This work was supported by the Belgian National Foundation for Scientific Research (F.R.S.-FNRS) through &#8220;MIS Confocal Microscopy&#8221;, &#8220;Cr&#233;dit aux Chercheurs&#8221; grants and the &#8220;Nanomotility FRFC project&#8221; (no. 2.4622.11). T.G. doctoral fellowship is supported by the Foundation for Training in Industrial and Agricultural Research (FRIA). The authors gratefully acknowledge Sylvain Desprez for mechanical characterization and G&#233;raldine Circelli for confocal imaging.

1. Activating the Surface of Glass Coverslips
<ol>
	<li>Place glass circular coverslips (25 mm diameter) in a Petri dish and smear 0.1 M NaOH solution on it for 5 min&#160;(chemical fume hood recommended).</li>
	<li>Remove the NaOH solution and fully immerse coverslips with sterile ddH2O for 20 min&#160;while gently rocking on a rocking plate in a sterile culture hood.</li>
	<li>Drain sterile ddH2O and repeat the step 1.2.</li>
	<li>Remove the coverslips with sterile tweezers and place them in a new Petri dish with the activated face up.</li>
	<li>Dry coverslips under a steady flow of high-purity nitrogen gas.</li>
	<li>In a sterile culture hood, smear a thin layer of 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl acrylate (92%) on the activated side of the coverslip for 1&#160;hr.</li>
	<li>Extensively wash glass coverslips with 3 washes of sterile ddH2O and immerse them in sterile ddH2O in a new Petri dish.</li>
	<li>Tap the Petri dish with Parafilm and place it on a rocker plate under gentle agitation for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Remove the coverslips from ddH2O with sterile tweezers with fine tips and place them in a new Petri dish with the activated face up.</li>
	<li>Store at RT in a dry place with aluminum foil to avoid dust from sticking to the coverslips.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a weight of 65 mg of N-hydroxyethyl acrylamide (HEA) in a 1.5 ml&#160;Eppendorf tube. It is important to prepare a fresh HEA solution.</li>
	<li>Add 1 ml&#160;of 50 mM HEPES buffer to HEA and mix using a vortexer until the complete HEA dissolution.</li>
	<li>Add 400 &#181;l&#160;of 40% w/w in HEPES acrylamide solution and the required volume of 2% w/w in HEPES bis-acrylamide solution (see Table 1) to reach the desired hydrogel stiffness. Adjust with 50 mM HEPES to a final volume of 5 ml.</li>
	<li>Mix the solution using a vortexer and degas it in a vacuum chamber for 20 min&#160;in order to reduce oxygen concentration within the solution, which prevents hydroxy-PAAm polymerization.</li>
	<li>Under a sterile hood, filter the degased solution with a 0.2 &#181;m pore size filter in order to sterilize it.</li>
	<li>Activate circular glass coverslips (22 mm diameter) in a UV/ozone cleaner during 7 min.</li>
	<li>Prepare 100 &#181;l&#160;of 10% ammonium persulfate (APS) solution, that is 10 mg APS in 100 &#181;l&#160;ddH2O. It is important to prepare a fresh APS solution.</li>
	<li>Add 2.5 &#181;l&#160;of tetramethylenediamine (TEMED) and 25 &#181;l&#160;of APS solution to the sterilized hydroxy-PAAm solution (step 2.5) to initiate the polymerization. Mix the solution by 3 successive pipettings without introduction of bubbles, under sterile conditions.</li>
	<li>Under a sterile hood, place a 25 &#181;l&#160;drop of the hydroxy-PAAm solution on a 25 mm coverslip (available from step 1.9) and immediately place a 22 mm glass coverslip (prepared on step 2.5) on top of the droplet to squeeze the hydroxy-PAAm solution. Center the 22 mm glass coverslip with sterile tweezers and smooth out any bubbles.</li>
	<li>Allow hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels to polymerize at RT for 15 min. Invert manually the remaining hydroxy-PAAm solution in the Eppendorf tube to follow the completion of the polymerization process.</li>
	<li>Fully immerse coverslips with sterile ddH2O and carefully separate the 22 mm glass coverslips by introducing the edge of a razor blade between the 22 mm glass coverslips and the hydroxy-PAAm hydrogel layer.</li>
	<li>Wash hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with sterile PBS (3 exchanges of PBS) and let the gels fully immersed in sterile PBS to maintain hydration.</li>
	<li>Store hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels in sterile PBS at 4 &#176;C for up to 3 days.</li>
</ol>
3. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Microstamp Fabrication
NOTE: The fabrication of a silicon master is required prior to start the PDMS microstamp fabrication. This microfabrication of a silicon master can be done by lithographic techniques, which requires specialized equipment and training. Collaborations with a nanofabrication facility are encouraged to fabricate the silicon master. Alternatively, contact a company that fabricates custom-made microstructured silicon masters on demand. It is important to note that the fabrication of the silicon master needs only to be done once. Indeed, microstructured silicon masters can be used indefinitely to produce elastomeric stamps.
<ol>
	<li>Mix PDMS and the curing agent in a 10:1 ratio in a plastic beaker and mix thoroughly using a pipette for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Degas the PDMS mixture under vacuum to remove air bubbles that were formed during the step 3.1.</li>
	<li>Place the microstructured silicon master in a Petri dish and cast a 10-mm thick layer of degassed PDMS mixture on it without forming bubbles.</li>
	<li>Let cure the PDMS for 2 hr at 60 &#176;C in an oven.</li>
	<li>In a dust-free environment, peel-off the PDMS layer and excise 1 cm2 microstamps with a scalpel.</li>
	<li>Using forceps, place PDMS microstamps pattern-up in a Petri dish.</li>
</ol>
4. Micropatterning Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels
<ol>
	<li>Place PDMS microstamps in an ethanol/water (50/50) solution and sonicate for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Dry the stamps with a stream of nitrogen flow and place them pattern-up in a UV/Ozone cleaner (&#955; &#60; 200 nm) for 7 min.</li>
	<li>Under a sterile hood, place a 150-&#181;l&#160;drop of a desired protein solution (e.g., 100 &#181;g/ml&#160;laminin in PBS or 25 &#181;g/ml&#160;fibronectin in PBS) onto the microstructured surface of a 1-cm2 PDMS stamp.</li>
	<li>Optional: Modify the concentration of the protein solution to modulate the cell-ligand density.</li>
	<li>Spread the protein solution across the stamp surface by moving it with a sterile tip of a pipette toward each corner of the stamp.</li>
	<li>Leave the protein solution to adsorb on the PDMS stamp for 60 min&#160;under a sterile hood. Turn off lamps to avoid protein damage.</li>
	<li>Under a sterile hood, transfer hydroxy-PAAm coated coverslips (available from step 2.13) into a Petri dish.</li>
	<li>Remove excess PBS from the surface of hydroxy-PAAm substrates with a low nitrogen stream under sterile conditions. Stop the procedure as soon as no evidence of standing water on the gel surface is observed. The gel should not be dried thoroughly at this stage.</li>
	<li>Dry carefully the structured surface of the PDMS stamp with a steady flow of high-purity nitrogen gas.</li>
	<li>Grasp the protein-coated stamp with dressing tissue forceps and place the structured surface in contact with the dried hydrogel surface. Apply brief pressure points with the tip of tweezers on the top of the PDMS stamp to ensure a good contact between stamp microfeatures and the hydrogel surface.</li>
	<li>Leave the PDMS stamp on the hydrogel surface for 1 hr at RT.</li>
	<li>Gently remove PDMS stamps from hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with dressing tissue forceps and follow the step 4.1 to clean the stamp.</li>
	<li>Wash extensively the stamped hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels by 3 exchanges of PBS (pH = 7.4) in sterile conditions for 10 min&#160;per exchange.</li>
	<li>Optional: Additional micropatterns of other ECM proteins can be added to the hydroxy-PAAm surface by following steps 4.5 to 4.11.</li>
	<li>Passivate non-printed zones with a sterile solution of BSA at 5 mg/ml&#160;in PBS during one night at 4 &#176;C under a gentle agitation on a rocking plate.</li>
	<li>Wash extensively by 3 exchanges of PBS (pH = 7.4) in sterile conditions for 10 min&#160;per exchange. At this stage, stamped hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels can be stored at 4 &#176;C up to one week.</li>
</ol>
5. Cell Deposition on Micropatterned hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels
<ol>
	<li>Incubate coverslips in cell media for 30-45 min prior to plating cells.</li>
	<li>Wash adherent cells cultured in a 75 cm2 culture flask with sterile PBS at 37 &#176;C and detach it with 3 ml&#160;of trypsin-EDTA or accutase for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the desired amount of pre-warmed complete growth medium appropriate for your cell line into the flask containing the detached cells and centrifuge the cell suspension for 3 min&#160;at 650 x g.</li>
	<li>Remove the supernatant with a micropipette and resuspend the cells in complete culture medium at 15-20,000 cells/ml.</li>
	<li>Add 4 ml&#160;of the cell solution to a micropatterned coverslip (obtained from Step 5.1) and place the cell-covered coverslip in a culture incubator at 37 &#176;C and 5% humidity for 1-2 hr.</li>
	<li>Aspirate gently unattached cells and replace culture medium. Return the attached cells to the incubator and let them spread fully (3-6 hr, depending on the cell type).</li>
</ol>

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No conflicts of interest declared.

Many in vitro observations in modern cell biology have been performed on rigid glass coverslips, often coated with a thin layer of ECM proteins or synthetic peptides containing the RGD sequence. However, such basic culture substrates do not recapitulate the whole physicochemical complexity of the ECM and thus do not provide an accurate model for studying cellular mechanotransduction processes. To tackle this problem, we propose a simple alternative to functionalize two-dimensional hydrogels with any desired amou...

Many aspects of the local cellular microenvironment (e.g., rigidity, pore size, nature of proteins, or cell-ligand density) provide a coordinate set of regulatory cues that control cellular processes such as motility, cell proliferation, differentiation, and gene expression. Modifications of the physicochemical properties of the extracellular environment can be perceived by cells and cause different physiological consequences, including deformation of cellular polarization, migration, and differentiation. It remains unclear, however, how cells translate ECM modifications into cellular biochemical signals. It is therefore of major importance to engineer controlled in vitro microenvironments that can reproduce the interactions between cells and their microenvironment for studying mechanotransduction pathways. To address this problem, we have recently introduced a novel method1, called hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels, to easily generate two-dimensional soft matrices that permit to independently control important mechanotransduction cues: matrix stiffness, cell geometry and confinement, nature of the protein and cell-ligand density.
ECM directs cellular processes via gradients in morphogens (chemotaxis), adhesive proteins (haptotaxis), and stiffness (durotaxis). Over the last few decades, advanced in vitro platforms have been developed to isolate these extracellular cues in order to tease out how cells are able to translate biochemical and biophysical features into physiological processes2-5. Electron-beam6, photolithography7, photochemical immobilization8, or plasma-assisted techniques9 have been developed to direct the growth of living cells on micropatterned substrates. Although these techniques have yielded important results, most of them do not allow discrimination between the individual influence of different cues on cell behavior and they require technical facilities that few laboratories can afford. Among these techniques, microcontact printing (&#181;CP), has emerged as a robust and accessible method to create cell-adhesive micro-islands10. More recently, extensive efforts11-14 have been made to develop &#181;CP on hydrogels with tunable rigidities in order to reproduce the wide range of rigidities observed in living tissues. Among these works, polyacrylamide (PAAm) has become popular15 and is already one of the most commonly used polymer-based matrices for cell biomechanics assays.
PAAm surfaces are commonly functionalized with the heterobifunctional cross-linker N-sulfosuccinimidyl-6-[4&#39;-azido-2&#39;-nitrophenylamido] (sulfo-SANPAH) and ECM proteins are linked to the surface by UV activation of the sulfo-SANPAH nitrophenyl azide groups16. Another technique consists in coupling hydrazine to proteins that have been severely oxidized with periodate17. Hynd and coworkers introduced a technique for patterning biomimetic hydrogel surfaces with protein and peptides that requires photopolymerization in presence of an acroyl-streptavidin monomer18. More recently, Tseng et al. have reported a new micropatterning method19 based on deep UV exposure of PAAm through an optical quartz mask that requires to incubate activated PA gels with 1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl] carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) water solutions prior to add the protein. Despite the ability of these techniques to create homogeneous and reproducible proteins micropatterns, most of them suffer major limitations: long synthesis processes (e.g., dialysis, lyophilization, etc), expensive chemical compounds (e.g., hyaluronic acid, sulfo-SANPAH) or deep UV irradiation. In addition, these techniques do not allow independent modulation of substrate stiffness, micropattern geometry, ECM protein nature, and cell-ligand density.
Taking these limitations into account, we have developed a novel and simple acrylamide-based approach that allows immobilization of a variety of proteins and biomolecules on soft hydrogels and permits independent tuning of mechanotransduction cues in order to decipher their role on cellular functions. Instead of treating PAAm hydrogels with harsh chemical compounds, we introduce a commercial acrylamide monomer with hydroxyl groups during PAAm polymerization. This simple operation overcomes the intrinsic anti-adhesive property of PAAm hydrogels without any other technical requirements.
The presence of hydroxyl groups leads to a high affinity of hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels for proteins and biomolecules that form hydrogen-bonding interactions. In combination with &#181;CP, hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels enable a rapid generation of two-dimensional culture platform with an independent control on matrix rigidity, type of ECM proteins, cell-ligand density and confined adhesiveness, which are envisioned to be a powerful platform for studying mechanotransduction.
The purpose of this protocol is to provide the necessary information for easily making hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels without any expertise in material sciences. The ultimate goal is to provide a means for researchers to ask physiologically relevant questions at the cellular and tissue levels that may lead to a better understanding of mechanotransduction pathways involved in pathophysiological mechanisms.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">UV/Ozone Photoreactor</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Ultra-Violet Products</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Model PR-100</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Rocking plate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">IKAcWerke</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Model KS 130 Basic</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Vortexer</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Scientific Industries</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Model Vortex Genie2</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:216px;">Vacuum degassing chamber</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Applied Vacuum Engineering</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DP- 8-KIT</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Parafilm</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P7793-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Stainless steel forceps with fine tip</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Z225304-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Dressing tissue forceps</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">F4392-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Petri dishes in polystyrene</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P5731-500EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Aluminium foil, thickness 0.5&#160;mm</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">266574-3.4G</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Isopore membrane filter (0,2 &#181;m pore size)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GTTP Filter code</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Round glass coverslip (22 mm diameter)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Neuvitro</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GG-22</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Round glass coverslip (25 mm diameter)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Neuvitro</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GG-25</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Variable volume micropipette</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Z114820</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Protein microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Z666505-100EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Scalpel handles</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S2896-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Scalpel blades</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S2771-100EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Cell culture flasks (75 cm2)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CLS430641</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Ultrasonic bath tray, solid (stainless steel)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Z613983-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Name of the Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalogue Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Polydimethylsiloxane&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Dow Corning</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Sylgard 184 silicone elastomer kit</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Acrylamide (powder)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A3553</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">N,N&#8217;-Methylenebis(acrylamide)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">146072</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">N-Hydroxyethylacrylamide</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">697931</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">N,N,N&#8217;,N&#8217;-Tetramethylethylenediamine</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T9281</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Amonium PerSulfate (APS)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A3678</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">3-(Trimetoxysilyl)propyle acrylate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1805</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">Human Plasma Fibronectin</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FC010</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Laminin from EHS</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L2020</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Sodium hydroxyde</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">221465-25G</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:216px;">Double-distilled water (ddH2O)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Endothelial cell growth medium</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Cells Applications</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">211K-500</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVEC)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C-003-5C</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Accutase</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">PAA laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L11-007</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="47">
			<td height="47" style="height:47px;width:216px;">HEPES buffer solution 1M in H20</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">83264-500ML-F</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Antibiotics-antimycotics</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">PAA laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P11-002</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Phosphate Buffer Saline solution</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">PAA laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H15-002</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Alexa Fluor 488 Phaloidin</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A12379</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Anti-vinculin antibody produced in mouse</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">V9131</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Goat anti-mouse antibody-tetramethylrhodamine</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T-2762</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Anti-Fibronectin</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:119px;">F3648</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">(rabbit)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Streptavidin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">41469</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Anti-Laminin antibody</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:119px;">L9393</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">(rabbit)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Anti-rabbit IgG-FITC</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">F7512</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Trypsin-EDTA solution</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T3924-100ML</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Absolute ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">459844-2.5L</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation of hydroxy-paam hydrogels for decoupling the effects of mechanotransduction cues

It is now well established that many cellular functions are regulated by interactions of cells with physicochemical and mechanical cues of their extracellular matrix (ECM) environment. Eukaryotic cells constantly sense their local microenvironment through surface mechanosensors to transduce physical changes of ECM into biochemical signals, and integrate these signals to achieve specific changes in gene expression. Interestingly, physicochemical and mechanical parameters of the ECM can couple with each other to regulate cell fate. Therefore, a key to understanding mechanotransduction is to decouple the relative contribution of ECM cues on cellular functions.
Here we present a detailed experimental protocol to rapidly and easily generate biologically relevant hydrogels for the independent tuning of mechanotransduction cues in vitro. We chemically modified polyacrylamide hydrogels (PAAm) to surmount their intrinsically non-adhesive properties by incorporating hydroxyl-functionalized acrylamide monomers during the polymerization. We obtained a novel PAAm hydrogel, called hydroxy-PAAm, which permits immobilization of any desired nature of ECM proteins. The combination of hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with microcontact printing allows to independently control the morphology of single-cells, the matrix stiffness, the nature and the density of ECM proteins. We provide a simple and rapid method that can be set up in every biology lab to study in vitro cell mechanotransduction processes. We validate this novel two-dimensional platform by conducting experiments on endothelial cells that demonstrate a mechanical coupling between ECM stiffness and the nucleus.

Figure 1A presents the co-polymerization of acrylamide (AAm) and bisacrylamide (bis-AAm) with N-hydroxyethylacrylamide (HEA) monomers containing a primary hydroxyl formed by random radical polymerization a hydrophilic network of polyacrylamide with embedded hydroxyl groups (hydroxy-PAAm). In this protocol, a weight 65 mg of HEA must be diluted in a volume of 1 ml&#160;of HEPES. Knowing that the density of HEA is roughly equal to one, we assume that we obtain a working volume of 1,065 &#181;l&#160;(HEA+HE...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels for Decoupling the Effects of Mechanotransduction Cues at JoVE.com

Preparation of Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels for Decoupling the Effects of Mechanotransduction Cues

We present a new polyacrylamide hydrogel, called hydroxy-PAAm, that allows a direct binding of ECM proteins with minimal cost or expertise. The combination of hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with microcontact printing facilitates independent control of many cues of the natural cell microenvironment for studying cellular mechanostransduction.

It is now well established that many cellular functions are regulated by interactions of cells with physicochemical and mechanical cues of their ...

preparation-hydroxy-paam-hydrogels-for-decoupling-effects

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13.2K Views.  Université de Mons. We present a new polyacrylamide hydrogel, called hydroxy-PAAm, that allows a direct binding of ECM proteins with minimal cost or expertise. The combination of hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with microcontact printing facilitates independent control of many cues of the natural cell microenvironment for studying cellular mechanostransduction.

Video: Preparation of Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels for Decoupling the Effects of Mechanotransduction Cues

Axon Stretch Growth: The Mechanotransduction of Neuronal Growth

During pre-synaptic embryonic development, neuronal processes traverse short distances to reach their targets via growth cone. Over time, neuronal somata are separated from their axon terminals due to skeletal growth of the enlarging organism (Weiss 1941; Gray, Hukkanen et al. 1992). This mechanotransduction induces a secondary mode of neuronal growth capable of accommodating continual elongation of the axon (Bray 1984; Heidemann and Buxbaum 1994; Heidemann, Lamoureux et al. 1995; Pfister, Iwata et al. 2004).
Axon Stretch Growth (ASG) is conceivably a central factor in the maturation of short embryonic processes into the long nerves and white matter tracts characteristic of the adult nervous system. To study ASG in vitro, we engineered bioreactors to apply tension to the short axonal processes of neuronal cultures (Loverde, Ozoka et al. 2011). Here, we detail the methods we use to prepare bioreactors and conduct ASG. First, within each stretching lane of the bioreactor, neurons are plated upon a micro-manipulated towing substrate. Next, neurons regenerate their axonal processes, via growth cone extension, onto a stationary substrate. Finally, stretch growth is performed by towing the plated cell bodies away from the axon terminals adhered to the stationary substrate; recapitulating skeletal growth after growth cone extension.
Previous work has shown that ASG of embryonic rat dorsal root ganglia neurons are capable of unprecedented growth rates up to 10mm/day, reaching lengths of up to 10cm; while concurrently resulting in increased axonal diameters (Smith, Wolf et al. 2001; Pfister, Iwata et al. 2004; Pfister, Bonislawski et al. 2006; Pfister, Iwata et al. 2006; Smith 2009). This is in dramatic contrast to regenerative growth cone extension (in absence of mechanical stimuli) where growth rates average 1mm/day with successful regeneration limited to lengths of less than 3cm (Fu and Gordon 1997; Pfister, Gordon et al. 2011). Accordingly, further study of ASG may help to reveal dysregulated growth mechanisms that limit regeneration in the absence of mechanical stimuli.

A unique tissue engineering method was developed to elongate numerous nerve fibers in culture by recapitulating axon stretch growth; a form of nervous system growth whereby nerves elongate in conjunction with growth of the enlarging body.

During pre-synaptic embryonic development, neuronal processes traverse short distances to reach their targets via growth cone. Over time, neuronal somata ...

Alginate Hydrogels for Three-Dimensional Organ Culture of Ovaries and Oviducts

Ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths in women and has a 63% mortality rate in the United States1. The cell type of origin for ovarian cancers is still in question and might be either the ovarian surface epithelium (OSE) or the distal epithelium of the fallopian tube fimbriae2,3. Culturing the normal cells as a primary culture in vitro will enable scientists to model specific changes that might lead to ovarian cancer in the distinct epithelium, thereby definitively determining the cell type of origin. This will allow development of more accurate biomarkers, animal models with tissue-specific gene changes, and better prevention strategies targeted to this disease.
Maintaining normal cells in alginate hydrogels promotes short term in vitro culture of cells in their three-dimensional context and permits introduction of plasmid DNA, siRNA, and small molecules. By culturing organs in pieces that are derived from strategic cuts using a scalpel, several cultures from a single organ can be generated, increasing the number of experiments from a single animal. These cuts model aspects of ovulation leading to proliferation of the OSE, which is associated with ovarian cancer formation. Cell types such as the OSE that do not grow well on plastic surfaces can be cultured using this method and facilitate investigation into normal cellular processes or the earliest events in cancer formation4.
Alginate hydrogels can be used to support the growth of many types of tissues5. Alginate is a linear polysaccharide composed of repeating units of &beta;-D-mannuronic acid and &alpha;-L-guluronic acid that can be crosslinked with calcium ions, resulting in a gentle gelling action that does not damage tissues6,7. Like other three-dimensional cell culture matrices such as Matrigel, alginate provides mechanical support for tissues; however, proteins are not reactive with the alginate matrix, and therefore alginate functions as a synthetic extracellular matrix that does not initiate cell signaling5. The alginate hydrogel floats in standard cell culture medium and supports the architecture of the tissue growth in vitro.
A method is presented for the preparation, separation, and embedding of ovarian and oviductal organ pieces into alginate hydrogels, which can be maintained in culture for up to two weeks. The enzymatic release of cells for analysis of proteins and RNA samples from the organ culture is also described. Finally, the growth of primary cell types is possible without genetic immortalization from mice and permits investigators to use knockout and transgenic mice.

Culture of normal cells in their three-dimensional context represents an alternative method to study early events required for cellular transformation and tumorigenesis. This method is used to grow normal ovarian and oviductal cells to study early events in ovarian cancer formation.

Ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths in women and has a 63% mortality rate in the United States1. The cell type of origin for ...

An Experimental System to Study Mechanotransduction in Fetal Lung Cells

Mechanical forces generated in utero by repetitive breathing-like movements and by fluid distension are critical for normal lung development. A key component of lung development is the differentiation of alveolar type II epithelial cells, the major source of pulmonary surfactant. These cells also participate in fluid homeostasis in the alveolar lumen, host defense, and injury repair. In addition, distal lung parenchyma cells can be directly exposed to exaggerated stretch during mechanical ventilation after birth. However, the precise molecular and cellular mechanisms by which lung cells sense mechanical stimuli to influence lung development and to promote lung injury are not completely understood. Here, we provide a simple and high purity method to isolate type II cells and fibroblasts from rodent fetal lungs. Then, we describe an in vitro system, The Flexcell Strain Unit, to provide mechanical stimulation to fetal cells, simulating mechanical forces in fetal lung development or lung injury. This experimental system provides an excellent tool to investigate molecular and cellular mechanisms in fetal lung cells exposed to stretch. Using this approach, our laboratory has identified several receptors and signaling proteins that participate in mechanotransduction in fetal lung development and lung injury.

Mechanical forces play a key role in lung development and lung injury. Here, we describe a method to isolate rodent fetal lung type II epithelial cells and fibroblasts and to expose them to mechanical stimulation using an in vitro system.

Mechanical forces generated in utero by repetitive breathing-like movements and by fluid distension are critical for normal lung development. A key ...

Low Molecular Weight Protein Enrichment on Mesoporous Silica Thin Films for Biomarker Discovery

The identification of circulating biomarkers holds great potential for non invasive approaches in early diagnosis and prognosis, as well as for the monitoring of therapeutic efficiency.1-3 The circulating low molecular weight proteome (LMWP) composed of small proteins shed from tissues and cells or peptide fragments derived from the proteolytic degradation of larger proteins, has been associated with the pathological condition in patients and likely reflects the state of disease.4,5 Despite these potential clinical applications, the use of Mass Spectrometry (MS) to profile the LMWP from biological fluids has proven to be very challenging due to the large dynamic range of protein and peptide concentrations in serum.6 Without sample pre-treatment, some of the more highly abundant proteins obscure the detection of low-abundance species in serum/plasma. Current proteomic-based approaches, such as two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel-electrophoresis (2D-PAGE) and shotgun proteomics methods are labor-intensive, low throughput and offer limited suitability for clinical applications.7-9 Therefore, a more effective strategy is needed to isolate LMWP from blood and allow the high throughput screening of clinical samples. 
Here, we present a fast, efficient and reliable multi-fractionation system based on mesoporous silica chips to specifically target and enrich LMWP.10,11 Mesoporous silica (MPS) thin films with tunable features at the nanoscale were fabricated using the triblock copolymer template pathway. Using different polymer templates and polymer concentrations in the precursor solution, various pore size distributions, pore structures, connectivity and surface properties were determined and applied for selective recovery of low mass proteins. The selective parsing of the enriched peptides into different subclasses according to their physicochemical properties will enhance the efficiency of recovery and detection of low abundance species. In combination with mass spectrometry and statistic analysis, we demonstrated the correlation between the nanophase characteristics of the mesoporous silica thin films and the specificity and efficacy of low mass proteome harvesting. The results presented herein reveal the potential of the nanotechnology-based technology to provide a powerful alternative to conventional methods for LMWP harvesting from complex biological fluids. Because of the ability to tune the material properties, the capability for low-cost production, the simplicity and rapidity of sample collection, and the greatly reduced sample requirements for analysis, this novel nanotechnology will substantially impact the field of proteomic biomarker research and clinical proteomic assessment.

We developed a technology based on mesoporous silica thin film for the selective recovery of low molecular weight proteins and peptides from human serum. The physico-chemical properties of our mesoporous chips were finely tuned to provide substantial control in peptide enrichment and consequently profile the serum proteome for diagnostic purposes.

The identification of circulating biomarkers holds great potential for non invasive approaches in early diagnosis and prognosis, as well as for the ...

The Synthesis of RGD-functionalized Hydrogels as a Tool for Therapeutic Applications

The use of polymers as biomaterials has provided significant advantages in therapeutic applications. In particular, the possibility to modify and functionalize polymer chains with compounds that are able to improve biocompatibility, mechanical properties, or cell viability allows the design of novel materials to meet new challenges in the biomedical field. With the polymer functionalization strategies, click chemistry is a powerful tool to improve cell-compatibility and drug delivery properties of polymeric devices. Similarly, the fundamental need of biomedicine to use sterile tools to avoid potential adverse-side effects, such as toxicity or contamination of the biological environment, gives rise to increasing interest in the microwave-assisted strategy.
The combination of click chemistry and the microwave-assisted method is suitable to produce biocompatible hydrogels with desired functionalities and improved performances in biomedical applications. This work aims to synthesize RGD-functionalized hydrogels. RGD (arginylglycylaspartic acid) is a tripeptide that can mimic cell adhesion proteins and bind to cell-surface receptors, creating a hospitable microenvironment for cells within the 3D polymeric network of the hydrogels. RGD functionalization occurs through Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. Some PAA carboxyl groups are modified with an alkyne moiety, whereas RGD is functionalized with azido acid as the terminal residue of the peptide sequence. Finally, both products are used in a copper catalyzed click reaction to permanently link the peptide to PAA. This modified polymer is used with carbomer, agarose and polyethylene glycol (PEG) to synthesize a hydrogel matrix. The 3D structure is formed due to an esterification reaction involving carboxyl groups from PAA and carbomer and hydroxyl groups from agarose and PEG through microwave-assisted polycondensation. The efficiency of the gelation mechanism ensures a high degree of RGD functionalization. In addition, the procedure to load therapeutic compounds or biological tools within this functionalized network is very simple and reproducible.

We present a protocol for the synthesis of RGD-functionalized hydrogels as devices for cell and drug delivery. The procedure involves copper catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) between alkyne-modified polyacrylic acid (PAA) and a RGD-azide derivative. The hydrogels are formed using microwave-assisted polycondensation and their physicochemical properties are investigated.

The use of polymers as biomaterials has provided significant advantages in therapeutic applications. In particular, the possibility to modify and ...

Light-mediated Formation and Patterning of Hydrogels for Cell Culture Applications

Click chemistries have been investigated for use in numerous biomaterials applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and cell culture. In particular, light-mediated click reactions, such as photoinitiated thiol&#8722;ene and thiol&#8722;yne reactions, afford spatiotemporal control over material properties and allow the design of systems with a high degree of user-directed property control. Fabrication and modification of hydrogel-based biomaterials using the precision afforded by light and the versatility offered by these thiol&#8722;X photoclick chemistries are of growing interest, particularly for the culture of cells within well-defined, biomimetic microenvironments. Here, we describe methods for the photoencapsulation of cells and subsequent photopatterning of biochemical cues within hydrogel matrices using versatile and modular building blocks polymerized by a thiol&#8722;ene photoclick reaction. Specifically, an approach is presented for constructing hydrogels from allyloxycarbonyl (Alloc)-functionalized peptide crosslinks and pendant peptide moieties and thiol-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) that rapidly polymerize in the presence of lithium acylphosphinate photoinitiator and cytocompatible doses of long wavelength ultraviolet (UV) light. Facile techniques to visualize photopatterning and quantify the concentration of peptides added are described. Additionally, methods are established for encapsulating cells, specifically human mesenchymal stem cells, and determining their viability and activity. While the formation and initial patterning of thiol-alloc hydrogels are shown here, these techniques broadly may be applied to a number of other light and radical-initiated material systems (e.g., thiol-norbornene, thiol-acrylate) to generate patterned substrates.

We describe a sequential process for light-mediated formation and subsequent biochemical patterning of synthetic hydrogel matrices for three-dimensional cell culture applications. The construction and modification of hydrogels with cytocompatible photoclick chemistry is demonstrated. Additionally, facile techniques to quantify and observe patterns and determine cell viability within these hydrogels are presented.

Click chemistries have been investigated for use in numerous biomaterials applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and cell culture. In ...

Synthesis of Hydrogels with Antifouling Properties As Membranes for Water Purification

Hydrogels have been widely utilized to enhance the surface hydrophilicity of membranes for water purification, increasing the antifouling properties and thus achieving stable water permeability through membranes over time. Here, we report a facile method to prepare hydrogels based on zwitterions for membrane applications. Freestanding films can be prepared from sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) with a crosslinker of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) via photopolymerization. The hydrogels can also be prepared by impregnation into hydrophobic porous supports to enhance the mechanical strength. These films can be characterized by attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) to determine the degree of conversion of the (meth)acrylate groups, using goniometers for hydrophilicity and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for polymer chain dynamics. We also report protocols to determine the water permeability in dead-end filtration systems and the effect of foulants (bovine serum albumin, BSA) on membrane performance.

This paper reports practical methods to prepare hydrogels in freestanding films and impregnated membranes and to characterize their physical properties, including water transport properties.

Hydrogels have been widely utilized to enhance the surface hydrophilicity of membranes for water purification, increasing the antifouling properties and ...

Production of Elastin-like Protein Hydrogels for Encapsulation and Immunostaining of Cells in 3D

Two-dimensional (2D) tissue culture techniques have been essential for our understanding of fundamental cell biology. However, traditional 2D tissue culture systems lack a three-dimensional (3D) matrix, resulting in a significant disconnect between results collected in vitro and in vivo. To address this limitation, researchers have engineered 3D hydrogel tissue culture platforms that can mimic the biochemical and biophysical properties of the in vivo cell microenvironment. This research has motivated the need to develop material platforms that support 3D cell encapsulation and downstream biochemical assays. Recombinant protein engineering offers a unique toolset for 3D hydrogel material design and development by allowing for the specific control of protein sequence and therefore, by extension, the potential mechanical and biochemical properties of the resultant matrix. Here, we present a protocol for the expression of recombinantly-derived elastin-like protein (ELP), which can be used to form hydrogels with independently tunable mechanical properties and cell-adhesive ligand concentration. We further present a methodology for cell encapsulation within ELP hydrogels and subsequent immunofluorescent staining of embedded cells for downstream analysis and quantification.

Recombinant protein-engineered hydrogels are advantageous for 3D cell culture as they allow for complete tunability of the polymer backbone and therefore, the cell microenvironment. Here, we describe the process of recombinant elastin-like protein purification and its application in 3D hydrogel cell encapsulation.

Two-dimensional (2D) tissue culture techniques have been essential for our understanding of fundamental cell biology. However, traditional 2D tissue ...

Measuring Global Cellular Matrix Metalloproteinase and Metabolic Activity in 3D Hydrogels

Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture systems often more closely recapitulate in vivo cellular responses and functions than traditional two-dimensional (2D) culture systems. However, measurement of cell function in 3D culture is often more challenging. Many biological assays require retrieval of cellular material which can be difficult in 3D cultures. One way to address this challenge is to develop new materials that enable measurement of cell function within the material. Here, a method is presented for measurement of cellular matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in 3D hydrogels in a 96-well format. In this system, a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogel is functionalized with a fluorogenic MMP cleavable sensor. Cellular MMP activity is proportional to fluorescence intensity and can be measured with a standard microplate reader. Miniaturization of this assay to a 96-well format reduced the time required for experimental set up by 50% and reagent usage by 80% per condition as compared to the previous 24-well version of the assay. This assay is also compatible with other measurements of cellular function. For example, a metabolic activity assay is demonstrated here, which can be conducted simultaneously with MMP activity measurements within the same hydrogel. The assay is demonstrated with human melanoma cells encapsulated across a range of cell seeding densities to determine the appropriate encapsulation density for the working range of the assay. After 24 h of cell encapsulation, MMP and metabolic activity readouts were proportional to cell seeding density. While the assay is demonstrated here with one fluorogenic degradable substrate, the assay and methodology could be adapted for a wide variety of hydrogel systems and other fluorescent sensors. Such an assay provides a practical, efficient and easily accessible 3D culturing platform for a wide variety of applications.

Here, a protocol is presented for encapsulating and culturing cells in poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels functionalized with a fluorogenic matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-degradable peptide. Cellular MMP and metabolic activity are measured directly from the hydrogel cultures using a standard microplate reader.

Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture systems often more closely recapitulate in vivo cellular responses and functions than traditional two-dimensional (2D) ...

A Lab-On-A-Chip Platform for Stimulating Osteocyte Mechanotransduction and Analyzing Functional Outcomes of Bone Remodeling

Bone remodeling is a tightly regulated process that is required for skeletal growth and repair as well as adapting to changes in the mechanical environment. During this process, mechanosensitive osteocytes regulate the opposing responses between the catabolic osteoclasts and anabolic osteoblasts. To better understand the highly intricate signaling pathways that regulate this process, our lab has developed a foundationary lab-on-a-chip (LOC) platform for analyzing functional outcomes (formation and resorption) of bone remodeling within a small scale system. As bone remodeling is a lengthy process that occurs on the order of weeks to months, we developed long-term cell culturing protocols within the system. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts were grown on functional activity substrates within the LOC and maintained for up to seven weeks. Afterward, chips were disassembled to allow for the quantification of bone formation and resorption. Additionally, we have designed a 3D printed mechanical loading device that pairs with the LOC platform and can be used to induce osteocyte mechanotransduction by deforming the cellular matrix. We have optimized cell culturing protocols for osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts within the LOC platform and have addressed concerns of sterility and cytotoxicity. Here, we present the protocols for fabricating and sterilizing the LOC, seeding cells on functional substrates, inducing mechanical load, and disassembling the LOC to quantify endpoint results. We believe that these techniques lay the groundwork for developing a true organ-on-a-chip for bone remodeling.

Here, we present protocols for analyzing bone remodeling within a lab-on-a-chip platform. A 3D printed mechanical loading device can be paired with the platform to induce osteocyte mechanostransduction by deforming the cellular matrix. The platform can also be used to quantify bone remodeling functional outcomes from osteoclasts and osteoblasts (resorption/formation).