The authors would like to acknowledge the Cleveland Metroparks, including J. Grieser, J. Markowitz, B. Garman, and supporting staff; Case Western Reserve University, Dr. J. Burns; and GLISTEN, the Great Lakes Innovative Stewardship through Education Network.

1. Streambank Identification
<ol>
	<li>Identify a uniform section of bank on one side of the stream. Differentiate this section by a drastically different slope of the bank, different bank material, or a break in vegetation. This section of streambank should be visibly different from the sections on either side. There is not a minimum or maximum length of bank. Separation of extremely long sections into smaller segments will simplify the assessment.</li>
</ol>
2. Pre-Screening BEHI Questionnaire (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Answer the following questions about the uniform streambank section with yes/no responses from Figure 1.
	<ol>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does the uniform section of bank exhibit less than or equal to 50% protection at the toe of the bank?&#8221; The toe is located at the base of the bank where it meets the water during base flow conditions; on average the bottom six to eight inches of the bank. Protection includes embedded boulders, embedded large woody debris, and rooted vegetation. Bedrock counts as toe protection; however, easily breakable bedrock is not toe protection.</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank exhibit an undercut of 0.5 feet or more?&#8221; An undercut bank is a streambank that has undergone erosion beneath the ground surface.</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank exhibit stratification?&#8221; Stratification is a clearly defined horizontal break in geology. One layer of the stratification must be composed of an erodible material (sand, gravel, or matrix).</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank have a bank height of ten feet or more with 50% or more soil exposure?&#8221;</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank exhibit roots lacking bank material (soil)?&#8221;</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;is 50% or more of the bank void of rooted vegetation?&#8221;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>If there are two or more &#8220;YES&#8221; answers in the Figure 1 questionnaire, perform a BEHI evaluation of the bank as there is a significant chance that streambank erosion is occurring or will occur.</li>
	<li>If there are less than two &#8220;YES&#8221; answers in the Figure 1 questionnaire, do not proceed with the BEHI evaluation because the bank is experiencing little to no erosion (i.e., very low to low BEHI rating).</li>
</ol>
3. BEHI Evaluation Data Sheet (Figure 3)
<ol>
	<li>Record the date, the weather, and the personnel in the spaces provided on the BEHI Evaluation Data Sheet.</li>
	<li>Record the number of the bank being evaluated. For example, 1 is the first bank being assessing that day, 2 is the second bank being assessing, 3, 4, 5&#8230;and so on.</li>
	<li>Take GPS coordinates at the most upstream (where the water is flowing from) and most downstream (where the water is flowing to) points of the bank. Stand as close to the bank as possible to ensure accuracy.</li>
	<li>Take pictures at both the upstream and downstream points on the bank. Capture the main features of the bank in the pictures. Take additional pictures to capture features on the bank or in the channel (i.e., stratification, large woody debris jams, etc.). Record the picture numbers for reference.</li>
	<li>Record the side of the stream being assessed (left bank or right bank). Determine the left bank and right bank when facing downstream; left and right respectively.</li>
	<li>Measure the bank height, in feet, from the toe of the bank to the top of the bank. Determine the top of the bank by the first definable break in slope, generally lying parallel to water flow.</li>
	<li>Measure the bank length at the toe, in feet, between the most upstream and most downstream points on the bank.</li>
	<li>Write the number of the questions that were answered with a &#8220;yes&#8221; in the initial &#8220;Pre-Screening BEHI Questionnaire&#8221; in Step 2.</li>
	<li>Note the distance to infrastructure and the type of infrastructure (i.e., bridges, culverts, roads, utilities, houses etc.).</li>
	<li>Circle any of the following qualitative indicators that are present: Unvegetated mid-channel bar/braided channel, exposed tree roots on both sides, leaning trees on both sides, exposed infrastructure, downstream of a dam, slumping streambanks, headcuts, perched tributaries, failed &#8220;Best Management Practices&#8221; (BMP&#8217;s) such as revetment walls, gabion baskets or culverts.</li>
	<li>Note the composition of the bank material. Record the predominant materials found along the bank section that is under evaluation. 
	NOTE: Streambanks can be a mix of materials. For example, a bank may have &#8220;shale at the toe, and silty sand with trace gravel above&#8221;. &#8220;Silty sand&#8221; indicates more sand than silt and &#8220;trace gravel&#8221; indicates a small amount of gravel. &#8220;Sandy silt&#8221; indicates more silt than sand.</li>
	<li>Make bank material adjustments based on the erodibility of the material.
	<ol>
		<li>Subtract up to 10 points for material that does not have a high rate of erodibility (i.e., cobble). Add up to 10 points for extremely erodible materials (i.e., sand). A mixture of material (i.e., sand with some gravel or silty sand with trace gravel) is more often found in stream systems so an average score would be more appropriate (Figure 4). This is not a mandatory adjustment. See Figure 4 In Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the ratio of the average root depth of plants to the study bank height, expressed as a percentage, to estimate the adherence of bank material by vegetation (Figure 5).
	<ol>
		<li>Visually estimate the root depth vertically from top of the bank to the toe of the bank. For example, if roots are growing in the top half of the bank, the root depth would be 50%. If there are roots growing from the top of the bank to the toe, the root depth would be 100%.</li>
		<li>Take an average percentage of the root depth along the entire section under evaluation. Do not consider roots that are void of bank material (i.e., hanging roots).</li>
		<li>Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 5 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the root density by making a visual assessment of the amount of bank composed of root material, expressed as a percentage.
	<ol>
		<li>Do not consider roots that are void of bank material. Small, fibrous roots can be very dense and provide greater soil retention compared to the larger root systems of trees (Figure 6A and 6B). Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 6 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Measure the angle from the lower bank at the waterline during base flow to the top of the bank (Figure 7). An extremely undercut bank can have an angle up to 120 degrees.
	<ol>
		<li>Place a measuring stick at a 90 degree angle to the waterline in order to estimate the bank angle or use an inclinometer if available. Take an average of the bank angle along the entire section under evaluation. For example, if the section is mostly 90 degrees with a small section that has 110 degree undercut, the recorded degree would be approximately 100 degrees.</li>
		<li>Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 7 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the surface protection present, the amount of streambank covered and protected by woody debris, rooted vegetation, embedded boulders, revetment, bedrock, or other embedded materials that protect the streambank from erosion (Figure 8).
	<ol>
		<li>Visually estimate the percentage of streambank not exposed to erosive forces. Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 8 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Visually determine the number of stratified layers. Stratification refers to a clearly defined horizontal break in geology which has the potential to cause and enhance zones of preferential erosion (Figure 9).
	<ol>
		<li>Record how many layers of stratification are present. See Figure 9 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Make stratification adjustments if increased erosion is occurring due to the stratified layers.
	<ol>
		<li>Add up to 5 points for a single layer of stratification (two different geologic layers). Add up to 10 points for multiple layers of stratification (three different geologic layers). Only adjust for stratification if at least one layer of material is erodible (sand, gravel, or matrix).</li>
		<li>Consider where the stratified layers are in relation to the water, i.e., stratified layers that are 50 feet above the base flow may not have an erosive effect. A stratified layer near the toe of the bank may have an extremely erosive effect. An average score may be necessary, especially when considering how erodible the materials are and where the stratified layer is in relation to the water. This is not a mandatory adjustment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Add all scores together to determine the overall modified BEHI rating (very low/low: 4 &#8211; 15.5, moderate: 15.75 &#8211; 23.5, high: 23.75 &#8211; 31.5, very high: 31.75 &#8211; 36.5, or extreme: &#62;36.5) for the streambank assessed. Record the total score and the rating in the spaces provided on the data sheet.</li>
	<li>Take note of the streambank specifics. For example, streambank is on the outside of a meander bend, a large woody debris jam, an out of place culvert, or strong petroleum odor. Note any failing infrastructure here.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Rosgen, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Stream+Channel+Assessment+Methodology.">A Stream Channel Assessment Methodology.</a> Proceedings of 7th Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference. , 26 (2001).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Upper Esopus Creek Management Plan. 1-3, (2007).</li><li>Karr, J. R., Dudley, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ecological+perspective+on+water+quality+goals.">Ecological perspective on water quality goals.</a> Environmental Management. 5 (1), 55-68 (1981).</li><li>Trimble, S. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+Stream+Channel+Erosion+to+Sediment+Yield+from+an+Urbanizing+Watershed.">Contribution of Stream Channel Erosion to Sediment Yield from an Urbanizing Watershed.</a> Science. 278 (1), 1442-1444 (1997).</li><li>Lee, J. G., Heaney, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimation+of+Urban+Imperviousness+and+its+Impacts+on+Storm+Water+Systems.">Estimation of Urban Imperviousness and its Impacts on Storm Water Systems.</a> Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. 129 (5), 419-426 (2003).</li><li>Bilotta, G. S., Brazier, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+the+influence+of+suspended+solids+on+water+quality+and+aquatic+biota.">Understanding the influence of suspended solids on water quality and aquatic biota.</a> Water Research. 42 (12), 2849-2861 (2008).</li><li>Hansen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streambank+(RBS)+erosion+study+for+the+Minnesota+River+basin.">Streambank (RBS) erosion study for the Minnesota River basin.</a> Report prepared for the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. , (2010).</li><li>Fox, N., Goodman, B., Teel, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluating+Conservation+Reserve+Program+Impacts+on+Smith+Creek+Erosion+Rates+in+the+Shenendoah+Valley.">Evaluating Conservation Reserve Program Impacts on Smith Creek Erosion Rates in the Shenendoah Valley.</a> Virginia Water Research Symposium. , 103-113 (2004).</li><li>Rosgen, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Practical+Method+of+Computing+Streambank+Erosion+Rate.">A Practical Method of Computing Streambank Erosion Rate.</a> , 15 (2001).</li><li>Simpson, A., Turner, I., Brantley, E., Helms, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bank+erosion+hazard+index+as+an+indicator+of+near-bank+aquatic+habitat+and+community+structure+in+a+southeastern+Piedmont+stream.">Bank erosion hazard index as an indicator of near-bank aquatic habitat and community structure in a southeastern Piedmont stream.</a> Ecological Indicators. 43 (1), 19-28 (2014).</li><li>Rosgen, D. L., Frantila, D., Silvey, H. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=River+Stability:+Field+Guide.">River Stability: Field Guide.</a> Wildland Hydrology. , (2008).</li><li>Prosser, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Huron+and+Cleveland+Shales+of+Northern+Ohio.">The Huron and Cleveland Shales of Northern Ohio.</a> The Journal of Geology. 21 (4), 323-362 (1913).</li><li>Rathbun, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Standard+operating+procedure:+assessing+bank+erosion+potential+using+Rosgen's+bank+erosion+hazard+index+(BEHI).">Standard operating procedure: assessing bank erosion potential using Rosgen's bank erosion hazard index (BEHI).</a> Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, Water Bureau, Nonpoint Source Division. , (2008).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The most critical steps for accurate completion of the modified BEHI protocol are to: correctly identify a uniform section of streambank to assess, if the streambank length has too much variability it is best to separate and assess smaller segments to accurately capture the erodibility of the streambank; complete the Pre-Screening Questionnaire to confirm that a BEHI assessment should be completed on that streambank, if there is uncertainty in whether a bank passes the Pre-Screening Questionnaire, a BEHI assessment shoul...

Streambank erosion is a natural process; however excessive erosion can contribute a significant amount of non-point source pollution in the form of suspended sediment2. Increased suspended sediment affects water quality, physical, and biological functions of a stream3. Human influences can greatly affect streambank erosion, and significantly increase sediment loads4, particularly in urban systems where there is an increase in storm water runoff and impervious surfaces5. Higher sediment loads can negatively affect water quality and the ecosystems of streams6. Watershed management practices throughout the Cleveland Metroparks attempt to locate and inventory the source and rate the risk of potential streambank erosion to assist in effective management strategies, as well as in stream, riparian, and habitat restoration.
David Rosgen, with Wildland Hydrology, developed the Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), which evaluates the susceptibility of streambank erosion on a stream reach based on a combination of several erodibility variables7. BEHI uses a variety of indicators to rank the severity and probability of streambank erosion, including the bank material, stratification, root depth and density, bank angle, the bankfull height to bank height ratio, and the amount of surface protection present. The BEHI assessment assigns a numerical value which corresponds to an overall BEHI rating (very low, low, moderate, high, very high, or extreme), for a particular streambank. This protocol has been effective in assessing potential streambank erosion8-10 and can be used in conjunction with other water quality and habitat assessments. Streambanks exhibiting a high BEHI rating have been shown to correspond to less diverse and less stable macroinvertebrate communities, consisting mainly of opportunistic species11. Though the original BEHI method is useful, it can be extremely time consuming, difficult for non-professionals, and confined to specific geomorphic regions, specifically tailored for alluvial stream conditions12.
Modifications to this protocol were necessary in order to address these constraints. A &#8220;Pre-Screening Questionnaire&#8221; (Figure 1) was developed to identify and eliminate streambanks that are likely to rank very low or low, thus focusing the assessment on higher erosion areas, and decreasing the amount of time and resources required to perform a BEHI assessment on an entire stream. The questionnaire also addresses geologic differences between alluvial and non-alluvial stream conditions seen in Northeastern Ohio, such as extremely erodible shale bedrock13, which would not be assessed as an erodible material based on the original BEHI protocol. Elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric including the bankfull stage, which can be very difficult to determine, allowed for a faster streambank assessment and for non-professionals to complete the assessment with introductory training. This elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio was based on a modified BEHI procedure developed by Joe Rathbun at the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality14. To eliminate the necessity for additional calculations in the field, all other metrics are expressed as percentages except for bank angle, and stratification and bank material adjustments. Root density was initially expressed as the percent of soil composed of roots where the roots are extended. This was multiplied by the root depth to account for the entire bank height; however we replaced this with a simple estimate of the density of roots in the entire bank. Score adjustments were made to the original BEHI scoring system in order to account for the elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric and estimated percentages. As described in the original BEHI protocol the measured metrics were converted to a risk rating of 1-10 (10 being the highest level of risk). The risk ratings from 1 to 10 correspond to risk ratings of very low, low, moderate, high, very high, and extreme potential erosion. These relationships were established based on a catalog of field observations10. In the modified BEHI protocol, scores for the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric were subtracted from the original BEHI scoring system to reflect new total scores and risk ratings (Figure 2). These modifications address the limitations of the original BEHI protocol in Northeastern Ohio and assisted in maintaining consistency and reducing user bias.
The modified BEHI protocol was used to assess several high priority streams within the Cleveland Metroparks. The original BEHI assessment was performed by trained Cleveland Metropark personnel, on a length of stream to confirm the effectiveness of the modifications in identifying streambanks with higher rates of erosion. The modified BEHI protocol is used by professionals, volunteers, staff, and students to evaluate streambank erosion throughout the Cleveland Metroparks.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="745">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:339px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">200&#39; reel tape measure</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:339px;">Tape measure can be used to measure bank length and height</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Inclinometer</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:339px;">Inclinometer may be used to measure bank angle.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="62">
			<td height="62" style="height:62px;width:216px;">GPS</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:339px;">GPS is used to take points along the stream, make sure for mapping purposes to use a GPS that takes accurate readings.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Camera</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:339px;">Camera is used to take photos of the banks under assessment and of any major stream features.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

modifying the bank erosion hazard index (behi) protocol for rapid assessment of streambank erosion in northeastern ohio

Understanding the source of pollution in a stream is vital to preserving, restoring, and maintaining the stream&#8217;s function and habitat it provides. Sediments from highly eroding streambanks are a major source of pollution in a stream system and have the potential to jeopardize habitat, infrastructure, and stream function. Watershed management practices throughout the Cleveland Metroparks attempt to locate and inventory the source and rate the risk of potential streambank erosion to assist in formulating effect stream, riparian, and habitat management recommendations. The Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), developed by David Rosgen of Wildland Hydrology is a fluvial geomorphic assessment procedure used to evaluate the susceptibility of potential streambank erosion based on a combination of several variables that are sensitive to various processes of erosion. This protocol can be time consuming, difficult for non-professionals, and confined to specific geomorphic regions. To address these constraints and assist in maintaining consistency and reducing user bias, modifications to this protocol include a &#8220;Pre-Screening Questionnaire&#8221;, elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric including the bankfull determination, and an adjusted scoring system. This modified protocol was used to assess several high priority streams within the Cleveland Metroparks. The original BEHI protocol was also used to confirm the results of the modified BEHI protocol. After using the modified assessment in the field, and comparing it to the original BEHI method, the two were found to produce comparable BEHI ratings of the streambanks, while significantly reducing the amount of time and resources needed to complete the modified protocol.

Streambanks that did not pass the Pre-Screening Questionnaire and were not assessed with the modified BEHI protocol, ranked low or very low when assessed with the original BEHI protocol (Figure 10). This supports the use of the Pre-Screening Questionnaire as a way to quickly identify streambanks that are experiencing moderate to extreme rates of erosion. See Figure 10&#160;below.
In general, streambanks assessed were placed in the same final B...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio at JoVE.com

Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Streambank erosion potential can be evaluated and ranked using David Rosgen&#8217;s Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), however this protocol has significant limitations. Here we present protocol modifications to address time constraints, allow nonprofessionals to complete accurate assessments, and account for non-alluvial stream conditions in Northeast Ohio.

Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI) Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Understanding the source of pollution in a stream is vital to preserving, restoring, and maintaining the stream&#8217;s function and habitat it provides. ...

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9.0K Views.  Cleveland Metroparks. Streambank erosion potential can be evaluated and ranked using David Rosgen’s Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), however this protocol has significant limitations. Here we present protocol modifications to address time constraints, allow nonprofessionals to complete accurate assessments, and account for non-alluvial stream conditions in Northeast Ohio.

Video: Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Use of Chironomidae (Diptera) Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages have been successfully used to assess human impacts on water quality. Unfortunately, traditional benthic larval sampling methods, such as the dip-net, can be time-consuming and expensive. An alternative protocol involves collection of Chironomidae surface-floating pupal exuviae (SFPE). Chironomidae is a species-rich family of flies (Diptera) whose immature stages typically occur in aquatic habitats. Adult chironomids emerge from the water, leaving their pupal skins, or exuviae, floating on the water&#8217;s surface. Exuviae often accumulate along banks or behind obstructions by action of the wind or water current, where they can be collected to assess chironomid diversity and richness. Chironomids can be used as important biological indicators, since some species are more tolerant to pollution than others. Therefore, the relative abundance and species composition of collected SFPE reflect changes in water quality. Here, methods associated with field collection, laboratory processing, slide mounting, and identification of chironomid SFPE are described in detail. Advantages of the SFPE method include minimal disturbance at a sampling area, efficient and economical sample collection and laboratory processing, ease of identification, applicability in nearly all aquatic environments, and a potentially more sensitive measure of ecosystem stress. Limitations include the inability to determine larval microhabitat use and inability to identify pupal exuviae to species if they have not been associated with adult males.

Use of Chironomidae Diptera Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrates are often used to monitor and assess water quality. An efficient protocol involves collections of Chironomidae surface-floating pupal exuviae (SFPE). Here, techniques for field collection, laboratory processing, slide mounting, and identification of Chironomidae SFPE are described.

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages have been successfully used to assess human impacts on water quality. ...

The Use of an Automated System (GreenFeed) to Monitor Enteric Methane and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Ruminant Animals

Ruminant animals (domesticated or wild) emit methane (CH4) through enteric fermentation in their digestive tract and from decomposition of manure during storage. These processes are the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from animal production systems. Techniques for measuring enteric CH4 vary from direct measurements (respiration chambers, which are highly accurate, but with limited applicability) to various indirect methods (sniffers, laser technology, which are practical, but with variable accuracy). The sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)&#160;tracer gas method is commonly used to measure enteric CH4 production by animal scientists and more recently, application of an Automated Head-Chamber System (AHCS) (GreenFeed, C-Lock, Inc., Rapid City, SD), which is the focus of this experiment, has been growing. AHCS is an automated system to monitor CH4 and carbon dioxide (CO2) mass fluxes from the breath of ruminant animals. In a typical AHCS operation, small quantities of baiting feed are dispensed to individual animals to lure them to AHCS multiple times daily. As the animal visits AHCS, a fan system pulls air past the animal&#8217;s muzzle into an intake manifold, and through an air collection pipe where continuous airflow rates are measured. A sub-sample of air is pumped out of the pipe into non-dispersive infra-red sensors for continuous measurement of CH4 and CO2 concentrations. Field comparisons of AHCS to respiration chambers or SF6 have demonstrated that AHCS produces repeatable and accurate CH4 emission results, provided that animal visits to AHCS are sufficient so emission estimates are representative of the diurnal rhythm of rumen gas production. Here, we demonstrate the use of AHCS to measure CO2 and CH4 fluxes from dairy cows given a control diet or a diet supplemented with technical-grade cashew nut shell liquid.

The Use of an Automated System GreenFeed to Monitor Enteric Methane and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Ruminant Animals

Accuracy and precision of the techniques used to measure methane emissions from ruminant animals are critically important for the success of greenhouse gas mitigation efforts. This manuscript describes the principles and operation of an automated system to monitor methane and carbon dioxide mass fluxes from the breath of ruminant animals.

Ruminant animals (domesticated or wild) emit methane (CH4) through enteric fermentation in their digestive tract and from decomposition of manure during ...

Characterization and Application of Passive Samplers for Monitoring of Pesticides in Water

Five different water passive samplers were calibrated under laboratory conditions for measurement of 124 legacy and current used pesticides. This study provides a protocol for the passive sampler preparation, calibration, extraction method and instrumental analysis. Sampling rates (RS) and passive sampler-water partition coefficients (KPW) were calculated for silicone rubber, polar organic chemical integrative sampler POCIS-A, POCIS-B, SDB-RPS and C18 disk. The uptake of the selected compounds depended on their physicochemical properties, i.e., silicone rubber showed a better uptake for more hydrophobic compounds (log octanol-water partition coefficient (KOW) &#62; 5.3), whereas POCIS-A, POCIS-B and SDB-RPS disk were more suitable for hydrophilic compounds (log KOW &#60; 0.70).

A protocol about the characterization and application of five different passive sampling devices is presented.

Five different water passive samplers were calibrated under laboratory conditions for measurement of 124 legacy and current used pesticides. This study ...

Protocol for Microplastics Sampling on the Sea Surface and Sample Analysis

Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is a scientific topic that has received increasing attention over the last decade. The majority of scientific publications address microplastic pollution of the sea surface. The protocol below describes the methodology for sampling, sample preparation, separation and chemical identification of microplastic particles. A manta net fixed on an &#187;A frame&#171; attached to the side of the vessel was used for sampling. Microplastic particles caught in the cod end of the net were separated from samples by visual identification and use of stereomicroscopes. Particles were analyzed for their size using an image analysis program and for their chemical structure using ATR-FTIR and micro FTIR spectroscopy. The described protocol is in line with recommendations for microplastics monitoring published by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter. This written protocol with video guide will support the work of researchers that deal with microplastics monitoring all over the world.

The protocol below describes the methodology for: microplastics sampling on the sea surface, separation of microplastic and chemical identification of particles. This protocol is in line with the recommendations for microplastics monitoring published by the MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter.

Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is a scientific topic that has received increasing attention over the last decade. The majority of ...

Measuring and Mapping Patterns of Soil Erosion and Deposition Related to Soil Carbonate Concentrations Under Agricultural Management

Spatial patterns of soil erosion and deposition can be inferred from differences in ground elevation mapped at appropriate time increments. Such changes in elevation are related to changes in near-surface soil carbonate (CaCO3) profiles. The objective is to describe a simple conceptual model and detailed protocol for repeatable field and laboratory measurements of these quantities. Here, accurate elevation is measured using a ground-based differential global positioning system (GPS); other data acquisition methods could be applied to the same basic method. Soil samples are collected from prescribed depth intervals and analyzed in the lab using an efficient and precise modified pressure-calcimeter method for quantitative analysis of inorganic carbon concentration. Standard statistical methods are applied to point data, and representative results show significant correlations between changes in soil surface layer CaCO3 and changes in elevation consistent with the conceptual model; CaCO3 generally decreased in depositional areas and increased in erosional areas. Maps are derived from point measurements of elevation and soil CaCO3 to aid analyses. A map of erosional and depositional patterns at the study site, a rain-fed winter wheat field cropped in alternating wheat-fallow strips, shows the interacting effects of water and wind erosion affected by management and topography. Alternative sampling methods and depth intervals are discussed and recommended for future work relating soil erosion and deposition to soil CaCO3.

Spatial patterns of soil erosion and deposition can be inferred from differences in ground elevation mapped at appropriate time increments. Such changes in elevation are related to changes in near-surface soil carbonates. Repeatable methods for field and laboratory measurements of these quantities and data analysis methods are described here.

Spatial patterns of soil erosion and deposition can be inferred from differences in ground elevation mapped at appropriate time increments. Such changes ...

Dispersion of Nanomaterials in Aqueous Media: Towards Protocol Optimization

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and stability of the suspension. In this study, a systematic step-wise approach is carried out to identify optimal sonication conditions in order to achieve a stable dispersion. This approach has been adopted and shown to be suitable for several nanomaterials (cerium oxide, zinc oxide, and carbon nanotubes) dispersed in deionized (DI) water. However, with any change in either the nanomaterial type or dispersing medium, there needs to be optimization of the basic protocol by adjusting various factors such as sonication time, power, and sonicator type as well as temperature rise during the process. The approach records the dispersion process in detail. This is necessary to identify the time points as well as other above-mentioned conditions during the sonication process in which there may be undesirable changes, such as damage to the particle surface thus affecting surface properties. Our goal is to offer a harmonized approach that can control the quality of the final, produced dispersion. Such a guideline is instrumental in ensuring dispersion quality repeatability in the nanoscience community, particularly in the field of nanotoxicology.

Here, we present a step-wise protocol for the dispersion of nanomaterials in aqueous media with real-time characterization to identify the optimal sonication conditions, intensity, and duration for improved stability and uniformity of nanoparticle dispersions without impacting the sample integrity.

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and ...

The Calibration and Use of Capacitance Sensors to Monitor Stem Water Content in Trees

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus area. Biomass capacitance plays an integral role in the avoidance of hydraulic impairment to transpiration. However, high temporal resolution measurements of dynamic changes in the hydraulic capacitance of large trees are rare. Here, we present procedures for the calibration and use of capacitance sensors, typically used to monitor soil water content, to measure the volumetric water content in trees in the field. Frequency domain reflectometry-style observations are sensitive to the density of the media being studied. Therefore, it is necessary to perform species-specific calibrations to convert from the sensor-reported values of dielectric permittivity to volumetric water content. Calibration is performed on a harvested branch or stem cut into segments that are dried or re-hydrated to produce a full range of water contents used to generate a best-fit regression with sensor observations. Sensors are inserted into calibration segments or installed in trees after pre-drilling holes to a tolerance fit using a fabricated template to ensure proper drill alignment. Special care is taken to ensure that sensor tines make good contact with the surrounding media, while allowing them to be inserted without excessive force. Volumetric water content dynamics observed via the presented methodology align with sap flow measurements recorded using thermal dissipation techniques and environmental forcing data. Biomass water content data can be used to observe the onset of water stress, drought response and recovery, and has the potential to be applied to the calibration and evaluation of new plant-level hydrodynamics models, as well as to the partitioning of remotely sensed moisture products into above- and belowground components.

The hydraulic capacitance of biomass is a key component of the vegetation water budget, which serves as a buffer against short and long-term drought stresses. Here, we present a protocol for the calibration and use of soil moisture capacitance sensors to monitor water content in the stems of large trees.

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus ...

Protocol for Acute and Chronic Ecotoxicity Testing of the Turquoise Killifish Nothobranchius furzeri

The killifish Nothobranchius furzeri is an emerging model organism in the field of ecotoxicology and its applicability in acute and chronic ecotoxicity testing has been demonstrated. Overall, the sensitivity of the species to toxic compounds is in the range with, or higher than, that of other model species.
This work describes protocols for acute, chronic, and multigenerational bioassays of single and combined stressor effects on N. furzeri. Due to its short maturation time and life-cycle, this vertebrate model allows the study of endpoints such as maturation time and fecundity within four months. Transgenerational full life-cycle exposure trials can be performed in as little as 8 months. Since this species produces eggs that are drought-resistant and remain viable for years, the on-site culture of the species is not needed but individuals can be recruited when required. The protocols are designed to measure life-history traits (mortality, growth, fecundity, weight) and critical thermal maximum.

Protocol for Acute and Chronic Ecotoxicity Testing of the Turquoise Killifish Nothobranchius furzeri

In this work, we describe an acute, chronic and multigenerational bioassay to study the effects of single and combined stressors on the Turquoise killifish Nothobranchius furzeri. This protocol is designed to study life-history traits (mortality, growth, fecundity, weight) and critical thermal maximum.

The killifish Nothobranchius furzeri is an emerging model organism in the field of ecotoxicology and its applicability in acute and chronic ecotoxicity ...

Experimental Protocol for Examining Behavioral Response Profiles in Larval Fish: Application to the Neuro-stimulant Caffeine

Fish models and behaviors are increasingly used in the biomedical sciences; however, fish have long been the subject of ecological, physiological and toxicological studies. Using automated digital tracking platforms, recent efforts in neuropharmacology are leveraging larval fish locomotor behaviors to identify potential therapeutic targets for novel small molecules. Similar to these efforts, research in the environmental sciences and comparative pharmacology and toxicology is examining various behaviors of fish models as diagnostic tools in tiered evaluation of contaminants and real-time monitoring of surface waters for contaminant threats. Whereas the zebrafish is a popular larval fish model in the biomedical sciences, the fathead minnow is a common larval fish model in ecotoxicology. Unfortunately, fathead minnow larvae have received considerably less attention in behavioral studies. Here, we develop and demonstrate a behavioral profile protocol using caffeine as a model neurostimulant. Though photomotor responses of fathead minnows were occasionally affected by caffeine, zebrafish&#160;were markedly more sensitive for photomotor and locomotor endpoints, which responded at environmentally relevant levels. Future studies are needed to understand comparative behavioral sensitivity differences among fish with age and time of day, and to determine whether similar behavioral effects would occur in nature and be indicative of adverse outcomes at the individual or population levels of biological organization.

Here, we present a protocol to examine larval zebrafish and fathead minnow locomotor activities and photomotor responses (PMR) using an automated tracking software. When incorporated in common toxicology bioassays, analyses of these behaviors provide a diagnostic tool to examine chemical bioactivity. This protocol is described using caffeine, a model neurostimulant.

Fish models and behaviors are increasingly used in the biomedical sciences; however, fish have long been the subject of ecological, physiological and ...

Laboratory and Field Protocol for Estimating Sheet Erosion Rates from Dendrogeomorphology

Sheet erosion is among the crucial drivers of soil degradation. Erosion is controlled by environmental factors and human activities, which often lead to severe environmental impacts. The understanding of sheet erosion is, consequently, a worldwide issue with implications for both environment and economies. However, the knowledge on how erosion evolves in space and time is still limited, as well as its effects on the environment. Below, we explain a new dendrogeomorphological protocol for deriving eroded soil thickness (Ex) by acquiring accurate microtopographic data using both terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and microtopographic profile gauges. Additionally, standard dendrogeomorphic procedures, dependent on anatomical variations in root rings, are utilized to establish the timing of exposure. Both TLS and microtopographic profile gauges are used to obtain ground surface pro&#64257;les, from which Ex is estimated after the threshold distance (TD) is determined, i.e., the distance between the root and the sediment knickpoint, which allows de&#64257;ning the lowering of the ground surface caused by sheet erosion. For each profile, we measured the height between the topside of the root and a virtual plane tangential to the ground surface. In this way, we intended to avoid small-scale impacts of soil deformation, which may be due to pressures exerted by the root system, or by the arrangement of exposed roots. This may provoke small amounts of soil sedimentation or erosion depending on how they physically affect the surface runoff. We demonstrate that an adequate microtopographic characterization of exposed roots and their associated ground surface is very valuable to obtain accurate erosion rates. This finding could be utilized to develop the best management practices designed to eventually halt or perhaps, at least, lessen soil erosion, so that more sustainable management policies can be put into practice.

Characterizing erosion from dendrogeomorphology has usually focused on accurately finding the starting time of root exposure, by examining macroscopic or cell level changes caused by exposure. Here, we offer a detailed description of different novel techniques to obtain more precise erosion rates from highly accurate microtopographic data.

Sheet erosion is among the crucial drivers of soil degradation. Erosion is controlled by environmental factors and human activities, which often lead to ...