We would like to thank Yue (Pauline) Hu, Rachel Sinit for their technical assistance. The study is supported by NIH grant (PN2 EY016525) and by funding from Down Syndrome Research and Treatment Foundation and the Larry L. Hillblom Foundation.

Surgical and animal procedures are carried out strictly according to the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. All experiments involving the use of animals are approved by UCSD Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Plasmid Cloning, Expression and Purification of Mono-biotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF)
NOTE: Construct pre-proBDNFavi and BirA cDNA into pcDNA3.1 vector and coexpress in HEK293FT cells10. Purify mBtBDNF using Ni-NTA beads according to previously published method of producing mature and biologically active monobiotinylated nerve growth factor (mBtNGF)10.
2. Preparation of Microfluidic Chambers
Microfluidic neuron culturing device makes it possible to fluidically isolate axons from neuron cell bodies. Assemble chambers with freshly coated coverslips right before each dissection. Microfluidic chambers used in this protocol are commercially purchased (see materials and equipment&#8217;s table). Handwash and reused commercially purchased chambers up to 5-6x.
<ol>
	<li>Hand wash microfluidic chambers in 1% Alconox. Rinse three times with Milli-Q water for 30 min each. Hand wash chambers again in 70% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Lay out chambers to dry on Parafilm in the laminar flow hood. Radiate and sterilize both sides of the chambers for 20 min under UV. Store sterilized chambers in a sterile 15 cm dish sealed with Parafilm at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Place 24 x 40 mm No. 1 glass coverslips in a glass container. Soak the coverslips in 35% hydrochloride acid overnight on a rotator. On the following day, rinse the coverslips three times for 30 min each with water.</li>
	<li>Sterilize the coverslips one by one by dipping each coverslip into 100% ethanol and flaming over a Bunsen burner. Store dry coverslips in a sterile petri dish and keep it at room temperature until coating.</li>
	<li>Lay out the coverslips in a 15 cm culture dish. Coat each coverslip with 0.7 ml of 0.01% poly-L-Lysine (PLL) and incubate in the hood at room temperature.</li>
	<li>After 1 hr, rinse the coverslips three times with sterile water. Dry coverslips with vacuum and place each coverslip into a 6 cm culture dish.</li>
	<li>To assemble the microfluidic chamber, place the chamber with microgroove side at the bottom onto the PLL coated coverslip with caution not to touch the microgrooves. Gently pressed down the chamber with a pipette tip to ensure the chamber was tightly sealed.</li>
</ol>
3. Dissection of Neuronal Culture and Plate on Chambers
<ol>
	<li>Place two E17-E18 rat hippocampi (one brain) dissected in a 15 ml conical tube containing 2 ml dissection buffer (HBSS, no calcium, no magnesium, with 1% pen/strep and 10 mM HEPES. Rinse the tissues 3x&#160;with 5 ml dissection buffer each time. Remove the dissection buffer as much as possible and add 900 &#956;l of fresh dissection buffer.</li>
	<li>To digest the tissue, add 100 &#956;l of 10x trypsin (2.5%) into the dissection buffer to make 1x working concentration. Place the conical tube in a 37 &#176;C water bath. After 10 min of digestion, add 100 &#956;l of 10 mg/ml DNase I to a final concentration around 1 mg/ml.</li>
	<li>Using a fire-polished Pasteur glass pipette, gently triturate the tissues by pipetting up and down 5-10x. Right after trituration, quench the trypsin with 2 ml plating medium (Neurobasal with 10% FBS, 2 mM GlutaMax, 2% B27).</li>
	<li>Leave the sample in the hood for 5 min to allow any debris of the tissues to settle down to the bottom. Carefully remove 2 ml of supernatant into a clean sterile 15 ml conical tube and centrifuge at 200 x g for 5 min to pellet the cells. Resuspend the pellet in 50 &#956;l plating media</li>
	<li>Count the cells with hemocytometer. Load 15-20 &#956;l cell suspension (~40,000 cells) into one compartment of the microfluidic chamber. Place the chamber in the incubator for 10 min to allow the cells to attach to the coverslip. After 10 min, add more plating media to fill up both compartments of the chamber.</li>
	<li>On the second day of dissection, completely replace the plating media with maintenance media (Neurobasal with 2 mM GlutaMax, 2% B27) in both the cell body and the axon compartment. Axons from the hippocampal neurons start to cross the microgrooves in day 3 and reach the axon compartment between day 5-7. During this period of time, replace half of the culturing media with fresh maintenance media every 24~48 hr.</li>
</ol>
4. Axonal Transport of QD-BDNF
<ol>
	<li>Prior to live imaging of QD-BDNF axonal transport, deplete BDNF from both the cell body and axon compartments of the microfluidic chamber by thoroughly rinse both compartments with BDNF-free, serum free Neurobasal media every 30 min for 2 hr.</li>
	<li>During BDNF depletion, prepare the QD-BDNF conjugates. Mix 50 nM of mono-biotinylated BDNF dimer with 50 nM QD655-streptavidin conjugates in neurobasal media and incubate on ice for 60 min.</li>
	<li>Remove media in the axon compartment and add 300 &#956;l QD-BDNF with a final concentration of 0.25 nM for 4 hr at 37 &#176;C. To minimize the diffusing of QD-BDNF into the cell body compartment, it is very important to always maintain a higher level of media in the cell body compartment than in the axon compartment. Wash off unbound QD-BDNF after incubation before live imaging.</li>
	<li>Carry out live imaging of QD-BDNF transport using an inverted microscope equipped with a 100X oil objective lens. Warm up the scope and the environmental chamber attached to it to a constant temperature (37 &#176;C) and CO2 (5%). Use a set of Texas red excitation/emission cubes to visualize the QD655 signal.</li>
	<li>Acquire and capture time-lapse images within the middle axons at the speed of 1 frame/sec for a total of 2 min using a CCD camera. Use microgrooves with no axons that have no QD and hence no signal as a control for infiltration.</li>
	<li>Analyze BDNF transport using any image analysis software or NIH ImageJ.</li>
</ol>

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No conflicts of interest declared.

In this study, we report the development of a novel technique to produce biologically active, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) that can be used to trace axonal transport of BDNF. By conjugating the protein to quantum dot streptavidin, and using a microfluidic chamber, the method allows one to detect axonal transport of BDNF in primary neurons with single molecule sensitivity, in real-time and with spatial and temporal resolutions. The tools used herein provide a means by which to study the molecular machines that mediate ...

Neurons are highly polarized cells whose long and often highly elaborated processes are fundamental for establishing and maintaining the structure and function of neural circuits. The axon plays a vital role in carrying cargoes to and from synapses. Proteins and organelles synthesized in the cell soma need to be transported through axons to reach the presynaptic terminal to support neuronal function. Correspondingly, signals received at distal axons need to be transduced and conveyed to the soma. These processes are essential for neuronal survival, differentiation, and maintenance. In that axonal transport in some neurons must be conducted through distances more than 1,000 times the diameter of the cell body, the possibility is readily envisioned that even small deficits could markedly impact neuronal and circuit function.
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family of growth factors, is present in many brain regions, including hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and basal forebrain. BDNF plays a crucial role in cognition and memory formation by supporting the survival, differentiation, and function of neurons that participate in cognitive circuits. BDNF binds to its receptor, the tyrosine kinase TrkB, at the axon terminal where it activates TrkB-mediated signaling pathways including the mitogen activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (MAPK/ERK), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and phospholipase C-gamma (PLC&#947;). The proteins that participate in these signaling pathways are packaged onto endocytic vesicular structures to form the BDNF/TrkB signaling endosome1-6 that are then retrogradely transported to the neuronal soma.
The microfluidic culture chamber is a very useful platform for studying axonal biology under normal conditions as well as in the setting of injury and disease7,8. By isolating axons from the cell bodies, the device has allowed one to study transport specifically in axons8-10. The PDMS based microfluidic platforms with 450 &#956;m microgroove barriers used in this study were commercially purchased (see Materials&#160;table). To examine BDNF transport, we developed a novel technology to produce monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF). We took advantage of the biotin acceptor peptide, AP (also known as AviTag). It is a 15 amino acid sequence that contains a lysine residue that can be specifically ligated to a biotin by the Escherichia coli enzyme biotin ligase, BirA. We fused the AviTag to the C-terminus of the mouse pre-proBDNF cDNA by PCR (Figure 1A). The construct was cloned into the mammalian expression vector, pcDNA3.1 myc-his vector. We also cloned the bacterial BirA DNA into the pcDNA3.1 myc-his vector. The two plasmids were transiently co-transfected into HEK293FT cells to express both proteins. BirA catalyzed the ligation of biotin specifically to the lysine reside within the AviTag at the C-terminus of BDNF at a 1:1 ratio to produce monobiotinylated BDNF monomer. Biotinylated, mature BDNF with a molecular mass of ~18 kDa was recovered and purified from the media using Ni-resin (Figure 1C). The biotinylation of BDNF was complete, as judged by the inability to detect unmodified BDNF by immunoblotting (Figure 1D). Streptavidin conjugated quantum dots, QD 655, were used to label mBtBDNF to make QD-BDNF. The presence of the AviTag did not interfere with activity of BDNF as the mBtBDNF was able to activate phosphorylated TrkB (Figure 1E) and stimulate neurite outgrowth (Figure 1F) to the extent of recombinant human BDNF (rhBDNF). Immunostaining shown that QD-BDNF colocalized with TrkB in hippocampal axons, indicating that QD-BDNF is bioactive (Figure 1G). To study the BDNF transport, QD-BDNF was added to distal axon compartment of microfluidic cultures containing rat E18 hippocampal neurons (Figure 2A). QD-BDNF retrograde transport within axons was captured by real-time live imaging of the red fluorescent tag (Supporting videos&#160;S1, S2). By analyzing the kymograph generated, QD-BDNF was observed to be transported retrogradely at a moving velocity of around 1.06 &#956;m/sec (Figure 3A). GFP or mCherry-tagged BDNF have been used to track axonal movement of BDNF. The major drawbacks are that they are not bright enough for single molecule studies. Also, the presence of both anterograde and retrograde BDNF movements makes it difficult to evaluate whether or not the retrogradely transported BDNF was in a neurotrophin/receptor complex.
In this video, we demonstrate the techniques used to examine live trafficking of QD-BDNF in microfluidic chambers using primary neurons. The ultrabrightness and excellent photostability of quantum dots makes it possible to perform long-term tracking of BDNF transport. These techniques can be exploited to enhance studies of axonal function in AD, HD, and other neurodegenerative disorders.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Platinum pfx DNA polymerase&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>11708021</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EcoRI&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fermentas</td><td>FD0274</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>BamHI&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fermentas</td><td>FD0054</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEK293FT cells</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>R70007</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMEM-high glucose media</td><td>Mediatech</td><td>10-013-CV</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>D-biotin&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma</td><td>B4639</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TurboFect&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fermentas</td><td>R0531</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PMSF&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P7626</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aprotinin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A6279</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ni-NTA resins</td><td>Qiagen</td><td>30250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Protease inhibitors cocktail</td><td>Sigma</td><td>&amp;nbsp;S8820</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silver staining kit&amp;nbsp;</td><td>G-Biosciences</td><td>786-30</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Human recombinant BDNF</td><td>Genentech</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microfluidic chambers</td><td>Xona</td><td>SND450</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24 x 40 mm No. 1 glass coverslips&amp;nbsp;</td><td>VWR</td><td>48393-060</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Poly-L-Lysine&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Cultrex</td><td>3438-100-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HBSS</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14185-052</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DNase I</td><td>Roche</td><td>10104159001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin</td><td>Gibco</td><td>15090-046</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Neurobasal&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Gibco</td><td>21103-049</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>FBS&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>16000-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>GlutaMax&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>35050-061</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>B27&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Gibco</td><td>17504-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>QD655-streptavidin conjugates</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>&amp;nbsp;Q10121MP</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-Avi tag antibody</td><td>GenScript</td><td>A00674</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>streptavidin-agarose beads&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Life Technology</td><td>&amp;nbsp;SA100-04</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trichloroacetic acid</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T6399</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HRP-streptavidin&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>N100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-pTrkB antibody</td><td>a generous gift from Dr M. Chao of NYU</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-TrkB antibody</td><td>BD Science</td><td>610101</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

real-time imaging of axonal transport of quantum dot-labeled bdnf in primary neurons

BDNF plays an important role in several facets of neuronal survival, differentiation, and function. Structural and functional deficits in axons are increasingly viewed as an early feature of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (AD) and Huntington&#8217;s disease (HD). As yet unclear is the mechanism(s) by which axonal injury is induced. We reported the development of a novel technique to produce biologically active, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) that can be used to trace axonal transport of BDNF. Quantum dot-labeled BDNF (QD-BDNF) was produced by conjugating quantum dot 655 to mBtBDNF. A microfluidic device was used to isolate axons from neuron cell bodies. Addition of QD-BDNF to the axonal compartment allowed live imaging of BDNF transport in axons. We demonstrated that QD-BDNF moved essentially exclusively retrogradely, with very few pauses, at a moving velocity of around 1.06 &#956;m/sec. This system can be used to investigate mechanisms of disrupted axonal function in AD or HD, as well as other degenerative disorders.

Production and Purification of Biologically Active Mono-biotinylated BDNF
The expression vector of BDNF fused with an AviTag sequence (GGGLNDIFEAQKIEWHE) was created according to a previously published protocol10. The molecular mass of the full length fusion protein was predicted to be ~32 kDa (<a href="http://ca.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html" target="_blank">http://ca.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html</a>) Monobiotinylated mature BDNF with a predicted molecular mass of 18 kDa (...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons at JoVE.com

Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

Axonal transport of BDNF, a neurotrophic factor, is critical for the survival and function of several neuronal populations. Some degenerative disorders are marked by disruption of axonal structure and function. We demonstrated the techniques used to examine live trafficking of QD-BDNF in microfluidic chambers using primary neurons.

BDNF plays an important role in several facets of neuronal survival, differentiation, and function. Structural and functional deficits in axons are ...

real-time-imaging-axonal-transport-quantum-dot-labeled-bdnf-primary

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.0K Views.  University of California, San Diego. Axonal transport of BDNF, a neurotrophic factor, is critical for the survival and function of several neuronal populations. Some degenerative disorders are marked by disruption of axonal structure and function. We demonstrated the techniques used to examine live trafficking of QD-BDNF in microfluidic chambers using primary neurons. 

Video: Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

In vivo Visualization of Synaptic Vesicles Within Drosophila Larval Segmental Axons

Elucidating the mechanisms of axonal transport has shown to be very important in determining how defects in long distance transport affect different neurological diseases. Defects in this essential process can have detrimental effects on neuronal functioning and development. We have developed a dissection protocol that is designed to expose the Drosophila larval segmental nerves to view axonal transport in real time. We have adapted this protocol for live imaging from the one published by Hurd and Saxton (1996) used for immunolocalizatin of larval segmental nerves. Careful dissection and proper buffer conditions are critical for maximizing the lifespan of the dissected larvae. When properly done, dissected larvae have shown robust vesicle transport for 2-3 hours under physiological conditions. We use the UAS-GAL4 method 1 to express GFP-tagged APP or synaptotagmin vesicles within a single axon or many axons in larval segmental nerves by using different neuronal GAL4 drivers. Other fluorescently tagged markers, for example mitochrondria (MitoTracker) or lysosomes (LysoTracker), can be also applied to the larvae before viewing. GFP-vesicle movement and particle movement can be viewed simultaneously using separate wavelengths.

In vivo Visualization of Synaptic Vesicles Within Drosophila Larval Segmental Axons

This protocol discusses the live dissection of Drosophila larvae for the purpose of imaging the movement of GFP tagged axonal vesicles on microtubule tracks.

Elucidating the mechanisms of axonal transport has shown to be very important in determining how defects in long distance transport affect different ...

Live Imaging of Dense-core Vesicles in Primary Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Observing and characterizing dynamic cellular processes can yield important information about cellular activity that cannot be gained from static images.  Vital fluorescent probes, particularly green fluorescent protein (GFP) have revolutionized cell biology stemming from the ability to label specific intracellular compartments and cellular structures. For example, the live imaging of GFP (and its spectral variants) chimeras have allowed for a dynamic 
analysis of the cytoskeleton, organelle transport, and membrane dynamics in a multitude of organisms and cell types [1-3].  Although live imaging has become prevalent, this approach still poses many technical challenges, particularly in primary cultured neurons.  One challenge is the expression of GFP-tagged proteins in post-mitotic neurons; the other is the ability to capture fluorescent images while minimizing phototoxicity, photobleaching, 
and maintaining general cell health.  Here we provide a protocol that describes a lipid-based transfection method that yields a relatively low transfection rate (~0.5%), however is ideal for the imaging of fully polarized neurons.  A low transfection rate is essential so that single axons and dendrites can be characterized as to their orientation to the cell body to confirm directionality of transport, i.e., anterograde v. retrograde.  Our approach to imaging 
GFP expressing neurons relies on a standard wide-field fluorescent microscope outfitted with a CCD camera, image capture software, and a heated imaging chamber. We have imaged a wide variety of organelles or structures, for example, dense-core vesicles, mitochondria, growth cones, and actin without any special optics or excitation requirements other than a fluorescent light source. Additionally, spectrally-distinct, fluorescently 
labeled proteins, e.g., GFP and dsRed-tagged proteins, can be visualized near simultaneously to characterize co-transport or other coordinated cellular events.  The imaging approach described here is flexible for a variety of imaging applications and can be adopted by a laboratory for relatively little cost provided a microscope is available.

Live cell imaging is of particular utility when studying the dynamics of organelle trafficking. Here we describe a protocol for live imaging of dense-core vesicles in cultured neurons using wide-field fluorescence microscopy. This protocol is flexible and can be adapted to image other organelles such as mitochondria, endosomes, and peroxisomes.

Observing and characterizing dynamic cellular processes can yield important information about cellular activity that cannot be gained from static images.  ...

Biology

Time-lapse Live Imaging and Quantification of Fast Dendritic Branch Dynamics in Developing Drosophila Neurons

Highly motile dendritic filopodia are widely present in neurons at early developmental stages. These exploratory dynamic branches sample the surrounding environment and initiate contacts with potential synaptic partners. Although the connection between dendritic branch dynamics and synaptogenesis is well established, how developmental and activity-dependent processes regulate dendritic branch dynamics is not well understood. This is partly due to the technical difficulties associated with the live imaging and quantitative analyses of these fine structures using an in vivo system. We established a method to study dendrite dynamics using Drosophila larval ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), which can be individually labeled using genetic approaches and are accessible for live imaging. Taking advantage of this system, we developed protocols to capture branch dynamics of the whole dendritic arbor of a single labeled LNv through time-lapse live imaging. We then performed post-processing to improve image quality through drift correction and deconvolution, followed by analyzing branch dynamics at the single-branch level by annotating spatial positions of all branch terminals. Lastly, we developed R scripts (Supplementary File) and specific parameters to quantify branch dynamics using the coordinate information generated by the terminal tracing. Collectively, this protocol allows us to achieve a detailed quantitative description of branch dynamics of the neuronal dendritic arbor with high temporal and spatial resolution. The methods we developed are generally applicable to sparsely labeled neurons in both in vitro and in vivo conditions.

Time-lapse Live Imaging and Quantification of Fast Dendritic Branch Dynamics in Developing Drosophila Neurons

Here, we describe the method we employed to image highly motile dendritic filopodia in a live preparation of the Drosophila larval brain, and the protocol we developed to quantify time-lapse 3D imaging datasets for quantitative assessments of dendrite dynamics in developing neurons.

Highly motile dendritic filopodia are widely present in neurons at early developmental stages. These exploratory dynamic branches sample the surrounding ...

3D Particle Tracking for Noninvasive In Vivo Analysis of Synaptic Microtubule Dynamics in Dendrites and Neuromuscular Junctions of Drosophila

Microtubules (MTs) play critical roles in neuronal development, but many questions remain about the molecular mechanisms of their regulation and function. Furthermore, despite progress in understanding postsynaptic MTs, much less is known about the contributions of presynaptic MTs to neuronal morphogenesis. In particular, studies of in vivo MT dynamics in Drosophila sensory dendrites yielded significant insights into polymer-level behavior. However, the technical and analytical challenges associated with live imaging of the fly neuromuscular junction (NMJ) have limited comparable studies of presynaptic MT dynamics. Moreover, while there are many highly effective software strategies for automated analysis of MT dynamics in vitro and ex vivo, in vivo data often necessitate significant operator input or entirely manual analysis due to inherently inferior signal-to-noise ratio in images and complex cellular morphology. &#160;To address this, this study optimized a new software platform for automated and unbiased in vivo particle detection. Multiparametric analysis of live time-lapse confocal images of EB1-GFP labeled MTs was performed in both dendrites and the NMJ of Drosophila larvae and found striking differences in MT behaviors. MT dynamics were furthermore analyzed following knockdown of the MT-associated protein (MAP) dTACC, a key regulator of Drosophila synapse development, and identified statistically significant changes in MT dynamics compared to wild type. These results demonstrate that this novel strategy for the automated multiparametric analysis of both pre- and postsynaptic MT dynamics at the polymer-level significantly reduces human-in-the-loop criteria. The study furthermore shows the utility of this method in detecting distinct MT behaviors upon dTACC-knockdown, indicating a possible future application for functional screens of factors that regulate MT dynamics in vivo. Future applications of this method may also focus on elucidating cell type and/or compartment-specific MT behaviors, and multicolor correlative imaging of EB1-GFP with other cellular and subcellular markers of interest.&#160;

This study presents a noninvasive intravital neuronal imaging strategy combined with a new software strategy to achieve automated, unbiased tracking and analysis of in vivo microtubule (MT) plus-end dynamics in the sensory dendrites and the neuromuscular junctions of Drosophila.

Microtubules (MTs) play critical roles in neuronal development, but many questions remain about the molecular mechanisms of their regulation and function. ...

An Improved Protocol to Purify and Directly Mono-Biotinylate Recombinant BDNF in a Tube for Cellular Trafficking Studies in Neurons

Recombinant BDNF containing an Avi sequence (BDNFAvi) is produced in HEK293 cells and then cost-effectively purified by affinity chromatography. A reproducible protocol was developed to directly&#160;mono-biotinylate BDNFAvi with the enzyme BirA in a tube. In this reaction, mono-biotinylated BDNFAvi retains its biological activity.
Neurotrophins are target-derived growth factors playing a role in neuronal development and maintenance. They require rapid transport mechanisms along the endocytic pathway to allow long-distance signaling between different neuronal compartments. The development of molecular tools to study the trafficking of neurotrophins has enabled the precise tracking of these proteins in the cell using in vivo recording. In this protocol, we developed an optimized and cost-effective procedure for the production of mono-biotinylated BDNF. A recombinant BDNF variant containing a biotinylable avi sequence (BDNFAvi) is produced in HEK293 cells in the microgram range and then purified in an easily scalable procedure using affinity chromatography. The purified BDNF can then be homogeneously mono-biotinylated by a direct in vitro reaction with the enzyme BirA in a tube. The biological activity of the mono-biotinylated BDNF (mbtBDNF) can be conjugated to streptavidin-conjugated to different fluorophores. BDNFAvi and mbtBDNF retain their biological activity demonstrated through the detection of downstream phosphorylated targets using western blot and activation of the transcription factor CREB, respectively. Using streptavidin-quantum dots, we were able to visualize mbtBDNF internalization concomitant with activation of CREB, which was detected with a phospho-CREB specific antibody. In addition, mbtBDNF conjugated to streptavidin-quantum dots was suitable for retrograde transport analysis in cortical neurons grown in microfluidic chambers. Thus, in tube produced mbtBDNF is a reliable tool to study physiological signaling endosome dynamics and trafficking in neurons.

Recombinant BDNF containing an Avi sequence (BDNFAvi) is produced in HEK293 cells in a cost-effective manner and is purified by affinity chromatography. BDNFavi is then directly mono-biotinylated with the enzyme BirA in a tube. BDNFavi and mono-biotinylated BDNFavi retain their biological activity when compared to commercially available BDNF.

Recombinant BDNF containing an Avi sequence (BDNFAvi) is produced in HEK293 cells and then cost-effectively purified by affinity chromatography. A ...

Imaging and Analysis of Neurofilament Transport in Excised Mouse Tibial Nerve

Neurofilament protein polymers move along axons in the slow component of axonal transport at average speeds of ~0.35-3.5 mm/day. Until recently the study of this movement in situ was only possible using radioisotopic pulse-labeling, which permits analysis of axonal transport in whole nerves with a temporal resolution of days and a spatial resolution of millimeters. To study neurofilament transport in situ with higher temporal and spatial resolution, we developed a hThy1-paGFP-NFM transgenic mouse that expresses neurofilament protein M tagged with photoactivatable GFP in neurons. Here we describe fluorescence photoactivation pulse-escape and pulse-spread methods to analyze neurofilament transport in single myelinated axons of tibial nerves from these mice ex vivo. Isolated nerve segments are maintained on the microscope stage by perfusion with oxygenated saline and imaged by spinning disk confocal fluorescence microscopy. Violet light is used to activate the fluorescence in a short axonal window. The fluorescence in the activated and flanking regions is analyzed over time, permitting the study of neurofilament transport with temporal and spatial resolution on the order of minutes&#160;and microns, respectively. Mathematical modeling can be used to extract kinetic parameters of neurofilament transport including the velocity, directional bias and pausing behavior from the resulting data. The pulse-escape and pulse-spread methods can also be adapted to visualize neurofilament transport in other nerves. With the development of additional transgenic mice, these methods could also be used to image and analyze the axonal transport of other cytoskeletal and cytosolic proteins in axons.

We describe fluorescence photoactivation methods to analyze the axonal transport of neurofilaments in single myelinated axons of peripheral nerves from transgenic mice that express a photoactivatable neurofilament protein.

Neurofilament protein polymers move along axons in the slow component of axonal transport at average speeds of ~0.35-3.5 mm/day. Until recently the study ...

Time-Lapse Imaging of Neuronal Arborization using Sparse Adeno-Associated Virus Labeling of Genetically Targeted Retinal Cell Populations

Discovering mechanisms that pattern dendritic arbors requires methods to visualize, image, and analyze dendrites during development. The mouse retina is a powerful model system for the investigation of cell type-specific mechanisms of neuronal morphogenesis and connectivity. The organization and composition of retinal subtypes are well-defined, and genetic tools are available to access specific types during development. Many retinal cell types also constrain their dendrites and/or axons to narrow layers, which facilitates time-lapse imaging. Mouse retina explant cultures are well suited for live-cell imaging using confocal or multiphoton microscopy, but methods optimized for imaging dendrite dynamics with temporal and structural resolution are lacking. Presented here is a method to sparsely label and image the development of specific retinal populations marked by the Cre-Lox system. Commercially available adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) used here expressed membrane-targeted fluorescent proteins in a Cre-dependent manner. Intraocular delivery of AAVs in neonatal mice produces fluorescent labeling of targeted cell types by 4-5 days post-injection (dpi). The membrane fluorescent signals are detectable by confocal imaging and resolve fine branch structures and dynamics. High-quality videos spanning 2-4 h are acquired from imaging retinal flat-mounts perfused with oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF). Also provided is an image postprocessing pipeline for deconvolution and three-dimensional (3D) drift correction. This protocol can be used to capture several cellular behaviors in the intact retina and to identify novel factors controlling neurite morphogenesis. Many developmental strategies learned in the retina will be relevant for understanding the formation of neural circuits elsewhere in the central nervous system.

Here, we present a method for investigating neurite morphogenesis in postnatal mouse retinal explants by time-lapse confocal microscopy. We describe an approach for sparse labeling and acquisition of retinal cell types and their fine processes using recombinant adeno-associated virus vectors that express membrane-targeted fluorescent proteins in a Cre-dependent manner.

Discovering mechanisms that pattern dendritic arbors requires methods to visualize, image, and analyze dendrites during development. The mouse retina is a ...

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Axonal transport maintains neuronal homeostasis by enabling the bidirectional trafficking of diverse organelles and cargoes. Disruptions in axonal transport have devastating consequences for individual neurons and their networks, and contribute to a plethora of neurological disorders. As many of these conditions involve both cell autonomous and non-autonomous mechanisms, and often display a spectrum of pathology across neuronal subtypes, methods to accurately identify and analyze neuronal subsets are imperative.
This paper details protocols to assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria in sciatic nerves of anesthetized mice. Stepwise instructions are provided to 1) distinguish motor from sensory neurons in vivo, in situ, and ex vivo by using mice that selectively express fluorescent proteins within cholinergic motor neurons; and 2) separately or concurrently assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria. These complementary intravital approaches facilitate the simultaneous imaging of different cargoes in distinct peripheral nerve axons to quantitatively monitor axonal transport in health and disease.

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Using transgenic fluorescent mice, detailed protocols are described to assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria within motor and sensory axons of the intact sciatic nerve in live animals.

Axonal transport maintains neuronal homeostasis by enabling the bidirectional trafficking of diverse organelles and cargoes. Disruptions in axonal ...

Visualizing Proteins in Primary Hippocampal Neurons by Live&#45;Cell Imaging

Using Live&#45;Cell Imaging to Measure the Effects of Pathological Proteins on Axonal Transport in Primary Hippocampal Neurons

Bidirectional transport of cargos along the axon is critical for maintaining functional synapses, neural connectivity, and healthy neurons. Axonal transport is disrupted in multiple neurodegenerative diseases, and projection neurons are particularly vulnerable because of the need to transport cellular materials over long distances and sustain substantial axonal mass. Pathological modifications of several disease-related proteins negatively affect transport, including tau, amyloid-&#946;, &#945;-synuclein, superoxide dismutase, and huntingtin, providing a potential common mechanism by which pathological proteins exert toxicity in disease. Methods to study these toxic mechanisms are necessary to understand neurodegenerative disorders and identify potential therapeutic interventions.
Here, cultured primary rodent hippocampal neurons are co-transfected with multiple plasmids to study the effects of pathological proteins on fast axonal transport using live-cell confocal imaging of fluorescently-tagged cargo proteins. We begin with the harvest, dissociation, and culturing of primary hippocampal neurons from rodents. Then, we co-transfect the neurons with plasmid DNA constructs to express fluorescent-tagged cargo protein and wild-type or mutant tau (used as an exemplar of pathological proteins). Axons are identified in live cells using an antibody that binds an extracellular&#160;domain of neurofascin, an axon initial segment protein, and an axonal region of interest is imaged to measure fluorescent cargo transport.
Using KymoAnalyzer, a freely available ImageJ macro, we extensively characterize the velocity, pause frequency, and directional cargo density of axonal transport, all of which may be affected by the presence of pathological proteins. Through this method, we identify a phenotype of increased cargo pause frequency associated with the expression of pathological tau protein. Additionally, gene-silencing shRNA constructs can be added to the transfection mix to test the role of other proteins in mediating transport disruption. This protocol is easily adaptable for use with other neurodegenerative disease-related proteins and is a reproducible method to study the mechanisms of how those proteins disrupt axonal transport.

Author Spotlight: Understanding the Impact of Pathological Proteins on Axonal Transport in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Here, we demonstrate how to combine transfection of primary hippocampal rodent neurons with live-cell confocal imaging to analyze pathological protein-induced effects on axonal transport and identify mechanistic pathways mediating these effects.

Bidirectional transport of cargos along the axon is critical for maintaining functional synapses, neural connectivity, and healthy neurons. Axonal ...

Enhancing Axonal Transport Analysis in Living C. elegans Using GFP-Tagged RAB-3

Optimizing Visualization of Axonal Transport of Endogenous Cargo by Fluorescence Microscopy in Living Caenorhabditis elegans

Axonal transport is a prerequisite to deliver axonal proteins from their site of synthesis in the neuronal cell body to their destination in the axon. Consequently, loss of axonal transport impairs neuronal growth and function. Studying axonal transport therefore improves our understanding of neuronal cell biology. With recent improvements in CRISPR Cas9 genome editing, endogenous labeling of axonal cargos has become accessible, enabling to move beyond ectopic expression-based visualization of transport. However, endogenous labeling often comes at the cost of low signal intensity and necessitates optimization strategies to obtain robust data. Here, we describe a protocol to optimize the visualization of axonal transport by discussing acquisition parameters and a bleaching approach to improve the signal of endogenous labeled cargo over diffuse cytoplasmic background. We apply our protocol to optimize the visualization of synaptic vesicle precursors (SVPs) labeled by green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged RAB-3 to highlight how fine-tuning acquisition parameters can improve the analysis of endogenously labeled axonal cargo in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans).

Author Spotlight: Advanced Techniques for Visualizing Endogenous Axonal Transport Dynamics

The paper describes the optimization of fluorescence microscopy acquisition parameters to visualize the axonal transport of endogenous labeled cargos at single-neuron resolution in a living nematode.

Axonal transport is a prerequisite to deliver axonal proteins from their site of synthesis in the neuronal cell body to their destination in the axon. ...

Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

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Chapters in this video

In vivo Visualization of Synaptic Vesicles Within Drosophila Larval Segmental Axons

Live Imaging of Dense-core Vesicles in Primary Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Time-lapse Live Imaging and Quantification of Fast Dendritic Branch Dynamics in Developing Drosophila Neurons

3D Particle Tracking for Noninvasive In Vivo Analysis of Synaptic Microtubule Dynamics in Dendrites and Neuromuscular Junctions of Drosophila

An Improved Protocol to Purify and Directly Mono-Biotinylate Recombinant BDNF in a Tube for Cellular Trafficking Studies in Neurons

Imaging and Analysis of Neurofilament Transport in Excised Mouse Tibial Nerve

Time-Lapse Imaging of Neuronal Arborization using Sparse Adeno-Associated Virus Labeling of Genetically Targeted Retinal Cell Populations

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Using Live-Cell Imaging to Measure the Effects of Pathological Proteins on Axonal Transport in Primary Hippocampal Neurons

Optimizing Visualization of Axonal Transport of Endogenous Cargo by Fluorescence Microscopy in Living Caenorhabditis elegans