The authors would like to thank Picometrix for providing the LT-GaAs substrate and gratefully acknowledge the financial support from Michigan Space Grant Consortium, DARPA Young Faculty Award managed by Dr. John Albrecht (contract # N66001-10-1-4027), NSF CAREER Award managed by Dr. Samir El-Ghazaly (contract # N00014-11-1-0096), ONR Young Investigator Award managed by Dr. Paul Maki (contract # N00014-12-1-0947), and ARO Young Investigator Award managed by Dr. Dev Palmer (contract # W911NF-12-1-0253).

1. Plasmonic Photoconductive Emitter Fabrication
<ol>
 <li>Fabricate plasmonic gratings.
 <ol>
 <li>Clean the semiconductor wafer by immersing in acetone (2 min) followed by isopropanol (2 min), and rinsing with deionized water (10 sec).</li>
 <li>Dry the sample with nitrogen and heat it on a hotplate at 115 &deg;C for 90 sec to remove any remaining water.</li>
 <li>Spin MicroChem 950K PMMA A4 on the sample at 4,000 rpm for 45 sec. Pre-bake the resist on a hotplate at 180 &deg;C for 3 min.</li>
 <li>Load the sample into an electron beam lithography tool (JEOL JBX-6300-FS). Expose the plasmonic grating pattern at a base dose around 650 &mu;C/cm2, using a 100 kV acceleration voltage.</li>
 <li>Develop PMMA by immersing the sample in a MIBK:IPA 1:3 mixture for 90 sec. Immediately transfer the sample to a solution of pure isopropanol for 60 sec.</li>
 <li>Rinse the sample with deionized water for 10 sec and then dry the sample with nitrogen.</li>
 <li>Load the sample into a plasma stripper (YES-CV200RFS). Descum the sample using 30 W RF power at 30 &deg;C with a 100 sccm O2 flow rate for 10 sec.</li>
 <li>Remove surface oxide by immersing in a HCl:H20 3:10 mixture for 30 sec. Immediately transfer the sample to a cascade rinse of deionized water for 4 min.</li>
 <li>Transfer the sample to a beaker of deionized water to minimize exposure to atmospheric oxygen before metal deposition.</li>
 <li>Take beaker containing the sample in deionized water to a metal evaporator (Denton SJ-20). Vent the chamber and then remove, dry, and load the sample into the chamber (these steps should be followed without interruption to prevent surface oxide formation on the sample).</li>
 <li>Pump the chamber to a pressure below 2x10-6 Torr. Deposit Ti/Au (50/450 &Aring;).</li>
 <li>Vent the chamber and remove the sample.</li>
 <li>In order to lift-off the deposited metal, place the sample on a Teflon holder in a beaker of acetone, cover, and leave overnight. Uncover the beaker, place it in an ultrasonic agitator, and wait until all unwanted metal is removed (typically 30 sec).</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Deposit SiO2 passivation.

 <ol>
 <li>Clean the sample as in Steps 1.1.1 - 1.1.2.</li>
 <li>Load the sample in a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition tool (GSI PECVD). Deposit 1500 &Aring; of SiO2 at 200 &deg;C.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Open contact vias through SiO2.

 <ol>
 <li>Clean the sample as in Steps 1.1.1 - 1.1.2.</li>
 <li>Spin on HMDS at 4,000 rpm for 30 sec. Spin on Megaposit SPR 220-3.0 photoresist at 4,000 rpm for 30 sec. Pre-bake the resist on a hotplate at 115 &deg;C for 90 sec.</li>
 <li>Load the sample and mask plate into projection lithography stepper (GCA AutoStep 200). Align the sample and expose.</li>
 <li>Post-bake the exposed photoresist on a hotplate at 115 &deg;C for 90 sec.</li>
 <li>Develop resist in AZ 300 MIF developer for 60 sec.</li>
 <li>Immediately move the sample to a cascade rinse of deionized water for 4 min. Dry the sample with nitrogen.</li>
 <li>Load the sample into a reactive ion etcher (LAM 9400). Etch SiO2 using a TCP RF power of 500 W, a Bias RF power of 100 W, 15 sccm of SF6-, 50 sccm of C4F8, 50 sccm of He, 50 sccm of Ar for 80 sec.</li>
 <li>Remove the bulk of the photoresist by placing the sample in acetone (5 min) followed by isopropanol (2 min). Rinse in deionized water (10 sec). Dry with nitrogen.</li>
 <li>Remove the residual photoresist by loading the sample in a plasma stripper (YES-CV200RFS). Remove the photoresist using 800 W RF power at 30 &deg;C with a 100 sccm O2 flow rate for 5 min.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Fabricate antennas and bias lines.
 <ol>
 <li>Repeat Steps 1.3.1 - 1.3.6 to pattern antennas and bias lines.</li>
 <li>Repeat Steps 1.1.8 - 1.1.9 to remove surface oxide.</li>
 <li>Take the beaker containing the sample and deionized water to a metal evaporator (Denton SJ-20).</li>
 <li>Vent the chamber and then quickly remove, dry, and load the sample into the chamber.</li>
 <li>Pump the chamber to a pressure below 2x10-6 Torr. Deposit Ti/Au (10/4,000 &Aring;).</li>
 <li>Vent the chamber and remove the sample.</li>
 <li>Repeat Step 1.1.13 to lift-off the deposited metal.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Package the sample.
 <ol>
 <li>Glue the edges of a 12 mm diameter hyper-hemispherical silicon lens to a 2 inch aluminum washer with 8 mm hole.</li>
 <li>Glue a PCB board with metal traces, to which one can easily solder, to the aluminum washer.</li>
 <li>Mount the fabricated plasmonic photoconductive terahertz emitter prototypes on the silicon lens using thin epoxy.</li>
 <li>Wire bond the device contact pads to a PCB board glued on the same aluminum washer.</li>
 <li>Solder wires to the metal traces on the PCB board.</li>
 <li>Connect device contact pads to a parametric analyzer (Hewlett Packard 4155A) using wires soldered to the corresponding pads of the PCB board for testing purposes.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
</ol>

2. Plasmonic Photoconductive Emitter Characterization

<ol>
 <li>Device alignment.
 <ol>
 <li>Place the aluminum washer carrying the plasmonic photoconductive terahertz emitter prototypes on a rotation mount and tightly focus the optical pump from a Ti:Sapphire mode-locked laser (MIRA 900D V10 XW OPT 110V) onto the active area of each device.</li>
 <li>Adjust the rotation mount such that the electric field of the optical pump is oriented for efficient excitation of surface plasmon waves (normal to the plasmonic gratings).</li>
 <li>Use the parametric analyzer to simultaneously apply bias voltages to each device and measure the induced electrical current in each device. Confirm the optimum optical pump alignment and polarization adjustment by maximizing the photocurrent of each device under test.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Output power measurement.
 <ol>
 <li>Use an optical chopper (Thorlabs MC2000) to modulate the optical pump from the mode-locked pump laser incident on each device.</li>
 <li>Measure the output power of the plasmonic photoconductive terahertz emitter prototypes using a pyroelectric detector (Spectrum Detector, Inc. SPI-A-65 THz).</li>
 <li>Connect the output of the pyroelectric detector to a lock-in amplifier (Stanford Research Systems SR830) with the optical chopper's reference frequency to recover terahertz power data at low noise levels.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Radiation spectral characterization.
 <ol>
 <li>Start with a Ti:Sapphire mode-locked laser and use a beam splitter to split the output of the mode-locked laser into a pump beam and a probe beam.</li>
 <li>Use an electrooptic modulator (Thorlabs EO-AM-NR-C2) to modulate the optical beam in the pump path. Focus the pump beam onto the active area of the photoconductive emitter under test to generate terahertz radiation.</li>
 <li>Collimate the generated terahertz beam using a first polyethylene spherical lens. Focus the collimated terahertz beam using a second polyethylene spherical lens.</li>
 <li>Before the focus of the terahertz beam, combine the collimated terahertz beam with the probe optical beam using an ITO coated glass filter.</li>
 <li>Place a 1 mm thick, &lt;110&gt; ZnTe crystal mounted on a rotation stage at the combined focus of the optical and terahertz beam.</li>
 <li>Insert a controllable optical delay line in the optical probe path by using a motorized linear stage (Thorlabs NRT100) to vary the time delay between the optical and terahertz pulses interacting inside the ZnTe crystal.</li>
 <li>Using a half-waveplate in the probe path, rotate the polarization of the optical probe to be at a 45&deg; angle relative to the terahertz polarization direction.</li>
 <li>Use a quarter-waveplate after the ZnTe crystal, convert the optical beam polarization into circular polarization.</li>
 <li>Split the circularly polarized optical beam into two branches by a Wollaston prism. Measure the optical beam power in each branch using two balanced detectors connected to a lock-in amplifier.</li>
 <li>Connect the motorized delay line and lock-in amplifier to a computer. Write a Matlab script to iteratively move the position of the motorized delay line, pause, and read the signal magnitude from the lock-in amplifier.</li>
 <li>Convert the stage position to the time domain, through dividing the total optical delay length by the speed of light, followed by a discreet Fourier transform (using Matlab) to obtain the frequency domain data.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
</ol>

<ol>
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No conflicts of interest declared.

In this video article, we present a novel photoconductive terahertz generation technique that uses a plasmonic contact electrode configuration to enhance the optical-to-terahertz conversion efficiency by two orders of magnitude. The significant increase in the terahertz radiation power from the presented plasmonic photoconductive emitters is very valuable for future high-sensitivity terahertz imaging, spectroscopy and spectrometry systems used for advanced chemical identification, medical imaging, biological sensing, ast...

We present a novel photoconductive terahertz emitter that uses a plasmonic contact electrode configuration to enhance the optical-to-terahertz conversion efficiency by two orders of magnitude. Our technique addresses the most important limitations of conventional photoconductive terahertz emitters, namely low output power and poor power efficiency, which originate from the inherent tradeoff between high quantum efficiency and ultrafast operation of conventional photoconductors.
One of the key novelties in our design that led to this leapfrog performance improvement is to design a contact electrode configuration that accumulates a large number of photo-generated carriers in close proximity to the contact electrodes, such that they can be collected within a sub-picosecond timescale. In other words, the tradeoff between photoconductor ultrafast operation and high quantum efficiency is mitigated by spatial manipulation of the photo-generated carriers. Plasmonic contact electrodes offer this unique capability by (1) allowing light confinement into nanoscale device active areas between the plasmonic electrodes (beyond diffraction limit), (2) extraordinary light enhancement at the metal contact and photo-absorbing semiconductor interface 10, 11. Another important attribute of our solution is that it accommodates large photoconductor active areas without a considerable increase in the parasitic loading to the terahertz radiating antenna. Utilizing large photoconductor active areas enable mitigating the carrier screening effect and thermal breakdown, which are the ultimate limitations for the maximum radiation power from conventional photoconductive emitters. This video article is concentrated on the unique attributes of our presented solution by describing the governing physics, numerical modeling, and experimental verification. We experimentally demonstrate 50 times higher terahertz powers from a plasmonic photoconductive emitter in comparison with a similar photoconductive emitter with non-plasmonic contact electrodes.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>Reagent</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)</td>
 <td>MicroChem</td>
 <td>950K PMMA A4</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS)</td>
 <td>Shin-Etsu MicroSI</td>
 <td>MicroPrime HP Primer</td>
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 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical Photoresist</td>
 <td>Dow Chemical</td>
 <td>Megaposit SPR 220-3.0</td>
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 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Photoresist Developer</td>
 <td>AZ Electronic Materials</td>
 <td>AZ 300 MIF Developer</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Methyl Iso-Butyl Keytone (MIBK)</td>
 <td>Avantor Performance Materials</td>
 <td>9322-03</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>Equipment</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ti:Sapphire Mode-Locked Laser</td>
 <td>Coherent</td>
 <td>MIRA 900D V10 XW OPT 110V</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pyroelectric Detector</td>
 <td>Spectrum Detector</td>
 <td>SPI-A-65 THz</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Electron-Beam Lithography Tool</td>
 <td>JEOL</td>
 <td>JBX-6300-FS</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Plasma Stripper</td>
 <td>Yield Engineering Systems</td>
 <td>YES-CV200RFS</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Metal Evaporator</td>
 <td>Denton Vacuum</td>
 <td>SJ-20</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Tool</td>
 <td>GSI</td>
 <td>GSI PECVD System</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Projection Lithography Stepper</td>
 <td>GCA</td>
 <td>AutoStep 200</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Reactive Ion Etcher</td>
 <td>LAM Research</td>
 <td>9400</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Parameter Analyzer</td>
 <td>Hewlett Packard</td>
 <td>4155A</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical Chopper</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>MC2000</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Lock-in Amplifier</td>
 <td>Stanford Research Systems</td>
 <td>SR830</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Electrooptic Modulator</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>EO-AM-NR-C2</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Motorized Linear Stage</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>NRT100</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

design, fabrication, and experimental characterization of plasmonic photoconductive terahertz emitters

In this video article we present a detailed demonstration of a highly efficient method for generating terahertz waves. Our technique is based on photoconduction, which has been one of the most commonly used techniques for terahertz generation 1-8. Terahertz generation in a photoconductive emitter is achieved by pumping an ultrafast photoconductor with a pulsed or heterodyned laser illumination. The induced photocurrent, which follows the envelope of the pump laser, is routed to a terahertz radiating antenna connected to the photoconductor contact electrodes to generate terahertz radiation. Although the quantum efficiency of a photoconductive emitter can theoretically reach 100%, the relatively long transport path lengths of photo-generated carriers to the contact electrodes of conventional photoconductors have severely limited their quantum efficiency. Additionally, the carrier screening effect and thermal breakdown strictly limit the maximum output power of conventional photoconductive terahertz sources. To address the quantum efficiency limitations of conventional photoconductive terahertz emitters, we have developed a new photoconductive emitter concept which incorporates a plasmonic contact electrode configuration to offer high quantum-efficiency and ultrafast operation simultaneously. By using nano-scale plasmonic contact electrodes, we significantly reduce the average photo-generated carrier transport path to photoconductor contact electrodes compared to conventional photoconductors 9. Our method also allows increasing photoconductor active area without a considerable increase in the capacitive loading to the antenna, boosting the maximum terahertz radiation power by preventing the carrier screening effect and thermal breakdown at high optical pump powers. By incorporating plasmonic contact electrodes, we demonstrate enhancing the optical-to-terahertz power conversion efficiency of a conventional photoconductive terahertz emitter by a factor of 50 10.

To demonstrate the potential of plasmonic electrodes for terahertz power enhancement, we fabricated two terahertz emitters: a conventional (Figure 1a) and plasmonic (Figure 1b) photoconductive emitter incorporating plasmonic contact electrodes to reduce carrier transport times to contact electrodes. Both designs consist of an ultrafast photoconductor with 20 &mu;m gap between anode and cathode contacts, connected to a 60 &mu;m long bowtie antenna with maximum and minimum widths of 100 &m...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Design, Fabrication, and Experimental Characterization of Plasmonic Photoconductive Terahertz Emitters at JoVE.com

Design, Fabrication, and Experimental Characterization of Plasmonic Photoconductive Terahertz Emitters

We describe methods for the design, fabrication, and experimental characterization of plasmonic photoconductive emitters, which offer two orders of magnitude higher terahertz power levels compared to conventional photoconductive emitters.

In this video article we present a detailed demonstration of a highly efficient method for generating terahertz waves. Our technique is based on ...

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14.8K Views.  University of Michigan. We describe methods for the design, fabrication, and experimental characterization of plasmonic photoconductive emitters, which offer two orders of magnitude higher terahertz power levels compared to conventional photoconductive emitters.

Video: Design, Fabrication, and Experimental Characterization of Plasmonic Photoconductive Terahertz Emitters

Terahertz Microfluidic Sensing Using a Parallel-plate Waveguide Sensor

Refractive index (RI) sensing is a powerful noninvasive and label-free sensing technique for the identification, detection and monitoring of microfluidic samples with a wide range of possible sensor designs such as interferometers and resonators 1,2. Most of the existing RI sensing applications focus on biological materials in aqueous solutions in visible and IR frequencies, such as DNA hybridization and genome sequencing. At terahertz frequencies, applications include quality control, monitoring of industrial processes and sensing and detection applications involving nonpolar materials.
Several potential designs for refractive index sensors in the terahertz regime exist, including photonic crystal waveguides 3, asymmetric split-ring resonators 4, and photonic band gap structures integrated into parallel-plate waveguides 5. Many of these designs are based on optical resonators such as rings or cavities. The resonant frequencies of these structures are dependent on the refractive index of the material in or around the resonator. By monitoring the shifts in resonant frequency the refractive index of a sample can be accurately measured and this in turn can be used to identify a material, monitor contamination or dilution, etc.
The sensor design we use here is based on a simple parallel-plate waveguide 6,7. A rectangular groove machined into one face acts as a resonant cavity (Figures 1 and 2). When terahertz radiation is coupled into the waveguide and propagates in the lowest-order transverse-electric (TE1) mode, the result is a single strong resonant feature with a tunable resonant frequency that is dependent on the geometry of the groove 6,8. This groove can be filled with nonpolar liquid microfluidic samples which cause a shift in the observed resonant frequency that depends on the amount of liquid in the groove and its refractive index 9.
Our technique has an advantage over other terahertz techniques in its simplicity, both in fabrication and implementation, since the procedure can be accomplished with standard laboratory equipment without the need for a clean room or any special fabrication or experimental techniques. It can also be easily expanded to multichannel operation by the incorporation of multiple grooves 10. In this video we will describe our complete experimental procedure, from the design of the sensor to the data analysis and determination of the sample refractive index.

The procedure for implementing a refractive index sensor for terahertz frequencies based on a grooved parallel-plate waveguide geometry is described here. The method yields a measurement of the refractive index of a small volume of liquid through monitoring of the shift in the resonant frequency of the waveguide structure

Refractive index (RI) sensing is a powerful noninvasive and label-free sensing technique for the identification, detection and monitoring of microfluidic ...

Simulation, Fabrication and Characterization of THz Metamaterial Absorbers

Metamaterials (MM), artificial materials engineered to have properties that may not be found in nature, have been widely explored since the first theoretical1 and experimental demonstration2 of their unique properties. MMs can provide a highly controllable electromagnetic response, and to date have been demonstrated in every technologically relevant spectral range including the optical3, near IR4, mid IR5 , THz6 , mm-wave7 , microwave8 and radio9 bands. Applications include perfect lenses10, sensors11, telecommunications12, invisibility cloaks13 and filters14,15. We have recently developed single band16, dual band17 and broadband18 THz metamaterial absorber devices capable of greater than 80% absorption at the resonance peak. The concept of a MM absorber is especially important at THz frequencies where it is difficult to find strong frequency selective THz absorbers19. In our MM absorber the THz radiation is absorbed in a thickness of ~ &lambda;/20, overcoming the thickness limitation of traditional quarter wavelength absorbers. MM absorbers naturally lend themselves to THz detection applications, such as thermal sensors, and if integrated with suitable THz sources (e.g. QCLs), could lead to compact, highly sensitive, low cost, real time THz imaging systems.

This protocol outlines the simulation, fabrication and characterization of THz metamaterial absorbers. Such absorbers, when coupled with an appropriate sensor, have applications in THz imaging and spectroscopy.

Metamaterials (MM),  artificial materials engineered to have properties that may not be found in  nature, have been widely explored since the first ...

Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view and for its considerable potential for practical applications. Slow light photonic crystal waveguides, in particular, have played a major part and have been successfully employed for delaying optical signals1-4 and the enhancement of both linear5-7 and nonlinear devices.8-11
Photonic crystal cavities achieve similar effects to that of slow light waveguides, but over a reduced band-width. These cavities offer high Q-factor/volume ratio, for the realization of optically12 and electrically13 pumped ultra-low threshold lasers and the enhancement of nonlinear effects.14-16 Furthermore, passive filters17 and modulators18-19 have been demonstrated, exhibiting ultra-narrow line-width, high free-spectral range and record values of low energy consumption.
To attain these exciting results, a robust repeatable fabrication protocol must be developed. In this paper we take an in-depth look at our fabrication protocol which employs electron-beam lithography for the definition of photonic crystal patterns and uses wet and dry etching techniques. Our optimised fabrication recipe results in photonic crystals that do not suffer from vertical asymmetry and exhibit very good edge-wall roughness. We discuss the results of varying the etching parameters and the detrimental effects that they can have on a device, leading to a diagnostic route that can be taken to identify and eliminate similar issues.
The key to evaluating slow light waveguides is the passive characterization of transmission and group index spectra. Various methods have been reported, most notably resolving the Fabry-Perot fringes of the transmission spectrum20-21 and interferometric techniques.22-25 Here, we describe a direct, broadband measurement technique combining spectral interferometry with Fourier transform analysis.26 Our method stands out for its simplicity and power, as we can characterise a bare photonic crystal with access waveguides, without need for on-chip interference components, and the setup only consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, with no need for moving parts and delay scans.
When characterising photonic crystal cavities, techniques involving internal sources21 or external waveguides directly coupled to the cavity27 impact on the performance of the cavity itself, thereby distorting the measurement. Here, we describe a novel and non-intrusive technique that makes use of a cross-polarised probe beam and is known as resonant scattering (RS), where the probe is coupled out-of plane into the cavity through an objective. The technique was first demonstrated by McCutcheon et al.28 and further developed by Galli et al.29

Use of photonic crystal slow light waveguides and cavities has been widely adopted by the photonics community in many differing applications. Therefore fabrication and characterization of these devices are of great interest. This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two optical characterization methods, namely: interferometric (waveguides) and resonant scattering (cavities).

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

Patterning via Optical Saturable Transitions - Fabrication and Characterization

This protocol describes the fabrication and characterization of nanostructures using a novel nanolithographic technique called Patterning via Optical Saturable Transitions (POST). In this technique the chemical properties of organic photochromic molecules that undergo single-photon reactions are exploited, enabling rapid top-down nanopatterning over large areas at low light intensities, thereby, allowing for the circumvention of the far-field diffraction barrier.4 Simple, cost-effective, high throughput and resolution alternatives to nanopatterning are being explored, such as, two-photon polymerization5,6, beam pen lithography (BPL)7, scanning electron beam lithography (SEBL), and focused ion beam (FIB) patterning. However, multi-photon approaches require high light intensities, which limit their potential for high throughput and offer low image contrast. Although, electron and ion beam lithographic processes offer increased resolution, the serial nature of the process is limited to slow writing speeds, which also prevents patterning of features over large areas. Beam-pen lithography is an approach towards parallel near-field optical lithography. However, the gap between the source of the beam and the surface of the photoresist needs to be controlled extremely precisely for good pattern uniformity and this is very challenging to accomplish for large arrays of beams. Patterning via Optical Saturable Transitions (POST) is an alternative optical nanopatterning technique for patterning sub-wavelength features1-3. Since this technique uses single photons instead of electrons, it is extremely fast and does not require high light intensities1-3, opening the door to massive parallelization.

We report that the diffraction limit of conventional optical lithography can be overcome by exploiting the transitions of organic photochromic derivatives induced by their photoisomerization at low light intensities.1-3 This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two locking mechanisms, namely: dissolution of one photoisomer and electrochemical oxidation.

This protocol describes the fabrication and characterization of nanostructures using a novel nanolithographic technique called Patterning via Optical ...

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices have used devices prepared by spin coating, a process that is not amenable to large-scale fabrication. This mismatch in device fabrication makes it difficult to translate quantitative results obtained in the laboratory to the commercial level, making optimization difficult. Using a mini-slot die coater, this mismatch can be resolved by translating the commercial process to the laboratory and characterizing the structure formation in the active layer of the device in real time and in situ as films are coated onto a substrate. The evolution of the morphology was characterized under different conditions, allowing us to propose a mechanism by which the structures form and grow. This mini-slot die coater offers a simple, convenient, material efficient route by which the morphology in the active layer can be optimized under industrially relevant conditions. The goal of this protocol is to show experimental details of how a solar cell device is fabricated using a mini-slot die coater and technical details of running in situ structure characterization using the mini-slot die coater.

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Here, we present a protocol to fabricate organic thin film solar cells using a mini-slot die coater and related in-line structure characterizations using synchrotron scattering techniques.

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices ...

Free-form Light Actuators &#8212; Fabrication and Control of Actuation in Microscopic Scale

Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) are smart materials capable of reversible shape-change in response to external stimuli, and have attracted researchers&#39; attention in many fields. Most of the studies focused on macroscopic LCE structures (films, fibers) and their miniaturization is still in its infancy. Recently developed lithography techniques, e.g., mask exposure and replica molding, only allow for creating 2D structures on LCE thin films. Direct laser writing (DLW) opens access to truly 3D fabrication in the microscopic scale. However, controlling the actuation topology and dynamics at the same length scale remains a challenge.
In this paper we report on a method to control the liquid crystal (LC) molecular alignment in the LCE microstructures of arbitrary three-dimensional shape. This was made possible by a combination of direct laser writing for both the LCE structures as well as for micrograting patterns inducing local LC alignment. Several types of grating patterns were used to introduce different LC alignments, which can be subsequently patterned into the LCE structures. This protocol allows one to obtain LCE microstructures with engineered alignments able to perform multiple opto-mechanical actuation, thus being capable of multiple functionalities. Applications can be foreseen in the fields of tunable photonics, micro-robotics, lab-on-chip technology and others.

Free-form Light Actuators &amp;#8212; Fabrication and Control of Actuation in Microscopic Scale

Here, we fabricate 3D polymeric micro/nano structures in which both the shape and the molecular alignment can be engineered with nanometer scale accuracy by the use of direct laser writing. Light induced deformation of several types of liquid crystalline elastomer microstructures can be controlled in the microscopic scale.

Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) are smart materials capable of reversible shape-change in response to external stimuli, and have attracted ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

Fabrication of Nanopillar-Based Split Ring Resonators for Displacement Current Mediated Resonances in Terahertz Metamaterials

Terahertz (THz) split ring resonator (SRR) metamaterials (MMs) has been studied for gas, chemical, and biomolecular sensing applications because the SRR is not affected by environmental characteristics such as the temperature and pressure surrounding the resonator. Electromagnetic radiation in THz frequencies is biocompatible, which is a critical condition especially for the application of the biomolecular sensing. However, the quality factor (Q-factor) and frequency responses of traditional thin-film based split ring resonator (SRR) MMs are very low, which limits their sensitivities and selectivity as sensors. In this work, novel nanopillar-based SRR MMs, utilizing displacement current, are designed to enhance the Q-factor up to 450, which is around 45 times higher than that of traditional thin-film-based MMs. In addition to the enhanced Q-factor, the nanopillar-based MMs induce a larger frequency shifts (17 times compared to the shift obtained by the traditional thin-film based MMs). Because of the significantly enhanced Q-factors and frequency shifts as well as the property of biocompatible radiation, the THz nanopillar-based SRR are ideal MMs for the development of biomolecular sensors with high sensitivity and selectivity without inducing damage or distortion to biomaterials. A novel fabrication process has been demonstrated to build the nanopillar-based SRRs for displacement current mediated THz MMs. A two-step gold (Au) electroplating process and an atomic layer deposition (ALD) process are used to create sub-10 nm scale gaps between Au nanopillars. Since the ALD process is a conformal coating process, a uniform aluminum oxide (Al2O3) layer with nanometer-scale thickness can be achieved. By sequentially electroplating another Au thin film to fill the spaces between Al2O3 and Au, a close-packed Au-Al2O3-Au structure with nano-scale Al2O3 gaps can be fabricated. The size of the nano-gaps can be well defined by precisely controlling the deposition cycles of the ALD process, which has an accuracy of 0.1 nm.

A protocol for the design and fabrication of a novel nanopillar-based split ring resonator (SRR) is presented.

Terahertz (THz) split ring resonator (SRR) metamaterials (MMs) has been studied for gas, chemical, and biomolecular sensing applications because the SRR ...

Design and Characterization Methodology for Efficient Wide Range Tunable MEMS Filters

Here, we demonstrate the advantages of the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) over conventional techniques (the network analyzer), as well as the techniques to create an application-based microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) filter and how to use it efficiently (i.e., tuning the tuning-capability and avoiding both failure and stiction). LDV enables crucial measurements that are impossible with the network analyzer, such as higher mode detection (highly sensitive biosensor application) and resonance measurement for very small devices (fast prototyping). Accordingly, LDV was used to characterize the frequency tuning range and resonance frequency at different modes of the MEMS filters built for this study. This wide range frequency tuning mechanism is based simply on Joule heating from the embedded heaters and relatively high thermal stress with respect to the temperature of a fixed-fixed beam. However, we demonstrate that another limitation of this method is the resulting high thermal stress, which can burn the devices. Further improvement was achieved and shown for the first time in this study, such that the tuning capability was increased by 32% through an increase in the applied DC bias voltage (25 V to 35 V) between the two adjacent beams. This important finding eliminates the need for the extra Joule heating at the wider frequency tuning range. Another possible failure is through stiction and requirement of structure optimization: We propose a simple and easy technique of low frequency square wave signal application that can successfully separate the beams and eliminates the need for the more sophisticated and complicated methods given in the literature. The above findings necessitate a design methodology, and so we also provide an application-based design.

A protocol for a fixed-fixed beam design using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV), including the measurement of frequency tuning, modification of tuning capability, and avoidance of device failure and stiction, is presented. The superiority of the LDV method over the network analyzer is demonstrated due to its higher mode capability.

Here, we demonstrate the advantages of the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) over conventional techniques (the network analyzer), as well as the techniques ...