficult to characterize, due to their heterogeneous nature, asymmetric structure, and dynamics. Therefore, new approaches are required for the study of the tertiary levels of protein organization.
One of the emerging structural biology tools for analyzing macromolecular complexes is mass spectrometry (MS)2-5. This method yields information on the complex protein composition, subunit stoichiometry, and structural topology. The power of MS derives from its high sensitivity and, as a consequence, low sample requirement, which enables examination of protein complexes expressed at endogenous levels. Another advantage is the speed of analysis, which allows monitoring of reactions in real time. Moreover, the technique can simultaneously measure the characteristics of separate populations co-existing in a mixture. 
Here, we describe a detailed protocol for the application of structural MS to the analysis of large protein assemblies. The procedure begins with the preparation of gold-coated capillaries for nanoflow electrospray ionization (nESI). It then continues with sample preparation, emphasizing the buffer conditions which should be compatible with nESI on the one hand, and enable to maintain complexes intact on the other. We then explain, step-by-step, how to optimize the experimental conditions for high mass measurements and acquire MS and tandem MS spectra. Finally, we chart the data processing and analyses that follow. Rather than attempting to characterize every aspect of protein assemblies, this protocol introduces basic MS procedures, enabling the performance of MS and MS/MS experiments on non-covalent complexes. Overall, our goal is to provide researchers unacquainted with the field of structural MS, with knowledge of the principal experimental tools.

Mass spectrometry has proven to be a valuable tool for analyzing large protein complexes. This method enables insights into the composition, stoichiometry and overall architecture of multi-subunit assemblies. Here, we describe, step-by-step, how to perform a structural mass spectrometry analysis, and characterize macromolecular structures.

Living cells control and regulate their biological processes through the coordinated action of a large number of proteins that assemble themselves into an ...

T-wave Ion Mobility-mass Spectrometry: Basic Experimental Procedures for Protein Complex Analysis

Ion mobility (IM) is a method that measures the time taken for an ion to travel through a pressurized cell under the influence of a weak electric field. The speed by which the ions traverse the drift region depends on their size: large ions will experience a greater number of collisions with the background inert gas (usually N2) and thus travel more slowly through the IM device than those ions that comprise a smaller cross-section. In general, the time it takes for the ions to migrate though the dense gas phase separates them, according to their collision cross-section (&Omega;). 
Recently, IM spectrometry was coupled with mass spectrometry and a traveling-wave (T-wave) Synapt ion mobility mass spectrometer (IM-MS) was released. Integrating mass spectrometry with ion mobility enables an extra dimension of sample separation and definition, yielding a three-dimensional spectrum (mass to charge, intensity, and drift time). This separation technique allows the spectral overlap to decrease, and enables resolution of heterogeneous complexes with very similar mass, or mass-to-charge ratios, but different drift times. Moreover, the drift time measurements provide an important layer of structural information, as &Omega; is related to the overall shape and topology of the ion. The correlation between the measured drift time values and &Omega; is calculated using a calibration curve generated from calibrant proteins with defined cross-sections1.
The power of the IM-MS approach lies in its ability to define the subunit packing and overall shape of protein assemblies at micromolar concentrations, and near-physiological conditions1. Several recent IM studies of both individual proteins2,3 and non-covalent protein complexes4-9, successfully demonstrated that protein quaternary structure is maintained in the gas phase, and highlighted the potential of this approach in the study of protein assemblies of unknown geometry. Here, we provide a detailed description of IMS-MS analysis of protein complexes using the Synapt (Quadrupole-Ion Mobility-Time-of-Flight) HDMS instrument (Waters Ltd; the only commercial IM-MS instrument currently available)10. We describe the basic optimization steps, the calibration of collision cross-sections, and methods for data processing and interpretation. The final step of the protocol discusses methods for calculating theoretical &Omega; values. Overall, the protocol does not attempt to cover every aspect of IM-MS characterization of protein assemblies; rather, its goal is to introduce the practical aspects of the method to new researchers in the field.

Ion mobility-mass spectrometry is an emerging gas-phase technology that separates ions, based on their collision cross-section and mass. The method provides three-dimensional information on the overall topology and shape of protein complexes. Here, we outline a basic procedure for instrument setting and optimization, calibration of drift times, and data interpretation.

Ion mobility (IM) is a method that measures the time taken for an ion to travel through a pressurized cell under the influence of a weak electric field. ...

Direct Analysis of Single Cells by Mass Spectrometry at Atmospheric Pressure

Analysis of biochemicals in single cells is important for understanding cell metabolism, cell cycle, adaptation, disease states, etc. Even the same cell types exhibit heterogeneous biochemical makeup depending on their physiological conditions and interactions with the environment. Conventional methods of mass spectrometry (MS) used for the analysis of biomolecules in single cells rely on extensive sample preparation. Removing the cells from their natural environment and extensive sample processing could lead to changes in the cellular composition. Ambient ionization methods enable the analysis of samples in their native environment and without extensive sample preparation.1 The techniques based on the mid infrared (mid-IR) laser ablation of biological materials at 2.94 &mu;m wavelength utilize the sudden excitation of water that results in phase explosion.2 Ambient ionization techniques based on mid-IR laser radiation, such as laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) and atmospheric pressure infrared matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (AP IR-MALDI), have successfully demonstrated the ability to directly analyze water-rich tissues and biofluids at atmospheric pressure.3-11 In LAESI the mid-IR laser ablation plume that mostly consists of neutral particulate matter from the sample coalesces with highly charged electrospray droplets to produce ions. Recently, mid-IR ablation of single cells was performed by delivering the mid-IR radiation through an etched fiber. The plume generated from this ablation was postionized by an electrospray enabling the analysis of diverse metabolites in single cells by LAESI-MS.12 This article describes the detailed protocol for single cell analysis using LAESI-MS. The presented video demonstrates the analysis of a single epidermal cell from the skin of an Allium cepa bulb. The schematic of the system is shown in Figure 1. A representative example of single cell ablation and a LAESI mass spectrum from the cell are provided in Figure 2.

Single cell analysis is performed by mass spectrometry on plant and animal cells at atmospheric pressure by using a sharpened optical fiber to sample the cells for laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) mass spectrometry.

Analysis of biochemicals in single cells is important for understanding cell metabolism, cell cycle, adaptation, disease states, etc. Even the same cell ...

Profiling Thiol Redox Proteome Using Isotope Tagging Mass Spectrometry

Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000 not only causes bacterial speck disease in Solanum lycopersicum but also on Brassica species, as well as on Arabidopsis thaliana, a genetically tractable host plant1,2. The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cotyledons inoculated with DC3000 indicates a role of ROS in modulating necrotic cell death during bacterial speck disease of tomato3. Hydrogen peroxide, a component of ROS, is produced after inoculation of tomato plants with Pseudomonas3. Hydrogen peroxide can be detected using a histochemical stain 3'-3' diaminobenzidine (DAB)4. DAB staining reacts with hydrogen peroxide to produce a brown stain on the leaf tissue4. ROS has a regulatory role of the cellular redox environment, which can change the redox status of certain proteins5. Cysteine is an important amino acid sensitive to redox changes. Under mild oxidation, reversible oxidation of cysteine sulfhydryl groups serves as redox sensors and signal transducers that regulate a variety of physiological processes6,7. Tandem mass tag (TMT) reagents enable concurrent identification and multiplexed quantitation of proteins in different samples using tandem mass spectrometry8,9. The cysteine-reactive TMT (cysTMT) reagents enable selective labeling and relative quantitation of cysteine-containing peptides from up to six biological samples. Each isobaric cysTMT tag has the same nominal parent mass and is composed of a sulfhydryl-reactive group, a MS-neutral spacer arm and an MS/MS reporter10. After labeling, the samples were subject to protease digestion. The cysteine-labeled peptides were enriched using a resin containing anti-TMT antibody. During MS/MS analysis, a series of reporter ions (i.e., 126-131 Da) emerge in the low mass region, providing information on relative quantitation. The workflow is effective for reducing sample complexity, improving dynamic range and studying cysteine modifications. Here we present redox proteomic analysis of the Pst DC3000 treated tomato (Rio Grande) leaves using cysTMT technology. This high-throughput method has the potential to be applied to studying other redox-regulated physiological processes.

Reactive oxygen species level is elevated when cells encounter stress conditions. Here we show the example of 3'-3' diaminobenzidine staining as well as cysTMT labeling and mass spectrometry to profile the redox proteome in Pseudomonas syringae treated tomato leaves.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000 not only causes bacterial speck disease in Solanum lycopersicum but also on Brassica species, as well as on ...

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) maintain the turnover of all mature blood cell lineages. The coordination of the complex signals leading to specific HSC fates relies upon the interaction between HSCs and the intricate bone marrow microenvironment, which is still poorly understood[1-2].
We describe how by combining a newly developed specimen holder for stable animal positioning with multi-step confocal and two-photon in vivo imaging techniques, it is possible to obtain high-resolution 3D stacks containing HSPCs and their surrounding niches and to monitor them over time through multi-point time-lapse imaging. High definition imaging allows detecting ex vivo labeled hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) residing within the bone marrow. Moreover, multi-point time-lapse 3D imaging, obtained with faster acquisition settings, provides accurate information about HSPC movement and the reciprocal interactions between HSPCs and stroma cells.
Tracking of HSPCs in relation to GFP positive osteoblastic cells is shown as an exemplary application of this method. This technique can be utilized to track any appropriately labeled hematopoietic or stromal cell of interest within the mouse calvarium bone marrow space.

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

The nature of the interactions between hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and bone marrow niches is poorly understood. Custom hardware modifications and a multi-step acquisition protocol allow the use of two-photon and confocal microscopy to image ex vivo labeled HSPCs homed within bone marrow areas, tracking interactions and movement.

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ...

Enrichment of Extracellular Matrix Proteins from Tissues and Digestion into Peptides for Mass Spectrometry Analysis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex meshwork of cross-linked proteins that provides biophysical and biochemical cues that are major regulators of cell proliferation, survival, migration, etc. The ECM plays important roles in development and in diverse pathologies including cardio-vascular and musculo-skeletal diseases, fibrosis, and cancer. Thus, characterizing the composition of ECMs of normal and diseased tissues could lead to the identification of novel prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and potential novel therapeutic targets. However, the very nature of ECM proteins (large in size, cross-linked and covalently bound, heavily glycosylated) has rendered biochemical analyses of ECMs challenging. To overcome this challenge, we developed a method to enrich ECMs from fresh or frozen tissues and tumors that takes advantage of the insolubility of ECM proteins. We describe here in detail the decellularization procedure that consists of sequential incubations in buffers of different pH and salt and detergent concentrations and that results in 1) the extraction of intracellular (cytosolic, nuclear, membrane and cytoskeletal) proteins and 2) the enrichment of ECM proteins. We then describe how to deglycosylate and digest ECM-enriched protein preparations into peptides for subsequent analysis by mass spectrometry.

This protocol describes a procedure for enriching ECM proteins from tissues or tumors and deglycosylating and digesting the ECM-enriched preparations into peptides to analyze their protein composition by mass spectrometry.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex meshwork of cross-linked proteins that provides biophysical and biochemical cues that are major regulators of ...

Applications of the Single-probe: Mass Spectrometry Imaging and Single Cell Analysis under Ambient Conditions

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and in-situ single cell mass spectrometry (SCMS) analysis under ambient conditions are two emerging fields with great potential for the detailed mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of biomolecules from biological samples. The single-probe, a miniaturized device with integrated sampling and ionization capabilities, is capable of performing both ambient MSI and in-situ SCMS analysis. For ambient MSI, the single-probe uses surface micro-extraction to continually conduct MS analysis of the sample, and this technique allows the creation of MS images with high spatial resolution (8.5 &#181;m) from biological samples such as mouse brain and kidney sections. Ambient MSI has the advantage that little to no sample preparation is needed before the analysis, which reduces the amount of potential artifacts present in data acquisition and allows a more representative analysis of the sample to be acquired. For in-situ SCMS, the single-probe tip can be directly inserted into live eukaryotic cells such as HeLa cells, due to the small sampling tip size (&lt; 10 &#181;m), and this technique is capable of detecting a wide range of metabolites inside individual cells at near real-time. SCMS enables a greater sensitivity and accuracy of chemical information to be acquired at the single cell level, which could improve our understanding of biological processes at a more fundamental level than previously possible. The single-probe device can be potentially coupled with a variety of mass spectrometers for broad ranges of MSI and SCMS studies.

Here, we present protocols to perform both ambient mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) of tissues and in-situ live single cell MS (SCMS) analysis using the single-probe, which is a miniaturized multifunctional device for MS analysis.

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and in-situ single cell mass spectrometry (SCMS) analysis under ambient conditions are two emerging fields with great ...

Quantitative Localization of a Golgi Protein by Imaging Its Center of Fluorescence Mass

The Golgi complex consists of serially stacked membrane cisternae which can be further categorized into sub-Golgi regions, including the cis-Golgi, medial-Golgi, trans-Golgi and trans-Golgi network. Cellular functions of the Golgi are determined by the characteristic distribution of its resident proteins. The spatial resolution of conventional light microscopy is too low to resolve sub-Golgi structure or cisternae. Thus, the immuno-gold electron microscopy is a method of choice to localize a protein at the sub-Golgi level. However, the technique and instrument are beyond the capability of most cell biology labs. We describe here our recently developed super-resolution method called Golgi protein localization by imaging centers of mass (GLIM) to systematically and quantitatively localize a Golgi protein. GLIM is based on standard fluorescence labeling protocols and conventional wide-field or confocal microscopes. It involves the calibration of chromatic-shift aberration of the microscopic system, the image acquisition and the post-acquisition analysis. The sub-Golgi localization of a test protein is quantitatively expressed as the localization quotient. There are four main advantages of GLIM; it is rapid, based on conventional methods and tools, the localization result is quantitative, and it affords ~ 30 nm practical resolution along the Golgi axis. Here we describe the detailed protocol of GLIM to localize a test Golgi protein.

The precise localization of Golgi residents is essential for understanding the cellular functions of the Golgi. However, conventional optical microscopy is unable to resolve the sub-Golgi structure. Here we describe the protocol for a conventional microscopy based super-resolution method to quantitatively determine the sub-Golgi localization of a protein.

The Golgi complex consists of serially stacked membrane cisternae which can be further categorized into sub-Golgi regions, including the cis-Golgi, ...

Biological Sample Preparation by High-pressure Freezing, Microwave-assisted Contrast Enhancement, and Minimal Resin Embedding for Volume Imaging

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the imaging modality in a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM), which is used to obtain stacks of sequential images for 3D reconstruction and modelling. High-pressure freezing (HPF) allows close to native structural preservation, but the subsequent freeze substitution often does not provide sufficient contrast, especially for a bigger specimen, which is needed for high-quality imaging in the SEM required for 3D reconstruction. Therefore, in this protocol, after the freeze substitution, additional contrasting steps are carried out at room temperature. Although these steps are performed in a microwave, it is also possible to follow traditional bench processing, which requires longer incubation times.The subsequent embedding in minimal amounts of resin allows for faster and more precise targeting and preparation inside the FIB-SEM. This protocol is especially useful for samples that require preparation by high-pressure freezing for a reliable ultrastructural preservation but do not gain enough contrast during the freeze substitution for volume imaging using FIB-SEM. In combination with the minimal resin embedding, this protocol provides an efficient workflow for the acquisition of high-quality volume data.

Here we present a protocol for combining two sample processing techniques, high-pressure freezing and microwave-assisted sample processing, followed by minimal resin embedding for acquiring data with a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM). This is demonstrated using a mouse tibial nerve sample and Caenorhabditis elegans.

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the ...