This work is financially supported by the Swiss National Foundation, (NRP 64 program, grant no 4064-131232).

1. Preparing the Perfusion System
<ol>
	<li>Set up the perfusion system consisting of a water bath, a perfusion chamber, two columns for oxygenation, two peristaltic pumps, two bubble traps, two flow heaters and one pressure sensor (Figure 1). Connect these components with tubing sections composed of silicone and polyvinyl chloride materials according to the scheme in Figure 2. Finally there are two circuits representing the fetal and maternal circuit, respectively.</li>
	<li>Turn on the water bath, the flow heaters and the heating for the perfusion chamber. The temperature should be 37 &deg;C.</li>
	<li>Warm up the perfusion medium (NCTC-135 tissue culture medium diluted 1:2 with Earle's buffer (6.8 g/L sodium chloride, 0.4 g/L potassium chloride, 0.14 g/L monosodium phosphate, 0.2 g/L magnesium sulfate, 0.2 g/L calcium chloride, 2 g/L glucose) supplemented with glucose (1 g/L), dextran 40 (10 g/L), bovine serum albumin (10 g/L), sodium heparin (2,500 IU/L), amoxicilline (250 mg/L) and sodium bicarbonate (2.2 g/L); pH 7.4) in the water bath.</li>
	<li>Consecutively rinse the arterial systems of the fetal and maternal circuit with a) 200 ml distilled water, b) 50 ml 1% sodium hydroxide, c) 1% phosphoric acid and d) again 200 ml distilled water (flow rate: 15 - 20 ml/min).</li>
	<li>Connect the fetal cannula (&Oslash; 1.2 mm; blunt needle should be attached to a modified winged needle infusion set) to the fetal arterial tubing.</li>
	<li>Rinse the arterial systems of the fetal and maternal circuit with perfusion medium until all tubes contain medium (flow rate: 15-20 ml/min). During this step fill up the bubble traps and remove all bubbles downstream of the trap. Then stop the pumps. It is really important that the afferent arterial tubes are always free of bubbles; otherwise after cannulation especially the fine fetal vessels can rupture.</li>
	<li>Turn on the gas flow. The maternal circuit is oxygenated with 5% carbon dioxide and 95% synthetic air and the fetal circuit with 5% carbon dioxide and 95% nitrogen.</li>
	<li>Start the recording of the pressure sensor.</li>
</ol>
2. Cannulating the Placenta
<ol>
	<li>Obtain intact placentae from uncomplicated term pregnancies after primary cesarean section. Written consent has to be given (was obtained in the case of our studies) by the mothers before delivery and the study has to be approved by the local ethics committee (was the case in our studies). First visual control should be done by midwives to assure a healthy and intact placenta.</li>
	<li>Cannulation of the placenta is a critical step! During perfusion every small disruption in the tissue can lead to a leak between the maternal and fetal circulation. The placenta has to be obtained within 30 min after delivery.</li>
	<li>Select an intact cotyledon at the marginal zone of the placenta without visible disruptions on the maternal side. At the chorionic plate, tie up both associated branches of the umbilical artery and vein upstream to the later cannulation side (towards the umbilical cord) by using surgical suture material. Make always two knots.</li>
	<li>Cannulate the fetal artery first. The fetal placental arteries are always smaller and thinner than the veins.</li>
	<li>Make a suture around the fetal artery, but do not tie it up immediately. Hold the vessel with a forceps, cut the vessel carefully and put the small cannula (&Oslash; 1.2 mm) in the artery. Then tie up the suture (two knots).</li>
	<li>Proceed with the fetal vein in the same manner but use a bigger cannula (&Oslash; 1.5-1.8 mm; blunt needle should be attached to a modified winged needle infusion set).</li>
	<li>Turn on the fetal pump (2 ml/min). If there is no visible leak and blood emanates out of the fetal vein cannula, slowly increase the flow up to 4 ml/min. Observe the pressure in the fetal artery, it should not exceed 70 mmHg. If fluid leaks out at the fetal or maternal cannula fix them with another suture.</li>
	<li>Place the placenta on the tissue holder with the fetal side up and pull the placental membrane and tissue over the spikes. In the end the perfused cotyledon should be in the middle of the hole in the tissue holder.</li>
	<li>Stabilize the part where only the membrane holds the placenta with a silicone membrane (&Oslash; 1 mm) or alternatively two parafilm pieces.</li>
	<li>Assemble the complete tissue holder, tighten the screws and cut the overhanging tissue. Please note that the venous and arterial cannulae are not pinched but instead lay in the small channels of the tissue holder.</li>
	<li>Turn the tissue holder upside down, put it into the perfusion chamber and add the cover. Now, the maternal side should be at the top. Check always if the fetal circuit is still intact and the medium is flowing out of the fetal vein tubing.</li>
	<li>Turn on the maternal pump (12 ml/min). Introduce the three blunt cannulae (&Oslash; 0.8 mm) at the end of the maternal artery tube into the intervillous space by penetrating the decidual plate. To return the perfusate to the maternal circuit put one tube as venous drain which is also connected with the maternal pump to the lowest position in the upper part of the perfusion chamber.</li>
	<li>Connect the fetal vein cannula to the fetal vein tube.</li>
</ol>
3. Executing the Pre- and Experimental Phase of Perfusion
<ol>
	<li>To allow the tissue to recover from the ischemic period after delivery and to flush out the blood in the intervillous space, an open pre-phase of 20 min is necessary. That means the maternal and fetal vein are not leading back to the arterial reservoir containing the perfusion medium. Collect the fetal and maternal venous outflow in a bottle and discard it after the pre-phase.</li>
	<li>To assess the integrity of the perfusion perform another pre-phase of 20 min but in a closed circuit. Use two separate reservoirs with perfusion medium for the fetal and maternal circuit and close the circuits by leading the fetal venous outflow back in the fetal reservoir and the maternal venous outflow back in the maternal reservoir.</li>
	<li>For the main perfusion experiment prepare two flasks with 120 ml perfusion medium (one for the maternal and one for the fetal reservoir). Add the radiolabeled 14C-antipyrine (4 nCi/ml; serves as positive control; CAUTION: radioactive substance) and the fluorescently labeled xenobiotic or nanoparticles which one wants to analyze to the maternal reservoir. Mix the maternal perfusate well.</li>
	<li>Start the experiment by exchanging the pure perfusion medium with the two prepared flasks (fetal and maternal reservoirs). Close the circuits by leading the fetal venous outflow back in the fetal reservoir and the maternal venous outflow back in the maternal reservoir.</li>
	<li>Continue the perfusion for 6 hr and take samples regularly. Always resuspend the medium in the fetal and maternal reservoir before withdrawal.</li>
	<li>Control the pressure in the fetal artery (should not exceed 70 mmHg), pH in both circuits (should be in a physiological range 7.2-7.4) and the volume of both reservoirs (fetal volume loss should not exceed 4 ml/hr) during perfusion. If necessary adjust the pH values using either hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide.</li>
	<li>If the volume loss in the fetal reservoir exceeds 4 ml/hr there is a leak in the tissue and one has to stop the perfusion. The success rate of a perfusion for 6 hr without leak is about 15-20%.</li>
	<li>Stop the perfusion after 6 hr. Turn out the pumps, water bath, flow heaters and gas flow.</li>
	<li>Remove the placenta from the tissue holder, cut the perfused cotyledon (brighter than the unperfused tissue) and weigh it.</li>
	<li>Take samples from unperfused (part of the placenta which was cut in the beginning; could be already taken during the pre-phase) and perfused tissue (each about 1 g) and store them at -20 &deg;C until homogenization or in liquid nitrogen for later analysis. Fix another tissue sample in 4% formalin for histopathological evaluation. The samples should include all layers of the placenta.</li>
	<li>Clean the tubes after perfusion by successively rinsing the arterial systems of the fetal and maternal circuit with a) 200 ml distilled water, b) 50 ml 1% sodium hydroxide, c) 50 ml 1% phosphoric acid and d) again 200 ml distilled water (flow: 15-20 ml/min).</li>
</ol>
The entire working procedure of the placenta perfusion experiment is depicted in Figure 3.
4. Analyzing the Samples
<ol>
	<li>Centrifuge the perfusate samples for 10 min at 800 x g before analysis to remove residual erythrocytes. Take the supernatant for the further analysis. The samples can be left overnight at 4 &deg;C. For the analysis of leptin and hCG production the samples can be stored at -20 &deg;C.</li>
	<li>To evaluate the permeability of the placenta analyze the 14C-antipyrine by liquid scintillation. Mix 300 &mu;l of the fetal and maternal samples with 3 ml scintillation cocktail and measure for 5 min in a beta counter.</li>
	<li>To assess the transfer of the fluorescent nanoparticles or the xenobiotic of interest read the fluorescence at 485 nm excitation and 528 nm emission in a microplate reader (indicated wavelengths are for analysis of the yellow green label which we used for the nanoparticles).</li>
	<li>To determine the viability of the placental tissue during perfusion measure the glucose consumption and lactate production in the fetal and maternal circuit with an automated blood gas system. Additionally, evaluate the production of the placental hormones human choriongonadotropin (hCG) and leptin in the homogenized tissue samples and the perfusates by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Beneath the dual recirculating perfusion showed here, there are several other experimental configurations possible depending on the question which has to be answered. Particularly open placental perfusions are commonly used to assess the drug clearance at steady-state concentration 3. The recirculating perfusion set-up can be also applied to confirm active transport of endogenous or exogenous substances. For this approach the same concentration of the xenobiotic has to be added to the maternal and the fetal ci...

The placenta is a complex organ which is responsible for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products and at the same time able to keep the two blood circuits of the mother and the growing fetus separated from each other. Additionally, it prevents rejection of the child by the maternal immune system and secretes hormones to maintain pregnancy. The cellular barrier is formed by the cytotrophoblast cells which fuse and form a true syncytium without lateral cell membranes 4,5. The whole placenta is organized in several cotyledons, which contain one fetal villous tree and represent one functional unit of the placenta.
The study of the placental barrier function was intensified with the discovery of the thalidomide induced malformations in the 1960's. For obvious reasons translocation studies with pregnant women cannot be performed. Consequently, various alternative models have been developed 6,7. The most promising and probably most clinical relevant model is the ex vivo human placental perfusion model developed by Panigel and co-workers 2,3.
Many women are exposed to different xenobiotics such as drugs or environmental pollutants during their pregnancy 8. For some drugs which were already administered regularly during pregnancy, in vivo studies can be performed by comparison of the maternal blood concentration with that in umbilical cord blood. However, generally there is only limited information about the pharmacokinetics and -dynamics in the fetus and the teratogenicity of these substances.
For example opiates like heroin easily cross the placental barrier and can lead to intrauterine growth restriction, preterm delivery or spontaneous abortion 9,10. So, in case of missing abstinence during pregnancy a replacement therapy with methadone is recommended. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model revealed that the transfer of methadone into the fetal circulation is negligible 11, which correlates well with the calculated cord blood-to-maternal blood concentration ratio after delivery 12.
Nanotechnology is a growing field especially in medicine. So, beneath the naturally occurring fine (&lt; 2.5 &mu;m in diameter) and ultrafine particles (&lt; 0.1 &mu;m in diameter) in fumes of forest fires, volcano eruptions and in desert dust, exposure to engineered nanomaterials (at least one dimension &lt; 0.1 &mu;m 13) is increasing. This raised questions about the toxicological potential of engineered nanomaterials. Although no human hazard could be proved yet, there are principal experimental studies indicating that engineered nanoparticles can cause adverse biological responses leading to toxicological outcomes 14. Recently, some studies indicated that prenatal exposure to air pollution is linked to a higher respiratory need and airway inflammation in newborns and children 15,16. In addition, small nanoparticles might be used as drug carriers to specifically treat either the fetus or the mother. Therefore, it becomes evident that extensive studies of distinct xenobiotics or nanomaterials and their ability to cross the placental barrier are required. An actual overview on the current studies on placental permeability to engineered nanomaterials is summarized in Menezes et al. 2011 17 and Buerki-Thurnherr et al. 2012 7.
The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model provides a controlled and reliable system for studying the placental transport of various endogenous and exogenous compounds 3,11,12,18,19 and a wide range of other functions of the placenta like mechanisms responsible for the development of pathological states like preeclampsia 20-22. In this protocol we focus mainly on the set up, handling and method that allow the study of accumulation, effects and translocation rates of a broad set of xenobiotics or nanoparticles.

<table><tbody><tr><td>NCTC-135 medium</td><td>ICN Biomedicals, Inc.</td><td>10-911-22C</td><td>could be replaced by Medium 199 from Sigma (M3769)</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, Fluka</td><td>71381</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium chloride (KCl)</td><td>Hospital pharmacy</td><td></td><td>also possible: Sigma (P9541)</td></tr><tr><td>Monosodium phosphate (NaH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;#183; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O)</td><td>Merck</td><td>106346</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium sulfate (MgSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;#183; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, Fluka</td><td>63139</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Calcium chloride (CaCl, anhydrous)</td><td>Merck</td><td>102388</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>D(+) Glucose (anhydrous)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, Fluka</td><td>49138</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)</td><td>Merck</td><td>106329</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dextran from Leuconostoc spp.</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>31389</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine serum albumin (BSA)</td><td>Applichem</td><td>A1391</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amoxicilline (Clamoxyl)</td><td>GlaxoSmithKline AG</td><td>2021101A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium heparin</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>3511014</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium hydoxide (NaOH) pellets</td><td>Merck</td><td>106498</td><td>CAUTION: corrosive</td></tr><tr><td>Ortho-phosphoric acid 85% (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)</td><td>Merck</td><td>100573</td><td>CAUTION: corrosive</td></tr><tr><td>Maternal gas mixture: 95% synthetic air, 5% CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>PanGas AG</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal gas mixture: 95% N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, 5% CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>PanGas AG</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Antipyrine (N-methyl-&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;C)</td><td>American Radiolabeled Chemicals, Inc.</td><td>ARC 0108-50 &amp;#956;Ci</td><td>CAUTION: radioactive material (specific activity: 55mCi/mmol)</td></tr><tr><td>Scintillation cocktail (IrgaSafe Plus)</td><td>Zinsser Analytic GmbH</td><td>1003100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polystyrene particles 80 nm</td><td>Polyscience, Inc.</td><td>17150</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polystyrene particles 500 nm</td><td>Polyscience, Inc.</td><td>17152</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">&lt;strong&gt;EQUIPMENT&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Water bath</td><td>VWR</td><td>462-7001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thermostat</td><td>IKA-Werke GmbH Co. KG</td><td>3164000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Peristaltic pumps</td><td>Ismatec</td><td>ISM 833</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bubble traps (glass)</td><td>UNI-GLAS Laborbedarf</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flow heater</td><td>UNI-GLAS Laborbedarf</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pressure sensor + Software for analyses</td><td>MSR Electronics GmbH</td><td>145B5</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Notebook</td><td>Hewlett Packard</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Miniature gas exchange oxygenator</td><td>Living Systems Instrumentation</td><td>LSI-OXR</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tygon Tube (ID: 1.6 mm; OD: 4.8 mm)</td><td>Ismatec</td><td>MF0028</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tubes for pumps (PharMed BPT; ID: 1.52 mm)</td><td>Ismatec</td><td>SC0744</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blunt cannulae ( 0.8 mm)</td><td>Polymed Medical Center</td><td>03.592.81</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blunt cannulae ( 1.2 mm)</td><td>Polymed Medical Center</td><td>03.592.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blunt cannulae ( 1.5 mm)</td><td>Polymed Medical Center</td><td>03.592.94</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blunt cannulae ( 1.8 mm)</td><td>Polymed Medical Center</td><td>03.952.82</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Parafilm</td><td>VWR</td><td>291-1212</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Perfusion chamber with tissue holder (plexiglass)</td><td>Internal technical department</td><td></td><td>Similar equipment is available from Hemotek Limited, UK</td></tr><tr><td>Surgical suture material (PremiCron)</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>C0026005</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Winged Needle Infusion Set (21G Butterfly)</td><td>Hospira, Inc.</td><td>ASN 2102</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Multidirectional stopcock (Discofix C-3)</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>16494C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical scissors</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>BC304R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dissecting scissors</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>BC162R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Needle holder</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>BM200R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dissecting forceps</td><td>B. Braun Medical AG</td><td>BD215R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Automated blood gas system </td><td>Radiometer Medical ApS</td><td>ABL800 FLEX</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Multi-mode microplate reader</td><td>BioTek</td><td>Synergy HT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Liquid scintillation analyzer</td><td>GMI, Inc.</td><td>Packard Tri-Carb 2200</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scintillation tubes 5.5 ml</td><td>Zinsser Analytic GmbH</td><td>3020001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue Homogenizer</td><td>OMNI, Inc.</td><td>TH-220</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pH meter + electrode</td><td>VWR</td><td>662-2779</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

determination of the transport rate of xenobiotics and nanomaterials across the placenta using the ex vivo human placental perfusion model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Figure 4A shows the perfusion profiles of small polystyrene particles (80 nm) which were transported across the placenta compared to bigger polystyrene particles (500 nm) which were not transferred to the fetal compartment. Each data point represents the mean particle concentration to the given time point of at least 3 independent experiments. For polystyrene nanoparticles the placental transfer is size-dependent 19. After 3 hr of placenta perfusion already 20-30% of the initially added 80 nm ...

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Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

determination-transport-rate-xenobiotics-nanomaterials-across

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

17.2K Views.  University Hospital Zurich. The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Video: Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Models and Methods to Evaluate Transport of Drug Delivery Systems Across Cellular Barriers

Sub-micrometer carriers (nanocarriers; NCs) enhance efficacy of drugs by improving solubility, stability, circulation time, targeting, and release. Additionally, traversing cellular barriers in the body is crucial for both oral delivery of therapeutic NCs into the circulation and transport from the blood into tissues, where intervention is needed. NC transport across cellular barriers is achieved by: (i) the paracellular route, via transient disruption of the junctions that interlock adjacent cells, or (ii) the transcellular route, where materials are internalized by endocytosis, transported across the cell body, and secreted at the opposite cell surface (transyctosis). Delivery across cellular barriers can be facilitated by coupling therapeutics or their carriers with targeting agents that bind specifically to cell-surface markers involved in transport. Here, we provide methods to measure the extent and mechanism of NC transport across a model cell barrier, which consists of a monolayer of gastrointestinal (GI) epithelial cells grown on a porous membrane located in a transwell insert. Formation of a permeability barrier is confirmed by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), transepithelial transport of a control substance, and immunostaining of tight junctions. As an example, ~200&#160;nm polymer NCs are used, which carry a therapeutic cargo and are coated with an antibody that targets a cell-surface determinant. The antibody or therapeutic cargo is labeled with 125I for radioisotope tracing and labeled NCs are added to the upper chamber over the cell monolayer for varying periods of time. NCs associated to the cells and/or transported to the underlying chamber can be detected. Measurement of free 125I allows subtraction of the degraded fraction. The paracellular route is assessed by determining potential changes caused by NC transport to the barrier parameters described above. Transcellular transport is determined by addressing the effect of modulating endocytosis and transcytosis pathways.

Many therapeutic applications require safe and efficient transport of drug carriers and their cargoes across cellular barriers in the body. This article describes an adaptation of established methods to evaluate the rate and mechanism of transport of drug nanocarriers (NCs) across cellular barriers, such as the gastrointestinal (GI) epithelium.

Sub-micrometer carriers (nanocarriers; NCs) enhance efficacy of drugs by improving solubility, stability, circulation time, targeting, and release. ...

Three-dimensional Rendering and Analysis of Immunolabeled, Clarified Human Placental Villous Vascular Networks

Nutrient and gas exchange between mother and fetus occurs at the interface of the maternal intervillous blood and the vast villous capillary network that makes up much of the parenchyma of the human placenta. The distal villous capillary network is the terminus of the fetal blood supply after several generations of branching of vessels extending out from the umbilical cord. This network has a contiguous cellular sheath, the syncytial trophoblast barrier layer, which prevents mixing of fetal blood and the maternal blood in which it is continuously bathed. Insults to the integrity of the placental capillary network, occurring in disorders such as maternal diabetes, hypertension and obesity, have consequences that present serious health risks for the fetus, infant, and adult. To better define the structural effects of these insults, a protocol was developed for this study that captures capillary network structure on the order of 1 - 2 mm3 wherein one can investigate its topological features in its full complexity. To accomplish this, clusters of terminal villi from placenta are dissected, and the trophoblast layer and the capillary endothelia are immunolabeled. These samples are then clarified with a new tissue clearing process which makes it possible to acquire confocal image stacks to z- depths of ~1 mm. The three-dimensional renderings of these stacks are then processed and analyzed to generate basic capillary network measures such as volume, number of capillary branches, and capillary branch end points, as validation of the suitability of this approach for capillary network characterization.

This study presents a protocol for the reversible tissue clearing, immunostaining, 3D-rendering and analysis of vascular networks in human placenta villi samples on the order of 1 - 2 mm3.

Nutrient and gas exchange between mother and fetus occurs at the interface of the maternal intervillous blood and the vast villous capillary network that ...

Developmental Biology

Ex Vivo Perfusion of the Rodent Placenta

The placenta is a key organ during pregnancy that serves as a barrier to fetal xenobiotic exposure and mediates the exchange of nutrients for waste. An assay is described here to perfuse an isolated rat placenta and evaluate the maternal-to-fetal translocation of xenobiotics ex vivo. In addition, the evaluation of physiological processes such as fluid flow to the fetus and placental metabolism may be conducted with this methodology. This technique is suitable for evaluating maternal-to-fetal kinetics of pharmaceutical candidates or environmental contaminants. In contrast to current alternative approaches, this methodology allows the evaluation of the isolated maternal-fetal vasculature, with the systemic neural or immune involvement removed, allowing any observed changes in physiological function to be attributable to local factors within the isolated tissue.

Here is presented a protocol of ex vivo maternal-fetal vascular perfusion to enable the administration of a test article into maternal vasculature and to evaluate placental transfer of xenobiotic particles or pharmacological agents in addition to alterations in placental physiology.

The placenta is a key organ during pregnancy that serves as a barrier to fetal xenobiotic exposure and mediates the exchange of nutrients for waste. An ...

In Vitro Permeation of FITC-loaded Ferritins Across a Rat Blood-brain Barrier: a Model to Study the Delivery of Nanoformulated Molecules

Brain microvascular endothelial cells, supported by pericytes and astrocytes endfeet, are responsible for the low permeation of large hydrosoluble drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB), causing difficulties for effective pharmacological therapies. In recent years, different strategies for promoting brain targeting have aimed to improve drug delivery and activity at this site, including innovative nanosystems for drug delivery across the BBB. In this context, an in vitro approach based on a simplified cellular model of the BBB provides a useful tool to investigate the effect of nanoformulations on the trans-BBB permeation of molecules. This study describes the development of a double-layer BBB, consisting of co-cultured commercially available primary rat brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes. A multiparametric approach for the validation of the model, based on the measurement of the transendothelial electrical resistance and the apparent permeability of a high molecular weight dextran, is also described. As proof of concept for the employment of this BBB model to study the effect of different nanoformulations on the translocation of fluorescent molecules across the barrier, we describe the use of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), loaded into ferritin nanoparticles. The ability of ferritins to improve the trans-BBB permeation of FITC was demonstrated by flux measurements and confocal microscopy analyses. The results suggest this is a useful system for validating nanosystems for delivery of drugs across the BBB.

In Vitro Permeation of FITC-loaded Ferritins Across a Rat Blood-brain Barrier: a Model to Study the Delivery of Nanoformulated Molecules

A method to establish an in vitro model of blood-brain barrier based on a co-culture of rat brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes is described and validated. This system proved to be a valid tool to study the effect of nanoformulation on the trans-barrier permeation of fluorescent molecules.

Brain microvascular endothelial cells, supported by pericytes and astrocytes endfeet, are responsible for the low permeation of large hydrosoluble drugs ...

Improving Ex Vivo Placental Explant Culture Using a Flow-Based Approach

Ex Vivo Placental Explant Flow Culture - Mimicking the Dynamic Conditions In Utero

The existing ex vivo placental explant culture models are primarily grounded in static culture systems using well plates. However, these models inadequately reflect the dynamic in utero setting, where the placenta encounters constant slight shear stress due to plasma or blood flow. To address this limitation, a flow culture system has been devised to bring ex vivo placental explant cultivation closer to the in utero flow conditions experienced within the maternal body. Within this approach, placental explants are cultivated in a sequence of five interconnected flow chambers. This setting&#160;maintains physiological oxygen concentrations and a consistent flow rate. The collected data reveals that under flow conditions, the preservation of tissue morphology exhibits notable enhancement compared to conventional static methods. This innovative technique introduces a straightforward means of ex vivo placental explant culture, offering a more faithful representation of the dynamic in vivo environment. Moreover, this study introduces new&#160;possibilities for investigating the functional dynamics of the feto-maternal interface. By embracing feasible dynamic methodologies, a deeper comprehension of placental biology is facilitated, underscoring its relevance for maternal-fetal health.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Research Through Single Cell Sequencing and Spatial Histology in Placental Tissues 

Here is a protocol for culturing placental explants under constant flow conditions. This approach enhances traditional static villous culture systems by enabling the replication of dynamic physiological environments.

The existing ex vivo placental explant culture models are primarily grounded in static culture systems using well plates. However, these models ...

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Safety of Placenta-Targeted Drug Delivery Using Three Complementary Methods

No effective treatments currently exist for placenta-associated pregnancy complications, and developing strategies for the targeted delivery of drugs to the placenta while minimizing fetal and maternal side effects remains challenging. Targeted nanoparticle carriers provide new opportunities to treat placental disorders. We recently demonstrated that a synthetic placental chondroitin sulfate A binding peptide (plCSA-BP) could be used to guide nanoparticles to deliver drugs to the placenta. In this protocol, we describe in detail a system for assessing the efficiency of drug delivery to the placenta by plCSA-BP that employs three separate methods used in combination: in vivo imaging, high-frequency ultrasound (HFUS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Using in vivo imaging, plCSA-BP-guided nanoparticles were visualized in the placentas of live animals, while HFUS and HPLC demonstrated that plCSA-BP-conjugated nanoparticles efficiently and specifically delivered methotrexate to the placenta. Thus, a combination of these methods can be used as an effective tool for the targeted delivery of drugs to the placenta and development of new treatment strategies for several pregnancy complications.

We describe a system that utilizes three methods to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of placenta-targeted drug delivery: in vivo imaging to monitor nanoparticle accumulation, high-frequency ultrasound to monitor placental and fetal development, and HPLC to quantify drug delivery to tissue.

No effective treatments currently exist for placenta-associated pregnancy complications, and developing strategies for the targeted delivery of drugs to ...

The 4-vessel Sampling Approach to Integrative Studies of Human Placental Physiology In Vivo

The human placenta is highly inaccessible for research while still in utero. The current understanding of human placental physiology in vivo is therefore largely based on animal studies, despite the high diversity among species in placental anatomy, hemodynamics and duration of the pregnancy. The vast majority of human placenta studies are ex vivo perfusion studies or in vitro trophoblast studies. Although in vitro studies and animal models are essential, extrapolation of the results from such studies to the human placenta in vivo is uncertain. We aimed to study human placenta physiology in vivo at term, and present a detailed protocol of the method. Exploiting the intraabdominal access to the uterine vein just before the uterine incision during planned cesarean section, we collect blood samples from the incoming and outgoing vessels on the maternal and fetal sides of the placenta. When combining concentration measurements from blood samples with volume blood flow measurements, we are able to quantify placental and fetal uptake and release of any compound. Furthermore, placental tissue samples from the same mother-fetus pairs can provide measurements of transporter density and activity and other aspects of placental functions in vivo. Through this integrative use of the 4-vessel sampling method we are able to test some of the current concepts of placental nutrient transfer and metabolism in vivo, both in normal and pathological pregnancies. Furthermore, this method enables the identification of substances secreted by the placenta to the maternal circulation, which could be an important contribution to the search for biomarkers of placenta dysfunction.

The 4-vessel Sampling Approach to Integrative Studies of Human Placental Physiology In Vivo

We present a detailed method to study human placental physiology in vivo at term. The method combines blood sampling from the incoming and outgoing vessels on the maternal and fetal sides of the placenta with ultrasound measurements of volume blood flow and placental tissue sampling.

The human placenta is highly inaccessible for research while still in utero. The current understanding of human placental physiology in vivo is therefore ...

Medicine

Evaluating Murine BBB Disruption Induced by Hypoxic Human Placenta-Derived sEVs

Disruption of the Mouse Blood-Brain Barrier by Small Extracellular Vesicles from Hypoxic Human Placentas

Cerebrovascular complications, including cerebral edema and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, constitute the leading cause of maternal mortality associated with preeclampsia. The underlying mechanisms of these cerebrovascular complications remain unclear. However, they are linked to placental dysfunction and blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Nevertheless, the connection between these two distant organs is still being determined. Increasing evidence suggests that the placenta releases signaling molecules, including extracellular vesicles, into maternal circulation. Extracellular vesicles are categorized according to their size, with small extracellular vesicles (sEVs smaller than 200 nm in diameter) considered critical signaling particles in both physiological and pathological conditions. In preeclampsia, there is an increased number of circulating sEVs in maternal circulation, the signaling function of which is not well understood. Placental sEVs released in preeclampsia or from normal pregnancy placentas exposed to hypoxia induce brain endothelial dysfunction and disruption of the BBB. In this protocol, we assess whether sEVs isolated from placental explants cultured under hypoxic conditions (modeling one aspect of preeclampsia) disrupt the BBB in vivo.

Author Spotlight: Modeling an Aspect of Preeclampsia in Female Mice Using Hypoxic Human Placenta-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles

A protocol is presented to evaluate whether small EVs (sEVs) isolated from placental explants cultured under hypoxic conditions (modeling one aspect of preeclampsia) disrupt the blood-brain barrier in nonpregnant adult female mice.

Cerebrovascular complications, including cerebral edema and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, constitute the leading cause of maternal mortality associated ...

Quantitating Iron Transport Across the Mouse Placenta In Vivo Using Nonradioactive Iron Isotopes

Iron is essential for maternal and fetal health during pregnancy, with approximately 1 g of iron needed in humans to sustain a healthy pregnancy. Fetal iron endowment is entirely dependent on iron transfer across the placenta, and perturbations of this transfer can lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes. In mice, measurement of iron fluxes across the placenta traditionally relied on radioactive iron isotopes, a highly sensitive but burdensome approach. Stable iron isotopes (57Fe and 58Fe) offer a nonradioactive alternative for use in human pregnancy studies.
Under physiological conditions, transferrin-bound iron is the predominant form of iron taken up by the placenta. Thus, 58Fe-transferrin was prepared and injected intravenously in pregnant dams to directly assess placental iron transport and bypass maternal intestinal iron absorption as a confounding variable. Isotopic iron was quantitated in the placenta and mouse embryonic tissues by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). These methods can also be employed in other animal model systems of physiology or disease to quantify in vivo iron dynamics.

Quantitating Iron Transport Across the Mouse Placenta In Vivo Using Nonradioactive Iron Isotopes

This article demonstrates how to prepare and administer transferrin-bound nonradioactive isotopic iron for studies of iron transport in mouse pregnancy. The approach for quantifying isotopic iron in fetoplacental compartments is also described.

Iron is essential for maternal and fetal health during pregnancy, with approximately 1 g of iron needed in humans to sustain a healthy pregnancy. Fetal ...

Biology

Establishing a Swine Model to Study Uterus Dynamic Preservation and Transplantation

To date, uterus transplantation is the only option for women with absolute uterine infertility, such as those with Rokitansky syndrome, to experience pregnancy and give birth. Despite the growing interest in uterus&#160;transplantation in recent years, several issues still require further research, including ischemia-reperfusion injury and its impact on graft quality and rejection. Recent literature has highlighted a thrombotic complication rate of up to 20% following uterus&#160;transplantation. This type of complication may result from hypoxia-induced endothelial cell damage, often leading to uterine graft rejection. Hypoxia is induced during static cold storage, which remains the gold standard for graft preservation in solid organ transplantation. Recently, dynamic preservation using machine perfusion has been shown to improve the long-term storage of conventional and marginal organs by reducing ischemic and hypoxic injury. In this protocol, we aim to describe every surgical step involved in porcine uterus procurement and dynamic preservation, based on both uterine pedicles, to enable the connection and initiation of the machine perfusion protocol.

A detailed and reproducible swine uterus model is described, from surgical procurement to the initiation of machine perfusion, allowing for the study of uterus preservation in transplantation.

To date, uterus transplantation is the only option for women with absolute uterine infertility, such as those with Rokitansky syndrome, to experience ...

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Summary

Explore More Videos

Chapters in this video

Models and Methods to Evaluate Transport of Drug Delivery Systems Across Cellular Barriers

Three-dimensional Rendering and Analysis of Immunolabeled, Clarified Human Placental Villous Vascular Networks

Ex Vivo Perfusion of the Rodent Placenta

In Vitro Permeation of FITC-loaded Ferritins Across a Rat Blood-brain Barrier: a Model to Study the Delivery of Nanoformulated Molecules

Ex Vivo Placental Explant Flow Culture - Mimicking the Dynamic Conditions In Utero

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Safety of Placenta-Targeted Drug Delivery Using Three Complementary Methods

The 4-vessel Sampling Approach to Integrative Studies of Human Placental Physiology In Vivo

Disruption of the Mouse Blood-Brain Barrier by Small Extracellular Vesicles from Hypoxic Human Placentas

Quantitating Iron Transport Across the Mouse Placenta In Vivo Using Nonradioactive Iron Isotopes

Establishing a Swine Model to Study Uterus Dynamic Preservation and Transplantation