The authors acknowledge financial support by the following institutions; the National Science Foundation (Grant 0719232), the Department of Energy (Grant DEFG02-01ER15129), the W. M. Keck Foundation (Grant 041904), and the George Washington University Research Enhancement Fund. The authors are grateful for the GeO2-based optical fibers generously supplied by Infrared Fiber Systems (Silver Spring, MD) as well as for the initial discussion on the protocol regarding fiber etching by Mark E. Reeves and Joan A. Hoffmann of the George Washington University. The authors would also like to thank Jessica A. Stolee for her help during the videotaping of the protocol.

1. Optical Components
<ol>
<li>	Laser ablation for laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) mass spectrometry (MS) is produced by a 5 ns laser pulse at 2.94 &mu;m wavelength. A tunable optical parametric oscillator driven by a Nd:YAG laser (Opolette 100, Opotek Inc., Carlsbad, CA) is used for ablation in this study. The repetition rate is selected between 5 and 100 Hz. This is a class IV laser that upon direct exposure may cause severe permanent damage to the eye or skin. The diffuse reflection of the laser beam can also be hazardous to the skin or eye. Wear an appropriate laser goggle for protection. </li>
<li>	The optical fiber made of germanium dioxide-based glass was obtained from Infrared Fiber Systems, Inc. (Silver Spring, MD). If there are Hytrel and polyimide coatings on the fiber follow the directions below to remove them from the ends. Heat 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone to 130-150 &deg;C in a fume hood. Dip the fiber ends you want to strip into this liquid for approximately 1 min or until the coating starts to soften and peel off. Dip the softened coating into methanol or isopropanol for a minute, and wipe off any remaining coating with a lint-free napkin. After removing the coating, cleave both ends of the fiber with a sapphire blade (KITCO Fiber Optics, Virginia Beach, VA) by scoring and gently snapping them.</li>
<li>	To achieve the desired sharpness, chemically etch one end of the fiber tip by 1% (v/v) nitric acid (reagent grade) solution. Vertically immerse the selected end of the fiber into the acid solution to a depth of 300 to 500 &mu;m after the initial contact. After approximately 15 minutes of etching, the tip will spontaneously detach from the acid surface. This results in a sharpened fiber tip with ~15 &mu;m radius of curvature. Rinse with deionized water to remove any acid residue. </li>
<li>	Mount the etched end of the fiber on a micromanipulator (MN-151, Narishige, Tokyo, Japan) and bring it to close proximity (~20 &mu;m) of the cell surface for efficient energy deposition.</li>
<li>	Hold the non-etched end of the optical fiber by a bare fiber chuck (BFC300, Siskiyou Corporation, Grants Pass, OR). For optical alignment, the fiber chuck is mounted on a five-axis translator (BFT-5, Siskiyou Corporation, Grants Pass, OR). The laser energy (0.5 to 1 mJ) is coupled into the fiber by focusing the beam by a plano-convex calcium fluoride or antireflection coated ZnSe lens (Infrared Optical Products, Farmingdale, NY) onto its non-etched end. Protected gold mirrors (PF10-03-M01, Thorlabs, Newton, NJ) are used to steer the mid-IR laser beam onto the focusing lens.</li>
</ol>
2. Electrospray Setup
<ol>
<li>	The electrospray system can be constructed using the following components: metal union with conductive perfluoroelastomer ferrule, fittings, tubing sleeve, needle port (e.g., U-435, M215,F-331Nx, F-242x, 9013, respectively IDEX Health &amp; Sciences, Oak Harbor, WA) as well as fused silica tubing (e.g., CT360-100-50-5, New Objective Inc., Woburn, MA). The recommended emitter is made of stainless steel and has a tapered tip with a 50 &mu;m i.d. (e.g., MT320-50-5-5, New Objective Inc., Woburn, MA). </li>
<li>	Prepare 50% methanol solution with 0.1 % acetic acid (v/v) for the electrospray. The solution is pumped at a rate of 200 to 300 nl/min by a syringe pump (Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA) using, e.g., a 500 &mu;l syringe (81222, Hamilton Company, Reno, NV).</li>
<li>	Apply high voltage between 2,800 and 3,000 V to the metal union by a regulated power supply (PS350, Stanford Research Systems Inc, Sunnyvale, CA) to generate a steady electrospray. Make sure all electric connections are secure and shielded with the shielding properly grounded. Direct contact with exposed high voltage can result in electric shock. </li>
</ol>
3. Sample Handling
<ol>
<li>	Obtain the live tissue or cell sample from an appropriate source and keep them as recommended before the analysis. The Allium cepa bulbs for this demonstration were purchased from a local store. Cut a bulb longitudinally by a surgical scalpel. A few centimeter segment of a scale was sectioned into a strip. An intact monolayer of the inner epidermal tissue is peeled off. </li>
<li>	The wet surface of the epidermis is used to mount the tissue on a pre-cleaned glass microscope slide. Hold the slide by a general purpose plate holder (FP01, Thorlabs Inc., Newton, NJ) mounted on a three-axis translation stage for positioning. Acquire the mass spectra immediately after mounting the sample to prevent cell degradation.</li>
</ol>
4. Visualization System
<ol>
<li>	Two long distance microscopes are used to select the cells for analysis and to maintain the distance between the sharpened fiber tip and the cell surface. The latter is mounted under 15&deg;-30&deg; angle measured from the surface. This system consist of a long distance video microscope (7x precision zoom optic, Edmund Optics, Barrington, NJ) with a 5x infinity corrected objective lens (M Plan Apo 5x, Mitutoyo Co., Kanagawa, Japan) equipped with a CCD camera (Marlin F131, Allied Vision Technologies, Stadtroda, Germany) for monitoring and image capture.</li>
<li>	The second video microscope is mounted at a right angle to the sample surface to visualize the cells from the top. This system provides visual feedback to align the fiber tip over the cell selected for ablation and analysis. It consists of a 7x precision zoom optic (Edmund Optics, Barrington, NJ), fitted with a 10x infinity corrected long working distance objective lens (M Plan Apo 10x, Mitutoyo Co., Kanagawa, Japan) and a CCD camera.</li>
</ol>
5. Acquisition of Mass Spectra
<ol>
<li>	Turn on the laser, the electrospray and the mass spectrometer, e.g., a quadrupole time-of-flight system (Q-TOF Premier, Waters, Milford, MA). Optimize the geometry of the LAESI ion source by adjusting the position of the ablation spot and electrospray emitter relative to each other and the orifice of the mass spectrometer to achieve maximum ion intensities.</li> 
<li>	Select the cell of interest for analysis by using the top-view visualization system. After selection, move the sample stage to bring the selected cell directly below the sharpened tip of the optical fiber. Using the side-view microscope readjust the tip-to-cell surface distance to ~20 &mu;m. </li>
<li>	Fire laser pulses at the selected cell through the etched fiber tip. This result in the perforation of the cell wall and the ejection of the cytoplasm in the form of particulate matter. After postionization by the electrospray, the produced ions are collected by the mass spectrometer and mass spectra are recorded. </li>
<li>	After data acquisition, put the laser, the electrospray and the mass spectrometer in standby mode or turn them off. Keep the ablated A. cepa tissue sample for optional observation by light microscopy. </li>
</ol>
6. Representative Results
Successful ablation of a single cell results in the bursting of the cell wall and the collection of a LAESI mass spectrum. An unsuccessful experiment usually results in no ablation and/or no mass spectrum. For demonstration purposes, we present the results from the LAESI-MS analysis of a single embedded epidermal cell of an A. cepa bulb. Figure 2a shows a representative optical microscopy image after the sampling of a cell. The cell wall is perforated and the extent of perforation is limited by the boundaries with the neighbouring cells. The adjacent cells seem to be intact. Figure 2b shows a representative LAESI mass spectrum produced from the cell. A wide variety of ions are detected from the A. cepa cell and based on their accurate masses, isotope distribution patterns, and, in some cases, tandem mass spectra, they are tentatively assigned to endogenous metabolites. The ions detected from a single cell were similar to the ones observed in the analysis of the same tissue by conventional LAESI-MS of multiple cells.13
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2144/2144fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic of single cell analysis by LAESI-MS. A mid-IR laser pulse is coupled into an optical fiber and delivered to the sample placed on glass slide. The sharpened fiber tip focuses the light into the target cell and the deposited energy bursts the cell. The produced ablation plume (red dots) is merged with an electrospray plume (black dots) the droplets coalesce (green dots) resulting in sample specific ion production. These ions are analyzed and detected by the mass spectrometer (MS). Two long distance video microscopes, Microscope 1 and Microscope 2, are utilized to monitor distance between the fiber tip and the cell surface and to select a cell for analysis, respectively. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2144/2144fig2a.jpg" alt="Figure 2a" /> 
Figure 2a. Ablation mark on a single epidermal cell of an A. cepa bulb. The adjacent cells do not exhibit visible damage and subsequently can be analyzed separately.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2144/2144fig2b.jpg" alt="Figure 2b" /> 
Figure 2b. Mass spectrum corresponding to the ablation of a single A. cepa epidermal cell shows the presence of primary and secondary metabolites.

<ol>
	<li>Cooks, R. G., Ouyang, Z., Takats, Z., Wiseman, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ambient+Mass+Spectrometry.">Ambient Mass Spectrometry.</a> Science. 311, 1566-1570 (2006).</li><li>Chen, Z. Y., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+plume+expansion+in+atmospheric+pressure+midinfrared+laser+ablation+of+water-rich+targets.">Early plume expansion in atmospheric pressure midinfrared laser ablation of water-rich targets.</a> Physical Review E. E77, 036316-036316 (2008).</li><li>Li, Y., Shrestha, B., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atmospheric+Pressure+Molecular+Imaging+by+Infrared+MALDI.">Atmospheric Pressure Molecular Imaging by Infrared MALDI.</a> Mass Spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry. 79, 523-532 (2006).</li><li>Li, Y., Shrestha, B., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atmospheric+Pressure+Infrared+MALDI+Imaging+Mass+Spectrometry+for+Plant+Metabolomics.">Atmospheric Pressure Infrared MALDI Imaging Mass Spectrometry for Plant Metabolomics.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 80, 407-420 (2007).</li><li>Nemes, P., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+Ablation+Electrospray+Ionization+for+Atmospheric+Pressure+in+Vivo,+and+Imaging+Mass+Spectrometry.">Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization for Atmospheric Pressure in Vivo, and Imaging Mass Spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 79, 8098-8106 (2007).</li><li>Shrestha, B., Li, Y., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+analysis+of+pharmaceuticals+and+excreted+xenobiotic+and+endogenous+metabolites+with+atmospheric+pressure+infrared+MALDI+mass+spectrometry.">Rapid analysis of pharmaceuticals and excreted xenobiotic and endogenous metabolites with atmospheric pressure infrared MALDI mass spectrometry.</a> Metabolomics. 4, 297-311 (2008).</li><li>Nemes, P., Barton, A. A., Li, Y., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ambient+Molecular+Imaging+and+Depth+Profiling+of+Live+Tissue+by+Infrared+Laser+Ablation+Electrospray+Ionization+Mass+Spectrometry.">Ambient Molecular Imaging and Depth Profiling of Live Tissue by Infrared Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 80, 4575-4582 (2008).</li><li>Nemes, P., Barton, A. A., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-Dimensional+Imaging+of+Metabolites+in+Tissues+under+Ambient+Conditions+by+Laser+Ablation+Electrospray+Ionization+Mass+Spectrometry.">Three-Dimensional Imaging of Metabolites in Tissues under Ambient Conditions by Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 81, 6668-6675 (2009).</li><li>Nemes, P., Woods, A. S., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+Imaging+of+Small+Metabolites+and+Lipids+in+Rat+Brain+Tissues+at+Atmospheric+Pressure+by+Laser+Ablation+Electrospray+Ionization+Mass+Spectrometry.">Simultaneous Imaging of Small Metabolites and Lipids in Rat Brain Tissues at Atmospheric Pressure by Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 82, 982-988 (2010).</li><li>Shrestha, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+analysis+of+lipids+and+small+metabolites+in+mouse+brain+tissue+by+AP+IR-MALDI+and+reactive+LAESI+mass+spectrometry.">Direct analysis of lipids and small metabolites in mouse brain tissue by AP IR-MALDI and reactive LAESI mass spectrometry.</a> Analyst. , (2010).</li><li>Sripadi, P., Nazarian, J., Hathout, Y., Hoffman, E., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+analysis+of+metabolites+from+the+untreated+tissue+of+Torpedo+californica+electric+organ+by+mid-infrared+laser+ablation+electrospray+ionization+mass+spectrometry.">In vitro analysis of metabolites from the untreated tissue of Torpedo californica electric organ by mid-infrared laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.</a> Metabolomics. 5, 263-276 (2009).</li><li>Shrestha, B., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+Situ+Metabolic+Profiling+of+Single+Cells+by+Laser+Ablation+Electrospray+Ionization+Mass+Spectrometry.">In Situ Metabolic Profiling of Single Cells by Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 81, 8265-8271 (2009).</li><li>Shrestha, B., Nemes, P., Vertes, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ablation+and+Analysis+of+a+Single+Cell+by+Consecutive+Laser+Pulses.">Ablation and Analysis of a Single Cell by Consecutive Laser Pulses.</a> Applied Physics A. , (2010).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

The water content of the cell cytoplasm and the tensile strength of the cell wall or membrane are critical factors governing the ablation of single cells during LAESI-MS analysis. The laser fluence has to be adjusted to reach the ablation thresholds of the different cell types. The delivered laser fluence depends on the energy of the laser pulse and on the distance between the fiber tip and the cell surface. Minimizing the perturbation of neighboring cells during the single cell analysis is critical. Keeping the laser energy at the ablation threshold limits the effect of analysis on the adjacent cells.
One of the potential applications is using single cells as the natural volumetric pixels (voxels) for chemical imaging by MS. Compared to collecting data on an artificial often rectangular grid, chemical imaging of a tissue one cell at a time is more likely to retain the spatial organization of biochemical interactions between cells.

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">	
		
		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Acetic acid</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fluka</td>
<td>45727</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Methanol</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fluka</td>
<td>65548</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinon</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
<td>M79603</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Water</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fluka</td>
<td>39259</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

direct analysis of single cells by mass spectrometry at atmospheric pressure

Analysis of biochemicals in single cells is important for understanding cell metabolism, cell cycle, adaptation, disease states, etc. Even the same cell types exhibit heterogeneous biochemical makeup depending on their physiological conditions and interactions with the environment. Conventional methods of mass spectrometry (MS) used for the analysis of biomolecules in single cells rely on extensive sample preparation. Removing the cells from their natural environment and extensive sample processing could lead to changes in the cellular composition. Ambient ionization methods enable the analysis of samples in their native environment and without extensive sample preparation.1 The techniques based on the mid infrared (mid-IR) laser ablation of biological materials at 2.94 &mu;m wavelength utilize the sudden excitation of water that results in phase explosion.2 Ambient ionization techniques based on mid-IR laser radiation, such as laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) and atmospheric pressure infrared matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (AP IR-MALDI), have successfully demonstrated the ability to directly analyze water-rich tissues and biofluids at atmospheric pressure.3-11 In LAESI the mid-IR laser ablation plume that mostly consists of neutral particulate matter from the sample coalesces with highly charged electrospray droplets to produce ions. Recently, mid-IR ablation of single cells was performed by delivering the mid-IR radiation through an etched fiber. The plume generated from this ablation was postionized by an electrospray enabling the analysis of diverse metabolites in single cells by LAESI-MS.12 This article describes the detailed protocol for single cell analysis using LAESI-MS. The presented video demonstrates the analysis of a single epidermal cell from the skin of an Allium cepa bulb. The schematic of the system is shown in Figure 1. A representative example of single cell ablation and a LAESI mass spectrum from the cell are provided in Figure 2.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Direct Analysis of Single Cells by Mass Spectrometry at Atmospheric Pressure at JoVE.com

Direct Analysis of Single Cells by Mass Spectrometry at Atmospheric Pressure

Single cell analysis is performed by mass spectrometry on plant and animal cells at atmospheric pressure by using a sharpened optical fiber to sample the cells for laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) mass spectrometry.

Analysis of biochemicals in single cells is important for understanding cell metabolism, cell cycle, adaptation, disease states, etc. Even the same cell ...

direct-analysis-single-cells-mass-spectrometry-at-atmospheric

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

15.9K Views.  George Washington University. Single cell analysis is performed by mass spectrometry on plant and animal cells at atmospheric pressure by using a sharpened optical fiber to sample the cells for laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) mass spectrometry.

Video: Direct Analysis of Single Cells by Mass Spectrometry at Atmospheric Pressure

MALDI Sample Preparation: the Ultra Thin Layer Method

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) 1,2. The ultra-thin layer method involves the production of a substrate layer of matrix crystals (alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid) on the sample plate, which serves as a seeding ground for subsequent crystallization of a matrix/analyte mixture. Advantages of the ultra-thin layer method over other sample deposition approaches (e.g. dried droplet) are that it provides (i) greater tolerance to impurities such as salts and detergents, (ii) better resolution, and (iii) higher spatial uniformity. This method is especially useful for the accurate mass determination of proteins. The protocol was initially developed and optimized for the analysis of membrane proteins and used to successfully analyze ion channels, metabolite transporters, and receptors, containing between 2 and 12 transmembrane domains 2. Since the original publication, it has also shown to be equally useful for the analysis of soluble proteins. Indeed, we have used it for a large number of proteins having a wide range of properties, including those with molecular masses as high as 380 kDa 3. It is currently our method of choice for the molecular mass analysis of all proteins. The described procedure consistently produces high-quality spectra, and it is sensitive, robust, and easy to implement.

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS).

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption ...

Analyzing Large Protein Complexes by Structural Mass Spectrometry

Living cells control and regulate their biological processes through the coordinated action of a large number of proteins that assemble themselves into an array of dynamic, multi-protein complexes1. To gain a mechanistic understanding of the various cellular processes, it is crucial to determine the structure of such protein complexes, and reveal how their structural organization dictates their function. Many aspects of multi-protein complexes are, however, difficult to characterize, due to their heterogeneous nature, asymmetric structure, and dynamics. Therefore, new approaches are required for the study of the tertiary levels of protein organization.
One of the emerging structural biology tools for analyzing macromolecular complexes is mass spectrometry (MS)2-5. This method yields information on the complex protein composition, subunit stoichiometry, and structural topology. The power of MS derives from its high sensitivity and, as a consequence, low sample requirement, which enables examination of protein complexes expressed at endogenous levels. Another advantage is the speed of analysis, which allows monitoring of reactions in real time. Moreover, the technique can simultaneously measure the characteristics of separate populations co-existing in a mixture. 
Here, we describe a detailed protocol for the application of structural MS to the analysis of large protein assemblies. The procedure begins with the preparation of gold-coated capillaries for nanoflow electrospray ionization (nESI). It then continues with sample preparation, emphasizing the buffer conditions which should be compatible with nESI on the one hand, and enable to maintain complexes intact on the other. We then explain, step-by-step, how to optimize the experimental conditions for high mass measurements and acquire MS and tandem MS spectra. Finally, we chart the data processing and analyses that follow. Rather than attempting to characterize every aspect of protein assemblies, this protocol introduces basic MS procedures, enabling the performance of MS and MS/MS experiments on non-covalent complexes. Overall, our goal is to provide researchers unacquainted with the field of structural MS, with knowledge of the principal experimental tools.

Mass spectrometry has proven to be a valuable tool for analyzing large protein complexes. This method enables insights into the composition, stoichiometry and overall architecture of multi-subunit assemblies. Here, we describe, step-by-step, how to perform a structural mass spectrometry analysis, and characterize macromolecular structures.

Living cells control and regulate their biological processes through the coordinated action of a large number of proteins that assemble themselves into an ...

T-wave Ion Mobility-mass Spectrometry: Basic Experimental Procedures for Protein Complex Analysis

Ion mobility (IM) is a method that measures the time taken for an ion to travel through a pressurized cell under the influence of a weak electric field. The speed by which the ions traverse the drift region depends on their size: large ions will experience a greater number of collisions with the background inert gas (usually N2) and thus travel more slowly through the IM device than those ions that comprise a smaller cross-section. In general, the time it takes for the ions to migrate though the dense gas phase separates them, according to their collision cross-section (&Omega;). 
Recently, IM spectrometry was coupled with mass spectrometry and a traveling-wave (T-wave) Synapt ion mobility mass spectrometer (IM-MS) was released. Integrating mass spectrometry with ion mobility enables an extra dimension of sample separation and definition, yielding a three-dimensional spectrum (mass to charge, intensity, and drift time). This separation technique allows the spectral overlap to decrease, and enables resolution of heterogeneous complexes with very similar mass, or mass-to-charge ratios, but different drift times. Moreover, the drift time measurements provide an important layer of structural information, as &Omega; is related to the overall shape and topology of the ion. The correlation between the measured drift time values and &Omega; is calculated using a calibration curve generated from calibrant proteins with defined cross-sections1.
The power of the IM-MS approach lies in its ability to define the subunit packing and overall shape of protein assemblies at micromolar concentrations, and near-physiological conditions1. Several recent IM studies of both individual proteins2,3 and non-covalent protein complexes4-9, successfully demonstrated that protein quaternary structure is maintained in the gas phase, and highlighted the potential of this approach in the study of protein assemblies of unknown geometry. Here, we provide a detailed description of IMS-MS analysis of protein complexes using the Synapt (Quadrupole-Ion Mobility-Time-of-Flight) HDMS instrument (Waters Ltd; the only commercial IM-MS instrument currently available)10. We describe the basic optimization steps, the calibration of collision cross-sections, and methods for data processing and interpretation. The final step of the protocol discusses methods for calculating theoretical &Omega; values. Overall, the protocol does not attempt to cover every aspect of IM-MS characterization of protein assemblies; rather, its goal is to introduce the practical aspects of the method to new researchers in the field.

Ion mobility-mass spectrometry is an emerging gas-phase technology that separates ions, based on their collision cross-section and mass. The method provides three-dimensional information on the overall topology and shape of protein complexes. Here, we outline a basic procedure for instrument setting and optimization, calibration of drift times, and data interpretation.

Ion mobility (IM) is a method that measures the time taken for an ion to travel through a pressurized cell under the influence of a weak electric field. ...

Atmospheric-pressure Molecular Imaging of Biological Tissues and Biofilms by LAESI Mass Spectrometry

Ambient ionization methods in mass spectrometry allow analytical investigations to be performed directly on a tissue or biofilm under native-like experimental conditions. Laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) is one such development and is particularly well-suited for the investigation of water-containing specimens. LAESI utilizes a mid-infrared laser beam (2.94 &mu;m wavelength) to excite the water molecules of the sample. When the ablation fluence threshold is exceeded, the sample material is expelled in the form of particulate matter and these projectiles travel to tens of millimeters above the sample surface. In LAESI, this ablation plume is intercepted by highly charged droplets to capture a fraction of the ejected sample material and convert its chemical constituents into gas-phase ions. A mass spectrometer equipped with an atmospheric-pressure ion source interface is employed to analyze and record the composition of the released ions originating from the probed area (pixel) of the sample. A systematic interrogation over an array of pixels opens a way for molecular imaging in the microprobe analysis mode. A unique aspect of LAESI mass spectrometric imaging is depth profiling that, in combination with lateral imaging, enables three-dimensional (3D) molecular imaging. With current lateral and depth resolutions of ~100 &mu;m and ~40 &mu;m, respectively, LAESI mass spectrometric imaging helps to explore the molecular structure of biological tissues. Herein, we review the major elements of a LAESI system and provide guidelines for a successful imaging experiment.

Laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) is an atmospheric-pressure ion source for mass spectrometry. In the imaging mode, a mid-infrared laser probes the distributions of molecules across a tissue section or a biofilm. This technique presents a new approach for diverse bioanalytical studies carried out under native experimental conditions.

Ambient ionization methods in mass spectrometry allow analytical investigations to be performed directly on a tissue or biofilm under native-like ...

Amide Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange &amp; MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Pak2 Activation

Amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange (H/D exchange) coupled with mass spectrometry has been widely used to analyze the interface of protein-protein interactions, protein conformational changes, protein dynamics and protein-ligand interactions. H/D exchange on the backbone amide positions has been utilized to measure the deuteration rates of the micro-regions in a protein by mass spectrometry1,2,3. The resolution of this method depends on pepsin digestion of the deuterated protein of interest into peptides that normally range from 3-20 residues. Although the resolution of H/D exchange measured by mass spectrometry is lower than the single residue resolution measured by the Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) method of NMR, the mass spectrometry measurement in H/D exchange is not restricted by the size of the protein4. H/D exchange is carried out in an aqueous solution which maintains protein conformation. We provide a method that utilizes the MALDI-TOF for detection2, instead of a HPLC/ESI (electrospray ionization)-MS system5,6. The MALDI-TOF provides accurate mass intensity data for the peptides of the digested protein, in this case protein kinase Pak2 (also called &gamma;-Pak). Proteolysis of Pak 2 is carried out in an offline pepsin digestion. This alternative method, when the user does not have access to a HPLC and pepsin column connected to mass spectrometry, or when the pepsin column on HPLC does not result in an optimal digestion map, for example, the heavily disulfide-bonded secreted Phospholipase A2 (sPLA2). Utilizing this method, we successfully monitored changes in the deuteration level during activation of Pak2 by caspase 3 cleavage and autophosphorylation7,8,9.

MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry was successfully utilized to monitor the amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange in protein kinase Pak2 activation.

Amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange (H/D exchange) coupled with mass spectrometry has been widely used to analyze the interface of protein-protein ...

Analysis of Global RNA Synthesis at the Single Cell Level following Hypoxia

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a particular transcriptional program in order to mount an appropriate and coordinated cellular response. The cell possesses several oxygen sensor enzymes that require molecular oxygen as cofactor for their activity. These range from prolyl-hydroxylases to histone demethylases. The majority of studies analyzing cellular responses to hypoxia are based on cellular populations and average studies, and as such single cell analysis of hypoxic cells are seldom performed. Here we describe a method of analysis of global RNA synthesis at the single cell level in hypoxia by using Click-iT RNA imaging kits in an oxygen controlled workstation, followed by microscopy analysis and quantification.&nbsp; Using cancer cells exposed to hypoxia for different lengths of time, RNA is labeled and measured in each cell. This analysis allows the visualization of temporal and cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis following hypoxic stress.

We describe a technique for analysis of global RNA synthesis in hypoxia using imaging. Click-chemistry labeling of RNA has not previously been performed under hypoxia and allows visualization of global RNA changes at the single cell level. This approach complements the existing averaged RNA techniques, allowing direct visualization of cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis.

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a ...

Enrichment of Extracellular Matrix Proteins from Tissues and Digestion into Peptides for Mass Spectrometry Analysis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex meshwork of cross-linked proteins that provides biophysical and biochemical cues that are major regulators of cell proliferation, survival, migration, etc. The ECM plays important roles in development and in diverse pathologies including cardio-vascular and musculo-skeletal diseases, fibrosis, and cancer. Thus, characterizing the composition of ECMs of normal and diseased tissues could lead to the identification of novel prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and potential novel therapeutic targets. However, the very nature of ECM proteins (large in size, cross-linked and covalently bound, heavily glycosylated) has rendered biochemical analyses of ECMs challenging. To overcome this challenge, we developed a method to enrich ECMs from fresh or frozen tissues and tumors that takes advantage of the insolubility of ECM proteins. We describe here in detail the decellularization procedure that consists of sequential incubations in buffers of different pH and salt and detergent concentrations and that results in 1) the extraction of intracellular (cytosolic, nuclear, membrane and cytoskeletal) proteins and 2) the enrichment of ECM proteins. We then describe how to deglycosylate and digest ECM-enriched protein preparations into peptides for subsequent analysis by mass spectrometry.

This protocol describes a procedure for enriching ECM proteins from tissues or tumors and deglycosylating and digesting the ECM-enriched preparations into peptides to analyze their protein composition by mass spectrometry.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex meshwork of cross-linked proteins that provides biophysical and biochemical cues that are major regulators of ...

Analysis of LINE-1 Retrotransposition at the Single Nucleus Level

Long interspersed nuclear element-1 (Line-1 or L1) accounts for approximately 17% of the DNA present in the human genome. While the majority of L1s are inactive due to 5' truncations, ~80-100 of these elements remain retrotransposition competent and propagate to different locations throughout the genome via RNA intermediates. While older L1s are believed to target AT rich regions of the genome, the chromosomal targets of newer, more active L1s remain poorly defined. Here we describe fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) methodology that can be used to track patterns of L1 insertion and rates of ectopic L1 incorporation at the single nucleus level. In these experiments, fluorescein isothiocyanate/cyanine-3 (FITC/CY3) labeled neomycin probes were employed to track L1 retrotransposition in vitro in HepG2 cells stably expressing ectopic L1. This methodology prevents errors in the estimation of rates of retrotransposition posed by toxicity and account for the occurrence of multiple insertions into a single nucleus.

Here we employ FISH methodology to track LINE-1 retrotransposition at the single nuclei level in chromosome spreads of HepG2 cell lines stably expressing synthetic LINE-1.

Long interspersed nuclear element-1 (Line-1 or L1) accounts for approximately 17% of the DNA present in the human genome. While the majority of L1s are ...

Applications of the Single-probe: Mass Spectrometry Imaging and Single Cell Analysis under Ambient Conditions

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and in-situ single cell mass spectrometry (SCMS) analysis under ambient conditions are two emerging fields with great potential for the detailed mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of biomolecules from biological samples. The single-probe, a miniaturized device with integrated sampling and ionization capabilities, is capable of performing both ambient MSI and in-situ SCMS analysis. For ambient MSI, the single-probe uses surface micro-extraction to continually conduct MS analysis of the sample, and this technique allows the creation of MS images with high spatial resolution (8.5 &#181;m) from biological samples such as mouse brain and kidney sections. Ambient MSI has the advantage that little to no sample preparation is needed before the analysis, which reduces the amount of potential artifacts present in data acquisition and allows a more representative analysis of the sample to be acquired. For in-situ SCMS, the single-probe tip can be directly inserted into live eukaryotic cells such as HeLa cells, due to the small sampling tip size (&lt; 10 &#181;m), and this technique is capable of detecting a wide range of metabolites inside individual cells at near real-time. SCMS enables a greater sensitivity and accuracy of chemical information to be acquired at the single cell level, which could improve our understanding of biological processes at a more fundamental level than previously possible. The single-probe device can be potentially coupled with a variety of mass spectrometers for broad ranges of MSI and SCMS studies.

Here, we present protocols to perform both ambient mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) of tissues and in-situ live single cell MS (SCMS) analysis using the single-probe, which is a miniaturized multifunctional device for MS analysis.

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and in-situ single cell mass spectrometry (SCMS) analysis under ambient conditions are two emerging fields with great ...

Sample Preparation for Mass-spectrometry-based Proteomics Analysis of Ocular Microvessels

The use of isolated ocular blood vessels in vitro to decipher the pathophysiological state of the eye using advanced technological approaches has greatly expanded our understanding of certain diseases. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics has emerged as a powerful tool to unravel alterations in the molecular mechanisms and protein signaling pathways in the vascular beds in health and disease. However, sample preparation steps prior to MS analyses are crucial to obtain reproducible results and in-depth elucidation of the complex proteome. This is particularly important for preparation of ocular microvessels, where the amount of sample available for analyses is often limited and thus, poses a challenge for optimum protein extraction. This article endeavors to provide an efficient, rapid and robust protocol for sample preparation from an exemplary retrobulbar ocular vascular bed employing the porcine short posterior ciliary arteries. The present method focuses on protein extraction procedures from both the supernatant and pellet of the sample following homogenization, sample cleaning with centrifugal filter devices prior to one-dimensional gel electrophoresis and peptide purification steps for label-free quantification in a liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-linear ion trap-Orbitrap MS system. Although this method has been developed specifically for proteomics analyses of ocular microvessels, we have also provided convincing evidence that it can also be readily employed for other tissue-based samples.

Proteome characterization of ocular microvascular beds is pivotal for in-depth understanding of many ocular pathologies in humans. This study demonstrates an effective, rapid, and robust method for protein extraction and sample preparation from small blood vessels employing the porcine short posterior ciliary arteries as model vessels for mass-spectrometry-based proteomics analyses.

The use of isolated ocular blood vessels in vitro to decipher the pathophysiological state of the eye using advanced technological approaches has greatly ...