The authors would like to thank Laura Diaz, Kevin Phillips, Willa A. Hsueh, and King C. Li for their helpful comments and technical support in developing this method.

1.	Animal Preparation and Cold Treatment
<ol>
 <li>Locate and inspect a 4 &deg;C cold room that has been approved for accommodating laboratory mice.</li>
 <li>Pre-chill animal cages overnight in the cold room. The cages are assembled without feed and bedding but with a bottle of water.</li>
 <li>In the morning of the experimental day, place mice one by one into each of the pre-chilled cages at 30 min intervals. Each singly caged mouse should stay in the cold room for nearly 4 hr before it is transported to the imaging lab. Ensure the mice are fasting but with access to water.</li>
 <li>At 4 hr post cold treatment transport one animal at a time every 30 min to the imaging Lab. This can be achieved by filling a Styrofoam container with ice and placing a pre-chilled housing cage on top of the ice inside the box. Loosely place the cover on the Styrofoam box.</li>
</ol>
2.	 Setup Micro-PET/CT Imaging Workflow 
In this protocol micro-PET/CT imaging is achieved with the Siemens Inveon Dedicated PET (dPET) System and Inveon Multimodality (MM) System (CT/SPECT) in the docked mode. The animal is placed from the MM entrance, first scanned with the CT for anatomical references, and then slid to the center of the dPET for a static F18 PET acquisition. In order to enable the host computer to carry out these sequential tasks automatically, the following "workflow" is programmed with the Inveon Acquisition Workplace (IAW) software prior to the actual imaging session.
<ol>
 <li>CT Acquisition: For a whole body CT scan, set current at 500 uA, voltage at 80kV, exposure time at 200 msec, and 240 steps for 240&deg; rotation. For X-ray detector, select resolution at "low system magnification" with 78 mm axial imaging field and single bed mode. Select "real time reconstruction" using the "Common Cone-Beam Reconstruction" method so that the host PC talks with a dedicated real time reconstruction computer (Cobra) to initiate the task.</li>
 <li>PET Emission Acquisition: Set 600 sec (10 min) for "fixed scan time" in the "acquire by time" option. Select F-18 as "study isotope" and use 350-650 keV as "energy level".</li>
 <li>PET Emission Histogram: Set "dynamic frame" as "black" to process data as one frame for the entire duration to achieve static scan. Select "3D" as the histogram type and choose "no scatter correction".</li>
 <li>PET Reconstruction: Use 2D Ordered Subset Expectation Maximization (OSEM2D) as the reconstruction algorithm.</li>
</ol>
3.	Injection of FDG
<ol>
 <li>Order a clinical package of 18F-FDG (10 mCi) from a regional vendor for its arrival to the imaging lab ~ 30 min before the scheduled first injection. Follow the institute's safety procedures to receive and survey the package containing radioactive materials (RAM).</li>
 <li>With the protection provided by an L-block table top shield, aliquot the FDG and make dilutions with sterilized saline. The diluted activity concentration of FDG should be available at 200-300 &mu;Ci/100 ul for each injection. Draw the FDG solution into a 1 ml syringe with 26G 1/2 inch needle, and measure the radioactivity of the whole syringe with a dose calibrator.</li>
 <li>Inject the animal that is just transported from the cold room (see Step 1.4) with 100 &mu;l of FDG solution via the intraperitoneal (i.p.) route. Record the injection time. Measure the residue radioactivity of the syringe again with the dose calibrator.</li>
 <li>Put the animal back to the cold cage inside a Styrofoam cooler maintained with ice. Incubate the animal in cold (~ 4 &deg;C) for 1 hr for FDG uptake.</li>
 <li>Calculate the injected FDG activity for each mouse by the following formula: 	Injected activity (&mu;Ci) = activity in syringe before injection - activity in syringe after injection</li>
</ol>
4.	Micro-PET/CT Imaging
<ol>
 <li>The micro-PET/CT imaging starts 1 hr after the FDG injection or 5 hr after the cold treatment. Put the animal into an anesthesia induction chamber with 3% Isoflurane in oxygen.</li>
 <li>Once anesthesia is induced, the animal is moved onto a micro-CT pellet (animal bed) with its head resting within a cone face mask that continuously delivers Isoflurane (2%) at a flow rate of 2 L/min. An electric heating pad (BioVet, m2m Imaging Corp.) is placed under the animal to help maintain the body temperature.</li>
 <li>Slide the animal to the entrance of the MM scanner, activate the "laser" icon from the toolbar, and use the touchpad control to move the bed so that the chest of the animal is at the cross of horizontal and vertical laser lines. In the "Laser Align" window select "first scan type" as CT scan, and "PET acquisition included in workflow" as the option.</li>
 <li>Open the "Scout View" window and acquire a scout view x-ray radiograph. Use IAW to adjust the position of the animal bed so that the center field of view of CT is located in the center of mouse body (liver). Repeat this step if necessary.</li>
 <li>Start the "workflow" established in Step 2. When options pop up, select an appropriate 3D PET-CT transformation matrix file to be used in CT reconstruction, and choose a recently created normalization file for PET reconstruction with no attenuation correction. The IAW will then start CT and PET scans sequentially as programmed.</li>
 <li>After the whole workflow is completed, which may take 20-25 min, briefly evaluate the quality of the acquired CT and PET images with the ASIPro VM, a micro-PET analysis software co-installed with IAW. Archive the imaging data to a data storage device or transfer the data through network to a post imaging analysis workstation (see Step 5) for further analysis.</li>
 <li>Release the animal from the imaging systems and place it to a clean housing cage with normal food and water supply for its recovery at room temperature. The systems are now ready for the next animal in the queue. Note the care and handling of post-imaging animals should follow the institute's regulations regarding "handling of laboratory animals injected with RAM". Also note that used needles/syringes, the absorbent pads, gloves, and all bedding and fecal matter should be considered as radioactive waste, and handled according to the institute's relevant RAM waste disposal regulations.</li>
</ol>
5.	Post-imaging Analysis
<ol>
 <li>Open Inveon Research Workplace (IRW) software (Siemens) and manually import both CT and PET data sets. Co-register CT and PET images in "Registration" window using tools with the "General analysis" function, and under the "Review" window make sure a perfect alignment between CT and PET images in all 3 dimensions.</li>
 <li>From "Region of Interest (ROI) Quantification" window, with the references provided by the co-registered CT images, identify BAT at the interscapular region of the neck, the most predominant cold-inducible BAT in adult mice, and draw volume of interest (VOI) of BAT over the PET data set. Select "Voxel Intensity" as the "Quantification Type" and record the mean radioactivity within the VOI as Bq/ml. A calibration factor which converts counts/sec to Bq/ml has been previously established by scanning a phantom with known radioactivity.</li>
 <li>FDG uptake in BAT is quantified as percentage injected dose per gram tissue (%ID/g) with decay correction. The injected dose is the result of Step 3.5, however, converted to becquerel (Bq) unit (1 &mu;Ci = 37,000 Bq); we assume that 1 ml of tissue equals to 1 g.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Cypess, A. M., Kahn, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+and+importance+of+brown+adipose+tissue+in+energy+homeostasis.">The role and importance of brown adipose tissue in energy homeostasis.</a> Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 22, 478-484 (2010).</li><li>Cannon, B., Nedergaard, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brown+adipose+tissue:+function+and+physiological+significance.">Brown adipose tissue: function and physiological significance.</a> Physiol. Rev. 84, 277-359 (2004).</li><li>Collins, S., Surwit, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+beta-adrenergic+receptors+and+the+control+of+adipose+tissue+metabolism+and+thermogenesis.">The beta-adrenergic receptors and the control of adipose tissue metabolism and thermogenesis.</a> Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 56, 309-328 (2001).</li><li>Ouellet, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outdoor+temperature,+age,+sex,+body+mass+index,+and+diabetic+status+determine+the+prevalence,+mass,+and+glucose-uptake+activity+of+18F-FDG-detected+BAT+in+humans.">Outdoor temperature, age, sex, body mass index, and diabetic status determine the prevalence, mass, and glucose-uptake activity of 18F-FDG-detected BAT in humans.</a> J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, 1115-1125 (2011).</li><li>Cypess, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+and+importance+of+brown+adipose+tissue+in+adult+humans.">Identification and importance of brown adipose tissue in adult humans.</a> N. Engl. J. Med. 360, 1509-1517 (2009).</li><li>Fruhbeck, G., Becerril, S., Sainz, N., Garrastachu, P., Garcia-Velloso, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BAT:+a+new+target+for+human+obesity.">BAT: a new target for human obesity.</a> Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 30, 387-396 (2009).</li><li>Cypess, A. M., Kahn, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brown+fat+as+a+therapy+for+obesity+and+diabetes.">Brown fat as a therapy for obesity and diabetes.</a> Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. 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No conflicts of interest declared.

In this study a micro-PET/CT-based imaging method has been developed for detecting BAT activities in adult mice which simply requires a cold treatment and one injection of commercially available 18F-FDG. The whole procedure can be done in one day following a treatment and imaging sequence which starts every 30 minutes until all animals are treated and imaged. Under the experimental conditions outlined, a total of 10 mice (or 2 groups of 5 mice) can be tested on the same day with a single imaging system...

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments (optional)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micro-PET/CT Imaging System</td>
 <td>Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Inc.</td>
 <td>Inveon Dedicated PET System and Inveon Multimodality CT/SPECT System (docked)</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Propranolol</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>P0884</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>BRL 37344</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>B169</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>18F-FDG</td>
 <td>Cyclotope Inc.</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>C57BL/6J Male Mice</td>
 <td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
 <td>000664</td>
 <td>3-4 months old</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

functional imaging of brown fat in mice with 18f-fdg micro-pet/ct

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) differs from white adipose tissue (WAT) by its discrete location and a brown-red color due to rich vascularization and high density of mitochondria. BAT plays a major role in energy expenditure and non-shivering thermogenesis in newborn mammals as well as the adults 1. BAT-mediated thermogenesis is highly regulated by the sympathetic nervous system, predominantly via &beta; adrenergic receptor 2, 3. Recent studies have shown that BAT activities in human adults are negatively correlated with body mass index (BMI) and other diabetic parameters 4-6. BAT has thus been proposed as a potential target for anti-obesity/anti-diabetes therapy focusing on modulation of energy balance 6-8. While several cold challenge-based positron emission tomography (PET) methods are established for detecting human BAT 9-13, there is essentially no standardized protocol for imaging and quantification of BAT in small animal models such as mice. Here we describe a robust PET/CT imaging method for functional assessment of BAT in mice. Briefly, adult C57BL/6J mice were cold treated under fasting conditions for a duration of 4 hours before they received one dose of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG). The mice were remained in the cold for one additional hour post FDG injection, and then scanned with a small animal-dedicated micro-PET/CT system. The acquired PET images were co-registered with the CT images for anatomical references and analyzed for FDG uptake in the interscapular BAT area to present BAT activity. This standardized cold-treatment and imaging protocol has been validated through testing BAT activities during pharmacological interventions, for example, the suppressed BAT activation by the treatment of &beta;-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol 14, 15, or the enhanced BAT activation by &beta;3 agonist BRL37344 16. The method described here can be applied to screen for drugs/compounds that modulate BAT activity, or to identify genes/pathways that are involved in BAT development and regulation in various preclinical and basic studies.

An example of micro-PET/CT imaging of mouse BAT is shown in Figure 1. While the CT imaging provides anatomical information, the PET imaging encodes the distribution and quantity of 18F-FDG uptake throughout the whole body. These imaging data can be viewed separately ( Figure 1A and 1B), fused (Figure 1C), or demonstrated with a 3D feature such as maximal intensity projection (MIP, 1D). With the help of a 3D imaging tool, a volume of interest (VOI), her...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Imaging of Brown Fat in Mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT at JoVE.com

Functional Imaging of Brown Fat in Mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT

A method of functional imaging of mouse brown adipose tissue (BAT) is described in which cold-stimulated uptake of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) in BAT is non-invasively assessed with a standardized micro-PET/CT protocol. This method is robust and sensitive to detect differences in BAT activities in mouse models.

Functional Imaging of Brown Fat in Mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) differs from white adipose  tissue (WAT) by its discrete location and a brown-red color due to rich  vascularization and high ...

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19.0K Views.  The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston. A method of functional imaging of mouse brown adipose tissue (BAT) is described in which cold-stimulated uptake of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) in BAT is non-invasively assessed with a standardized micro-PET/CT protocol. This method is robust and sensitive to detect differences in BAT activities in mouse models.

Video: Functional Imaging of Brown Fat in Mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT

Light/dark Transition Test for Mice

Although all of the mouse genome sequences have been determined, we do not yet know the functions of most of these genes. Gene-targeting techniques, however, can be used to delete or manipulate a specific gene in mice. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can then be determined by conducting behavioral analyses of the mutant mice. As a test for behavioral phenotyping of mutant mice, the light/dark transition test is one of the most widely used tests to measure anxiety-like behavior in mice. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice to brightly illuminated areas and on their spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The test is sensitive to anxiolytic drug treatment. The apparatus consists of a dark chamber and a brightly illuminated chamber. Mice are allowed to move freely between the two chambers. The number of entries into the bright chamber and the duration of time spent there are indices of bright-space anxiety in mice. To obtain phenotyping results of a strain of mutant mice that can be readily reproduced and compared with those of other mutants, the behavioral test methods should be as identical as possible between laboratories. The procedural differences that exist between laboratories, however, make it difficult to replicate or compare the results among laboratories. Here, we present our protocol for the light/dark transition test as a movie so that the details of the protocol can be demonstrated. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 60 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. Those data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.

Visualization of the protocol will facilitate understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used across laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test.

The light/dark transition test is one of the most widely used tests to measure anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie that shows detailed procedures on how we conduct the test.

Although all of the mouse genome sequences have been determined, we do not yet know the functions of most of these genes. Gene-targeting techniques, ...

Labeling hESCs and hMSCs with Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Non-Invasive in vivo Tracking with MR Imaging

In recent years, stem cell research has led to a better understanding of developmental biology, various diseases and its potential impact on regenerative medicine. A non-invasive method to monitor the transplanted stem cells repeatedly in vivo would greatly enhance our ability to understand the mechanisms that control stem cell death and identify trophic factors and signaling pathways that improve stem cell engraftment. MR imaging has been proven to be an effective tool for the in vivo depiction of stem cells with near microscopic anatomical resolution. In order to detect stem cells with MR, the cells have to be labeled with cell specific MR contrast agents. For this purpose, iron oxide nanoparticles, such as superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (SPIO), are applied, because of their high sensitivity for cell detection and their excellent biocompatibility. SPIO particles are composed of an iron oxide core and a dextran, carboxydextran or starch coat, and function by creating local field inhomogeneities, that cause a decreased signal on T2-weighted MR images. This presentation will demonstrate techniques for labeling of stem cells with clinically applicable MR contrast agents for subsequent non-invasive in vivo tracking of the labeled cells with MR imaging.

For the evaluation of new stem cell therapies it is important to non-invasively track the injected cells in vivo. This video will show you how to label human mesenchymal and embryonic stem cells with iron oxide based contrast agents in vivo for subsequent MR imaging in vivo.

In recent years, stem cell research has led to a better understanding of developmental biology, various diseases and its potential impact on regenerative ...

Labeling Stem Cells with Fluorescent Dyes for non-invasive Detection with Optical Imaging

Optical imaging (OI) is an easy, fast and inexpensive tool for in vivo monitoring of new stem cell based therapies. The technique is based on ex vivo labeling of stem cells with a fluorescent dye, subsequent intravenous injection of the labeled cells and visualization of their accumulation in specific target organs or pathologies. The presented technique demonstrates how we label human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) by simple incubation with the lipophilic fluorescent dye DiD (C67H103CIN2O3S) and how we label human embryonic stem cells (hESC) with the FDA approved fluorescent dye Indocyanine Green (ICG). The uptake mechanism is via adherence and diffusion of the lypophilic dye across the phospholipid cell membrane bilayer. The labeling efficiency is usually improved if the cells are incubated with the dye in serum-free media as opposed to incubation in serum-containing media. Furthermore, the addition of the transfection agent Protamine Sulfate significantly improves contrast agent uptake.

This video shows techniques for labeling of human embryonic stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells with fluorescent dyes. This technique can be used for an in vivo tracking of transplanted stem cells with optical imaging and for histopathological correlations with fluorescence microscopy.

Optical imaging (OI) is an easy, fast and inexpensive tool for in vivo monitoring of new stem cell based therapies. The technique is based on ex vivo ...

Functional Imaging with Reinforcement, Eyetracking, and Physiological Monitoring

We use functional brain imaging (fMRI) to study neural circuits that underlie decision-making.  To understand how outcomes affect decision processes, simple perceptual tasks are combined with appetitive and aversive reinforcement.  However, the use of reinforcers such as juice and airpuffs can create challenges for fMRI.  Reinforcer delivery can cause head movement, which creates artifacts in the fMRI signal.  Reinforcement can also lead to changes in heart rate and respiration that are mediated by autonomic pathways.  Changes in heart rate and respiration can directly affect the fMRI (BOLD) signal in the brain and can be confounded with signal changes that are due to neural activity.  In this presentation, we demonstrate methods for administering reinforcers in a controlled manner, for stabilizing the head, and for measuring pulse and respiration.

This presentation demonstrates the use of fMRI to study neural circuits that underlie decision-making. Simple perceptual tasks are combined with appetitive and aversive reinforcements to investigate how outcomes affect decision processes.

We use functional brain imaging (fMRI) to study neural circuits that underlie decision-making.  To understand how outcomes affect decision processes, ...

Elevated Plus Maze for Mice

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can be determined by behavioral analysis of mutant mice. If a target gene is expressed in the brain, behavioral phenotype of the mutant mice could elucidate the genetic mechanism of normal behaviors. The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice for open and elevated areas, as well as on their natural spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The apparatus consists of open arms and closed arms, crossed in the middle perpendicularly to each other, and a center area. Mice are given access to all of the arms and are allowed to move freely between them. The number of entries into the open arms and the time spent in the open arms are used as indices of open space-induced anxiety in mice. Unfortunately, the procedural differences that exist between laboratories make it difficult to duplicate and compare results among laboratories. Here, we present a detailed movie demonstrating our protocol for the elevated plus maze test. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 90 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. These data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.
Visualization of the protocol will promote better understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used in different laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test. 


The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie showing the detailed procedures for conducting the test.

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given ...

Assembly, Loading, and Alignment of an Analytical Ultracentrifuge Sample Cell

The analytical ultracentrifuge (AUC) is a powerful biophysical tool that allows us to record macromolecular sedimentation profiles during high speed centrifugation. When properly planned and executed, an AUC sedimentation velocity or sedimentation equilibrium experiment can reveal a great deal about a protein in regards to size and shape, sample purity, sedimentation coefficient, oligomerization states and protein-protein interactions.
This technique, however, requires a rigorous level of technical attention. Sample cells hold a sectored center piece sandwiched between two window assemblies. They are sealed with a torque pressure of around 120-140 in/lbs. Reference buffer and sample are loaded into the centerpiece sectors and then after sealing, the cells are precisely aligned into a titanium rotor so that the optical detection systems scan both sample and reference buffer in the same radial path midline through each centerpiece sector while rotating at speeds of up to 60, 000 rpm and under very high vacuum
Not only is proper sample cell assembly critical, sample cell components are very expensive and must be properly cared for to ensure they are in optimum working condition in order to avoid leaks and breakage during experiments. Handle windows carefully, for even the slightest crack or scratch can lead to breakage in the centrifuge. The contact between centerpiece and windows must be as tight as possible; i.e. no Newton s rings should be visible after torque pressure is applied. Dust, lint, scratches and oils on either the windows or the centerpiece all compromise this contact and can very easily lead to leaking of solutions from one sector to another or leaking out of the centerpiece all together. Not only are precious samples lost, leaking of solutions during an experiment will cause an imbalance of pressure in the cell that often leads to broken windows and centerpieces. In addition, plug gaskets and housing plugs must be securely in place to avoid solutions being pulled out of the centerpiece sector through the loading holes by the high vacuum in the centrifuge chamber. Window liners and gaskets must be free of breaks and cracks that could cause movement resulting in broken windows.
This video will demonstrate our procedures of sample cell assembly, torque, loading and rotor alignment to help minimize component damage, solution leaking and breakage during the perfect AUC experiment.

The analytical ultracentrifuge (AUC) sample cell holds sample and reference buffer and during experiments and is exposed to high vacuum and rotor speeds up to 60,000 rpm. This video will demonstrate the rigorous attention to detail necessary for assembly, loading and alignment of this very important component of an AUC experiment.

The analytical ultracentrifuge (AUC) is a powerful biophysical tool that allows us to record macromolecular sedimentation profiles during high speed ...

An Alternant Method to the Traditional NASA Hindlimb Unloading Model in Mice

The Morey-Holton hindlimb unloading (HU) method is a widely accepted National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ground-based model for studying disuse-atrophy in rodents 4-6. Our study evaluated an alternant method to the gold-standard Morey-Holton HU tail-traction technique in mice. Fifty-four female mice (4-8 mo.) were HU for 14 days (n=34) or 28 days (n=20). Recovery from HU was assessed after 3 days of normal cage ambulation following HU (n=22). Aged matched mice (n=76) served as weight-bearing controls.
Prior to HU a tail ring was formed with a 2-0 sterile surgical steel wire that was passed through the 5th, 6th, or 7th inter-vertebral disc space and shaped into a ring from which the mice were suspended. Vertebral location for the tail-ring was selected to appropriately balance animal body weight without interfering with defecation.
We determined the success of this novel HU technique by assessing body weight before and after HU, degree of soleus atrophy, and adrenal mass following HU. Body weight of the mice prior to HU (24.3 &plusmn; 2.9g) did not significantly decline immediately after 14d of HU (22.7 &plusmn; 1.9g), 28d of HU (21.3 + 2.1g) or after 3 days recovery (24.0 &plusmn; 1.8g). Soleus muscle mass significantly declined (-39.1%, and -46.6%) following HU for 14 days and 28 days respectively (p&lt;0.001). Following 3 days of recovery soleus mass significantly increased to 74% of control values. Adrenal weights of HU mice were not different compared to control mice.
The success of our novel HU method is evidenced by the maintenance of animal body weight, comparable adrenal gland weights, and soleus atrophy following HU, corresponding to expected literature values 2, 7, 8. The primary advantages of this HU method include: 1) ease of tail examination during suspension; 2) decreased likelihood of cyanotic, inflamed, and/or necrotic tails frequently observed with tail-taping and HU; 3) no possibility of mice chewing the traction tape and coming out of the suspension apparatus; and 4) rapid recovery and normal cage activity immediately after HU.

We developed an alternant hindlimb unloading model in mice. The primary advantage of our hindlimb unloading tail-ring method over the conventional Morey-Holton tail-traction technique is a simple straightforward procedure that minimizes stress upon the animal.

The Morey-Holton hindlimb unloading (HU) method is a widely accepted National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ground-based model for studying ...

Mapping the After-effects of Theta Burst Stimulation on the Human Auditory Cortex with Functional Imaging

Auditory cortex pertains to the processing of sound, which is at the basis of speech or music-related processing1. However, despite considerable recent progress, the functional properties and lateralization of the human auditory cortex are far from being fully understood. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses, and represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and connectivity. It has only recently begun to be applied to understand auditory cortical function 2. 
An important issue in using TMS is that the physiological consequences of the stimulation are difficult to establish. Although many TMS studies make the implicit assumption that the area targeted by the coil is the area affected, this need not be the case, particularly for complex cognitive functions which depend on interactions across many brain regions 3. One solution to this problem is to combine TMS with functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The idea here is that fMRI will provide an index of changes in brain activity associated with TMS. Thus, fMRI would give an independent means of assessing which areas are affected by TMS and how they are modulated 4. In addition, fMRI allows the assessment of functional connectivity, which represents a measure of the temporal coupling between distant regions. It can thus be useful not only to measure the net activity modulation induced by TMS in given locations, but also the degree to which the network properties are affected by TMS, via any observed changes in functional connectivity.
Different approaches exist to combine TMS and functional imaging according to the temporal order of the methods. Functional MRI can be applied before, during, after, or both before and after TMS. Recently, some studies interleaved TMS and fMRI in order to provide online mapping of the functional changes induced by TMS 5-7. However, this online combination has many technical problems, including the static artifacts resulting from the presence of the TMS coil in the scanner room, or the effects of TMS pulses on the process of MR image formation. But more importantly, the loud acoustic noise induced by TMS (increased compared with standard use because of the resonance of the scanner bore) and the increased TMS coil vibrations (caused by the strong mechanical forces due to the static magnetic field of the MR scanner) constitute a crucial problem when studying auditory processing. 
This is one reason why fMRI was carried out before and after TMS in the present study. Similar approaches have been used to target the motor cortex 8,9, premotor cortex 10, primary somatosensory cortex 11,12 and language-related areas 13, but so far no combined TMS-fMRI study has investigated the auditory cortex. The purpose of this article is to provide details concerning the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools to investigate auditory processing. 
Previously we showed that repetitive TMS (rTMS) at high and low frequencies (resp. 10 Hz and 1 Hz) applied over the auditory cortex modulated response time (RT) in a melody discrimination task 2. We also showed that RT modulation was correlated with functional connectivity in the auditory network assessed using fMRI: the higher the functional connectivity between left and right auditory cortices during task performance, the higher the facilitatory effect (i.e. decreased RT) observed with rTMS. However those findings were mainly correlational, as fMRI was performed before rTMS. Here, fMRI was carried out before and immediately after TMS to provide direct measures of the functional organization of the auditory cortex, and more specifically of the plastic reorganization of the auditory neural network occurring after the neural intervention provided by TMS. 
Combined fMRI and TMS applied over the auditory cortex should enable a better understanding of brain mechanisms of auditory processing, providing physiological information about functional effects of TMS. This knowledge could be useful for many cognitive neuroscience applications, as well as for optimizing therapeutic applications of TMS, particularly in auditory-related disorders.

Auditory processing is the basis of speech and music-related processing. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) has been used successfully to study cognitive, sensory and motor systems but has rarely been applied to audition. Here we investigated TMS combined with functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to understand the functional organization of auditory cortex.

Auditory cortex pertains to the processing of sound, which is at the basis of speech or music-related processing1. However, despite considerable recent ...

Photodiode-Based Optical Imaging for Recording Network Dynamics with Single-Neuron Resolution in Non-Transgenic Invertebrates

The development of transgenic invertebrate preparations in which the activity of specifiable sets of neurons can be recorded and manipulated with light represents a revolutionary advance for studies of the neural basis of behavior. However, a downside of this development is its tendency to focus investigators on a very small number of &#8220;designer&#8221; organisms (e.g., C. elegans and Drosophila), potentially negatively impacting the pursuit of comparative studies across many species, which is needed for identifying general principles of network function. The present article illustrates how optical recording with voltage-sensitive dyes in the brains of non-transgenic gastropod species can be used to rapidly (i.e., within the time course of single experiments) reveal features of the functional organization of their neural networks with single-cell resolution. We outline in detail the dissection, staining, and recording methods used by our laboratory to obtain action potential traces from dozens to ~150 neurons during behaviorally relevant motor programs in the CNS of multiple gastropod species, including one new to neuroscience &#8211; the nudibranch Berghia stephanieae. Imaging is performed with absorbance voltage-sensitive dyes and a 464-element photodiode array that samples at 1,600 frames/second, fast enough to capture all action potentials generated by the recorded neurons. Multiple several-minute recordings can be obtained per preparation with little to no signal bleaching or phototoxicity. The raw optical data collected through the methods described can subsequently be analyzed through a variety of illustrated methods. Our optical recording approach can be readily used to probe network activity in a variety of non-transgenic species, making it well suited for comparative studies of how brains generate behavior.

This protocol presents a method for imaging neuronal population activity with single-cell resolution in non-transgenic invertebrate species using absorbance voltage-sensitive dyes and a photodiode array. This approach enables a rapid workflow, wherein imaging and analysis can be pursued over the course of a single day.

The development of transgenic invertebrate preparations in which the activity of specifiable sets of neurons can be recorded and manipulated with light ...

Isolation and Differentiation of Primary White and Brown Preadipocytes from Newborn Mice

The understanding of the mechanisms underlying adipocyte differentiation and function has greatly benefited from the use of immortalized white preadipocyte cell lines. These cultured cell lines, however, have limitations. They do not fully capture the diverse functional spectrum of the heterogenous adipocyte populations that are now known to exist within white adipose depots. To provide a more physiologically relevant model to study the complexity of white adipose tissue, a protocol has been developed and optimized to enable simultaneous isolation of primary white and brown adipocyte progenitors from newborn mice, their rapid expansion in culture, and their differentiation in vitro into mature, fully functional adipocytes. The primary advantage of isolating primary cells from newborn, rather than adult mice, is that the adipose depots are actively developing and are, therefore, a rich source of proliferating preadipocytes. Primary preadipocytes isolated using this protocol differentiate rapidly upon reaching confluence and become fully mature in 4-5 days, a temporal window that accurately reflects the appearance of developed fat pads in newborn mice. Primary cultures prepared using this strategy can be expanded and studied with high reproducibility, making them suitable for genetic and phenotypic screens and enabling the study of the cell-autonomous adipocyte phenotypes of genetic mouse models. This protocol offers a simple, rapid, and inexpensive approach to study the complexity of adipose tissue in vitro.

This report describes a protocol for the simultaneous isolation of primary brown and white preadipocytes from newborn mice. Isolated cells can be grown in culture and induced to differentiate into fully mature white and brown adipocytes. The method enables genetic, molecular, and functional characterization of primary fat cells in culture.