The authors would like to thank the Pennsylvania State University Office of Physical Plant (OPP) for funding to support this research. Additionally, we would like to thank Drs. Elizabeth W. Boyer, David A. Miller, and Tracy Langkilde at The Pennsylvania State University for their collaborative support of this project.

1. Conducting a Survey of a Vernal Pond Morphology
<ol>
	<li>Select a location to designate as the benchmark and mark it with a small survey or marking flag. 
	NOTE: The location should be a higher elevation than the pond and have line-of-sight from all locations across the pond.</li>
	<li>Assign the benchmark a reference elevation; the exact number does not matter, it simply provides a reference to which all other elevations can be compared.</li>
	<li>Using a tape measure and marking flags, make transects at a 3 m interval over the pond area, resulting in a 3 m x 3 m grid (see example in Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Determine the elevation of the bottom of the pond (i.e., the ground) at 3 m intervals along each transect by measuring the height on a leveling rod using an automatic level. Ensure that the profiles extend to the highest elevations on every side of the pond.</li>
	<li>At the end of each transect, make a backsight to the benchmark and record the elevation.</li>
	<li>Determine the survey error as the difference between the benchmark&#39;s assigned elevation (i.e., the reference value assigned in step 1.2) and the elevation measured from the most distant location on the profile transect.</li>
	<li>Calculate the allowable error (AE) of closure for the profile as AE = K(2*M)0.5, where K is a constant between 0.001 and 1 and M is the distance (in miles) between the benchmark and the most distant location on the profile. 
	NOTE: The value of K depends on the required accuracy of the survey, which in this case can be taken as 0.110.</li>
	<li>Compare the survey error calculated in step 1.6 to the AE calculated in step 1.7. If the survey error is greater than the AE, then redo the profile leveling (steps 1.3 and 1.4) for that transect. If the survey error is less than the AE, then the profile leveling for that transect is complete, conduct the profile leveling for the next transect.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 1.4 through 1.8 to conduct profile leveling at 3 m intervals across the pond in the other direction to create a grid of known elevations (see an example of profile transects in Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Develop a stage-storage curve for the pond once the elevations (with respect to the benchmark) are known across the 3 m x 3 m grid surveyed across the pond. 
	NOTE: Larger intervals can be used, but the error in determining the relationship between water level and pond volume may increase.</li>
</ol>
2. Determining the Vernal Pond&#39;s Stage-Storage Curve
NOTE: Each vernal pond will have a unique relationship between water level and water volume in the pond. This relationship is called the stage-storage curve.
<ol>
	<li>Using the elevation data gathered in Section 1, determine the highest and lowest elevations in the pond.</li>
	<li>Determine the difference between the highest and lowest elevation and select an interval for which to draw contour lines; a contour interval of 0.1 to 0.2 m is recommended11.</li>
	<li>Calculate the surface area of each contour (Ai). This can be done either by hand using a planimeter or electronically using geographic information software (GIS).</li>
	<li>Use the average-end-area method to calculate the volume between each contour interval (Vi): 
	<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/56466/56466eq1.jpg" /> 
	where E is the contour elevation.</li>
	<li>Calculate the total volume (VP) of the vernal pond as the sum of the volume between each contour interval: 
	<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/56466/56466eq2.jpg" /> 
	NOTE: Here H is the maximum depth of the pond. An example is given in Table 1.</li>
	<li>Determine the stage-storage relationship for the pond by graphing the cumulative volume of the pond as a function of depth.
	<ol>
		<li>After installing the water level sensor, use the water level as the &#34;stage&#34; and estimate the water volume, or storage, in the pond. 
		NOTE: An example of a stage-storage curve is shown in Figure 2. If the water level sensor is installed above the lowest point in the vernal pond, an offset will be needed to convert the measured water level into the stage-storage curve (add the offset in step 3.3 to the water level recorded by the water level sensors to determine the stage).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Installing a Monitoring Station
NOTE: Sensors for parameters of interest for this study included a pressure transducer (measures both water level and temperature), dissolved oxygen concentration, oxidation-reduction potential, electrical conductivity, pH, and a tipping bucket rain gauge. The pH probe, dissolved oxygen sensor, and oxidation-reduction probe must be calibrated in the lab prior to deployment per the sensor&#39;s user manual. Here, a central datalogger (programmed to record data at 15 min intervals) is selected, to which all sensors are connected during deployment. A viable alternative scenario would be that each of the sensors is autonomous and do not need one central datalogger, since each sensor would record its own data.
<ol>
	<li>Attach each of the sensors (with the exception of the rain gauge) to a cinder block or a wooden stake (Figure 3). Use hose clamps or zip ties to ensure that the sensors remain near the bottom of the vernal pond (or the depth of interest).
	<ol>
		<li>Attach the dissolved oxygen sensor such that it is at an angle (per manufacturer instructions), to allow oxygen to diffuse across the membrane. Install the pressure transducer upright, as the pressure that it will measure is the water column above it, and the water level should be recorded in a vertical manner.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Install the mounted sensors at a location towards the center of the pond that is unlikely to become dry during the study period.</li>
	<li>Determine the vertical distance between the sensors and the lowest point in the pond using a ruler or the surveying equipment. Record this distance for use in developing the stage-storage curve as described in step 2.6 (i.e., an offset may be needed when relating the depth measured using the pressure transducers to the total water depth in the pond).</li>
	<li>While they can be submerged in the water, the sensor wires are vulnerable to mice or other animals that may chew on them when the water level is low in the pond, to prevent this use apolyvinyl chloride pipe to protect the sensor wires (optional, but recommended). Run the sensor wires up to the edge of the vernal pond through a PVC pipe (3 m long, 6.35 cm diameter), as shown in Figure 4. 
	NOTE: For temporary installation (e.g., a few weeks to a few months) the PVC pipe may be deemed unnecessary.</li>
	<li>Set up a tripod and mount it to the ground by inserting stakes into each of the tripod legs. 
	NOTE: Some tall tripods may have a lightning rod that requires installation, too.
	<ol>
		<li>Position the tripod near the edge of the vernal pond to ensure that it is accessible even when the pond is full of water.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Attach the enclosure box for the datalogger and battery (12 V) onto the tripod, leaving room above the tripod for the solar panel to be mounted above the enclosure box (Figure 4).</li>
	<li>Attach a 10 W solar panel to the top of the tripod and angle it towards the sun. A solar angle calculator12 can be used, if desired, to determine the optimum angle at which to install the panel.</li>
	<li>Attach the rain gauge to the tripod if there is room. Otherwise, attach it to a wooden stake or metal pole near the edge of the pond and the tripod ( Figure 4). Ensure (if possible) that the rain gauge has tree cover that approximately represents the tree cover of the pond (if any).</li>
	<li>Bring all sensor and solar panel wires into the enclosure box through the hole at the bottom of the box.</li>
	<li>Connect all sensors to the datalogger&#39;s wiring panel in accordance with the sensors&#39; instructions or the datalogger&#39;s wiring diagram. See example in Figure 5A.</li>
	<li>Connect the solar panel wires to the 12V battery to recharge the battery (Figure 5B). 
	NOTE: Select a battery that also has a voltage regulator (recommended) to ensure that the battery does not receive too much electricity from the solar panel.</li>
	<li>Connect the battery to the power input panel on the datalogger (Figure 5B) to provide power to the datalogger and the sensors.</li>
	<li>Place a desiccant pack inside the enclosure box to reduce the likelihood of moisture damage to the datalogger.</li>
	<li>Recommended but optional: connect a field laptop with the datalogger communication software to the datalogger using a serial cable ( Figure 5B) to ensure that the sensor network is working properly.</li>
	<li>Close the enclosure box and place clay around the hole at the bottom of the enclosure box where the wires enter to keep insects and water out of the box. If security of the equipment is a concern, secure the enclosure box with a padlock.</li>
</ol>

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P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amphibian+decline+and+extinction:+What+we+know+and+what+we+need+to+learn.">Amphibian decline and extinction: What we know and what we need to learn.</a> Dis Aquat Org. 92, 93-99 (2013).</li><li>Wake, D. B., Vredenburg, V. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+we+in+the+midst+of+the+sixth+mass+extinction?+A+view+from+the+world+of+amphibians.">Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians.</a> Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 105, 11466-11473 (2008).</li><li>IUCN. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Conservation International and Nature Conservancy. , (2004).</li><li>Smits, A. P., Skelly, D. K., Bolden, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amphibian+intersex+in+suburban+landscapes.">Amphibian intersex in suburban landscapes.</a> Ecosphere. 5 (1), 11 (2014).</li><li>Brooks, R. T., Miller, S. D., Newsted, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+urbanization+on+water+and+sediment+chemistry+of+ephemeral+forest+pools.">The impact of urbanization on water and sediment chemistry of ephemeral forest pools.</a> J. Freshwater Ecol. 17 (3), (2002).</li><li>Czajka, C. P., Londry, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anaerobic+transformation+of+estrogens.">Anaerobic transformation of estrogens.</a> Environ. Sci. 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T., Hayashi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Depth-area-volume+and+hydroperiod+relationships+of+ephemeral+(vernal)+forest+pools+in+southern+New+England.">Depth-area-volume and hydroperiod relationships of ephemeral (vernal) forest pools in southern New England.</a> Wetlands. 22 (2), 247-255 (2002).</li><li>Laposata, M. M., Dunson, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+spray-irrigated+wastewater+effluent+on+temporary+pond-breeding+amphibians.">Effects of spray-irrigated wastewater effluent on temporary pond-breeding amphibians.</a> Ecotox. Environ. Safe. 46 (2), 192-201 (2000).</li><li>Qian, Y. L., Mecham, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-term+effects+of+recycled+wastewater+irrigation+on+soil+chemical+properties+on+golf+course+fairways.">Long-term effects of recycled wastewater irrigation on soil chemical properties on golf course fairways.</a> Agron. J. 97 (3), 717-721 (2005).</li><li>Karraker, N. E., Gibbs, J. P., Vonesh, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impacts+of+road+deicing+salt+on+the+demography+of+vernal+pool-breeding+amphibians.">Impacts of road deicing salt on the demography of vernal pool-breeding amphibians.</a> Ecol. Appl. 18 (3), (2008).</li><li>Gall, H. E., Jafvert, C. T., Jenkinson, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrating+hydrograph+modeling+with+real-time+monitoring+to+generate+hydrograph-specific+sampling+schemes.">Integrating hydrograph modeling with real-time monitoring to generate hydrograph-specific sampling schemes.</a> J. Hydrol. 393, 331-340 (2010).</li><li>Gall, H. E., Sassman, S. A., Lee, L. S., Jafvert, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hormone+discharges+from+a+Midwest+tile-drained+agroecosystem+receiving+animal+wastes.">Hormone discharges from a Midwest tile-drained agroecosystem receiving animal wastes.</a> Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 8755-8764 (2011).</li><li>Pittman, S. E., Jendrek, A. L., Price, S. J., Dorcas, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Habitat+selection+and+site+fidelity+of+Cope's+Gray+Treefrog+(Hyla+chrysoscelis)+at+the+aquatic-terrestrial+ecotone.">Habitat selection and site fidelity of Cope's Gray Treefrog (Hyla chrysoscelis) at the aquatic-terrestrial ecotone.</a> J. Hepatol. 42 (2), 378-385 (2008).</li><li>Vandewege, M. W., Swannack, T. M., Greuter, K. L., Brown, D. J., Forstner, M. R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breeding+site+fidelity+and+terrestrial+movement+of+an+endangered+amphibian,+the+Houston+Toad+(Bufo+Houstonensis).">Breeding site fidelity and terrestrial movement of an endangered amphibian, the Houston Toad (Bufo Houstonensis).</a> Herpet. Conserv. Bio. 8 (2), 435-446 (2013).</li><li>Homan, R. N., Atwood, M. A., Dunkle, A. J., Karr, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Movement+orientation+by+adult+and+juvenile+wood+frogs+(Rana+Sylvatica)+and+american+toads+(Bufo+Americanus)+over+Multiple+Years.">Movement orientation by adult and juvenile wood frogs (Rana Sylvatica) and american toads (Bufo Americanus) over Multiple Years.</a> Herpet. Conserv. Bio. 5 (1), 64-72 (2010).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Significance with Respect to Existing Methods
While monitoring of streams has well-established methodologies developed by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), no such widespread monitoring program exists for understanding vernal pond dynamics. This protocol seeks to provide guidance for how to begin to approach hydrologic and water quality monitoring research at a vernal pond site, with the goal of understanding how physical and chemical factors may be changing over tim...

Vernal ponds are temporary, shallow wetlands that typically contain water from fall to spring and are often dry during the summer months. The inundation period of vernal ponds, generally referred to as the hydroperiod, is primarily controlled by precipitation and evapotranspiration1. 
Vernal ponds can also be referred to as vernal pools, ephemeral ponds, temporary ponds, seasonal ponds, and geographically isolated wetlands2. In the northeastern United States, vernal ponds are most often characterized by the critical habitat they provide for amphibians, serving as the breeding grounds and providing support during early life stages (i.e., tadpoles) and metamorphosis. In California, vernal ponds are characterized by the unique vegetation and endangered plant species that they support2. 
These habitats are increasingly threatened due to land use and climate change, and amphibian populations are experiencing a significant global decline largely due to anthropogenic activities3,4. Water quality concerns due to pollution are also thought to be contributing factors in recent amphibian declines globally5. Furthermore, recent studies have revealed an increased occurrence of intersex characteristics in frogs inhabiting vernal ponds impacted by human wastewater6. There is therefore a need to conduct more intensive monitoring of both natural and impacted vernal ponds to better understand the contributors to the global amphibian decline.
The physical parameters of vernal ponds that need to be measured and monitored include the pond morphology and water level. The morphology is the geometry of the pond, and is developed by conducting a survey to determine changes in elevation across the pond. The survey data are then used to establish a stage-storage curve, which enables the volume of the pond to be estimated based on water level measurements. Because the water level in a vernal pond is heavily influenced by precipitation, measurements should be made at a high temporal resolution to best understand both short (i.e., on the order of minutes to hours) and long-term fluctuations (i.e., on the order of months to years) in water level. 
Water quality parameters of interest that are known to affect the function of vernal ponds include temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen levels, and oxidation-reduction potential. These parameters can all be measured in situ with relatively cheap technologies and sensor networks. Some water quality parameters of interest such as some nutrient species (i.e., total Kjeldahl nitrogen) and other pollutants (i.e., emerging contaminants) require samples to be collected and brought to a laboratory for processing and analysis. 
Critical parameters that affect the ability of vernal ponds to function as appropriate habitat for breeding amphibians and the early developmental stages of tadpoles include water level, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration. Compared to vernal ponds located in relatively pristine landscapes, elevated levels of electrical conductivity, higher pH, reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations, and high nutrient concentrations have been recorded in vernal ponds impacted by anthropogenic activities2,7. Reducing or anaerobic conditions may occur in these habitats, particularly ones that are impacted by anthropogenic activities. This can cause a shift in the microbiological community, altering the nutrient cycling within the pond and potentially reducing degradation of endocrine disrupting compounds and other pollutants8,9.
The goal of this paper is to provide information for how to establish a station for monitoring the water quantity and quality of a vernal pond. This method can be applied to any vernal pond, but requires access to the site (i.e., the site must be on public property or have land-owner permission to install equipment).

<table><tbody><tr><td>CR1000</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>16130-23</td><td>Measurement and Control Datalogger</td></tr><tr><td>ENC12/14-SC-MM</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>30707-88</td><td>Weatherproof Enclosure Box (12&quot; x 14&quot;)</td></tr><tr><td>CS451-L</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>28790-82</td><td>Pressure Transducer</td></tr><tr><td>CM305-PS</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>20570-3</td><td>47&quot; Mounting Pole (Tripod)</td></tr><tr><td>TE525-L</td><td>Texas Electronics</td><td>7085-111</td><td>Tipping Bucket Rain Gauage (0.01 inch)</td></tr><tr><td>CS511-L</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>26995-41</td><td>Dissolved Oxygen Sensor</td></tr><tr><td>SP10</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>5278</td><td>10 W Solar Panel</td></tr><tr><td>PS150-SW</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>29293-1</td><td>12 V Power Supply with Voltage Regulator &amp;amp; 7 Ah Rechargeable Battery</td></tr><tr><td>CSIM11-ORP</td><td>Wedgewood Analytical</td><td>22120-72</td><td>Oxidation-reduction potential probe</td></tr><tr><td>CSIM11-L</td><td>Wedgewood Analytical</td><td>22119-151</td><td>pH probe</td></tr><tr><td>CS547A-L</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>16725-229</td><td>Water conductivity probe</td></tr><tr><td>A547</td><td>Campbell Scientific</td><td>12323</td><td>CS547(A) Conductivity Interface</td></tr><tr><td>CST/berger SAL &#039;N&#039; Series Automatic Level Package</td><td>CST/berger</td><td>55-SLVP32D</td><td>Automatic Survey Level, Tripod, and 8&#039; survey rod</td></tr></tbody></table>

continuous hydrologic and water quality monitoring of vernal ponds

Vernal ponds, also referred to as vernal pools, provide critical ecosystem services and habitat for a variety of threatened and endangered species. However, they are vulnerable parts of the landscapes that are often poorly understood and understudied. Land use and management practices, as well as climate change are thought to be a contribution to the global amphibian decline. However, more research is needed to understand the extent of these impacts. Here, we present methodology for characterizing a vernal pond's morphology and detail a monitoring station that can be used to collect water quantity and quality data over the duration of a vernal pond's hydroperiod. We provide methodology for how to conduct field surveys to characterize the morphology and develop stage-storage curves for a vernal pond. Additionally, we provide methodology for monitoring the water level, temperature, pH, oxidation-reduction potential, dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductivity of water in a vernal pond, as well as monitoring rainfall data. This information can be used to better quantify the ecosystem services that vernal ponds provide and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on their ability to provide these services.

Vernal ponds can exhibit a wide range of morphology, with profiles ranging from convex to straight slope to concave. Example morphology for a vernal pond in Central Pennsylvania is shown in Figure 1, along with the results of the stage-storage curve for this pond (Figure 2, Table 1). Maximum pond depth is not a strong indicator of surface area, as hydroperiod has only a weak correlation with pond morphology<sup c...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Continuous Hydrologic and Water Quality Monitoring of Vernal Ponds at JoVE.com

Continuous Hydrologic and Water Quality Monitoring of Vernal Ponds

Understanding the ecosystem services and processes provided by vernal ponds and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on their ability to provide these services requires intensive hydrologic monitoring. This sampling protocol using in-situ monitoring equipment was developed to understand the impact of anthropogenic activities on water levels and quality.

Vernal ponds, also referred to as vernal pools, provide critical ecosystem services and habitat for a variety of threatened and endangered species. ...

continuous-hydrologic-and-water-quality-monitoring-of-vernal-ponds

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9.2K Views.  Pennsylvania State University. Understanding the ecosystem services and processes provided by vernal ponds and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on their ability to provide these services requires intensive hydrologic monitoring. This sampling protocol using in-situ monitoring equipment was developed to understand the impact of anthropogenic activities on water levels and quality.

Video: Continuous Hydrologic and Water Quality Monitoring of Vernal Ponds

Integrated Field Lysimetry and Porewater Sampling for Evaluation of Chemical Mobility in Soils and Established Vegetation

Potentially toxic chemicals are routinely applied to land to meet growing demands on waste management and food production, but the fate of these chemicals is often not well understood. Here we demonstrate an integrated field lysimetry and porewater sampling method for evaluating the mobility of chemicals applied to soils and established vegetation. Lysimeters, open columns made of metal or plastic, are driven into bareground or vegetated soils. Porewater samplers, which are commercially available and use vacuum to collect percolating soil water, are installed at predetermined depths within the lysimeters. At prearranged times following chemical application to experimental plots, porewater is collected, and lysimeters, containing soil and vegetation, are exhumed. By analyzing chemical concentrations in the lysimeter soil, vegetation, and porewater, downward leaching rates, soil retention capacities, and plant uptake for the chemical of interest may be quantified. Because field lysimetry and porewater sampling are conducted under natural environmental conditions and with minimal soil disturbance, derived results project real-case scenarios and provide valuable information for chemical management. As chemicals are increasingly applied to land worldwide, the described techniques may be utilized to determine whether applied chemicals pose adverse effects to human health or the environment.

Field lysimetry and porewater sampling allow researchers to evaluate the fate of chemicals applied to soils and established vegetation. The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate how to install required instrumentation and collect samples for chemical analysis during integrated field lysimetry and porewater sampling experiments.

Potentially toxic chemicals are routinely applied to land to meet growing demands on waste management and food production, but the fate of these chemicals ...

Use of Chironomidae (Diptera) Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages have been successfully used to assess human impacts on water quality. Unfortunately, traditional benthic larval sampling methods, such as the dip-net, can be time-consuming and expensive. An alternative protocol involves collection of Chironomidae surface-floating pupal exuviae (SFPE). Chironomidae is a species-rich family of flies (Diptera) whose immature stages typically occur in aquatic habitats. Adult chironomids emerge from the water, leaving their pupal skins, or exuviae, floating on the water&#8217;s surface. Exuviae often accumulate along banks or behind obstructions by action of the wind or water current, where they can be collected to assess chironomid diversity and richness. Chironomids can be used as important biological indicators, since some species are more tolerant to pollution than others. Therefore, the relative abundance and species composition of collected SFPE reflect changes in water quality. Here, methods associated with field collection, laboratory processing, slide mounting, and identification of chironomid SFPE are described in detail. Advantages of the SFPE method include minimal disturbance at a sampling area, efficient and economical sample collection and laboratory processing, ease of identification, applicability in nearly all aquatic environments, and a potentially more sensitive measure of ecosystem stress. Limitations include the inability to determine larval microhabitat use and inability to identify pupal exuviae to species if they have not been associated with adult males.

Use of Chironomidae Diptera Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrates are often used to monitor and assess water quality. An efficient protocol involves collections of Chironomidae surface-floating pupal exuviae (SFPE). Here, techniques for field collection, laboratory processing, slide mounting, and identification of Chironomidae SFPE are described.

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages have been successfully used to assess human impacts on water quality. ...

Watershed Planning within a Quantitative Scenario Analysis Framework

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems within heavily impacted watersheds. Current efforts often fall short as a result of an inability to quantify and predict complex cumulative effects of current and future land use scenarios at relevant spatial scales. The goal of this manuscript is to provide methods for conducting a targeted watershed assessment that enables resource managers to produce landscape-based cumulative effects models for use within a scenario analysis management framework. Sites are first selected for inclusion within the watershed assessment by identifying sites that fall along independent gradients and combinations of known stressors. Field and laboratory techniques are then used to obtain data on the physical, chemical, and biological effects of multiple land use activities. Multiple linear regression analysis is then used to produce landscape-based cumulative effects models for predicting aquatic conditions. Lastly, methods for incorporating cumulative effects models within a scenario analysis framework for guiding management and regulatory decisions (e.g., permitting and mitigation) within actively developing watersheds are discussed and demonstrated for 2 sub-watersheds within the mountaintop mining region of central Appalachia. The watershed assessment and management approach provided herein enables resource managers to facilitate economic and development activity while protecting aquatic resources and producing opportunity for net ecological benefits through targeted remediation.

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems in the face of uncertain future conditions. We provide methods for conducting a targeted watershed assessment that enables resource managers to produce landscape-based cumulative effects models for use within a scenario analysis management framework.

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems within heavily impacted watersheds. Current efforts often fall ...

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

Continuous Instream Monitoring of Nutrients and Sediment in Agricultural Watersheds

Pollutant concentrations and loads in watersheds vary considerably with time and space. Accurate and timely information on the magnitude of pollutants in water resources is a prerequisite for understanding the drivers of the pollutant loads and for making informed water resource management decisions. The commonly used &#34;grab sampling&#34; method provides the concentrations of pollutants at the time of sampling (i.e., a snapshot concentration) and may under- or overpredict the pollutant concentrations and loads. Continuous monitoring of nutrients and sediment has recently received more attention due to advances in computing, sensing technology, and storage devices. This protocol demonstrates the use of sensors, sondes, and instrumentation to continuously monitor in situ nitrate, ammonium, turbidity, pH, conductivity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO) and to calculate the loads from two streams (ditches) in two agricultural watersheds. With the proper calibration, maintenance, and operation of sensors and sondes, good water quality data can be obtained by overcoming challenging conditions such as fouling and debris buildup. The method can also be used in watersheds of various sizes and characterized by agricultural, forested, and/or urban land.

With the advancement of technology and the rise in end-user expectations, the need and use of higher temporal resolution data for pollutant load estimation has increased. This protocol describes a method for continuous in situ water quality monitoring to obtain higher temporal resolution data for informed water resource management decisions.

Pollutant concentrations and loads in watersheds vary considerably with time and space. Accurate and timely information on the magnitude of pollutants in ...

Bioindication Testing of Stream Environment Suitability for Young Freshwater Pearl Mussels Using In Situ Exposure Methods

Knowledge of habitat suitability for freshwater mussels is an important step in the conservation of this endangered species group. We describe a protocol for performing in situ juvenile exposure tests within oligotrophic river catchments over one-month and three-month periods. Two methods (in both modifications) are presented to evaluate the juvenile growth and survival rate. The methods and modifications differ in value for the locality bioindication and each has its benefits as well as limitations. The sandy cage method works with a large set of individuals, but only some of the individuals are measured and the results are evaluated in bulk. In the mesh cage method, the individuals are kept and measured separately, but a low individual number is evaluated. The open water exposure modification is relatively easy to apply; it shows the juvenile growth potential of sites and can also be effective for water toxicity testing. The within-bed exposure modification needs a high workload but is closer to the conditions of a natural juvenile environment and it is better for reporting the real suitability of localities. On the other hand, more replications are needed in this modification due to its high-hyporheic environment variability.

Bioindication Testing of Stream Environment Suitability for Young Freshwater Pearl Mussels Using In Situ Exposure Methods

In situ bioindications enable determination of the suitability of an environment for endangered mussel species. We describe two methods based on the juvenile exposure of freshwater pearl mussels in cages to oligotrophic river habitats. Both methods are implemented in variants for open water and hyporheic water environments.

Knowledge of habitat suitability for freshwater mussels is an important step in the conservation of this endangered species group. We describe a protocol ...

Measuring Phosphorus Release in Laboratory Microcosms for Water Quality Assessment

Phosphorus (P) is a critical limiting nutrient in agroecosystems requiring careful management to reduce transport risk to aquatic environments. Routine laboratory measures of P bioavailability are based on chemical extractions performed on dried samples under oxidizing conditions. While useful, these tests are limited with respect to characterizing P release under prolonged water saturation. Labile orthophosphate bound to oxidized iron and other metals can rapidly desorb to solution in reducing environments, increasing P mobilization risk to surface runoff and groundwater. To better quantify P desorption potential and mobility during extended saturation, a laboratory microcosm method was developed based on repeated sampling of porewater and overlying floodwater over time. The method is useful for quantifying P release potential from soils and sediments varying in physicochemical properties and can improve site-specific P mitigation efforts by better characterizing P release risk in hydrologically active areas. Advantages of the method include its ability to simulate in situ dynamics, simplicity, low cost, and flexibility.

Accurate quantification of phosphorus (P) desorption potential in saturated soils and sediments is important for P modeling and transport mitigation efforts. To better account for in situ soil-water redox dynamics and P mobilization under prolonged saturation, a simple approach was developed based on repeated sampling of laboratory microcosms.

Phosphorus (P) is a critical limiting nutrient in agroecosystems requiring careful management to reduce transport risk to aquatic environments. Routine ...

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture data has been slow due to inconsistent data collection, poor standardization, and typically short record duration. Soil moisture, or quantitatively volumetric soil water content (SWC), is measured using buried, in situ sensors that infer SWC from an electromagnetic response. This signal can vary considerably with local site conditions such as clay content and mineralogy, soil salinity or bulk electrical conductivity, and soil temperature; each of these can have varying impacts depending on the sensor technology.
Furthermore, poor soil contact and sensor degradation can affect the quality of these readings over time. Unlike more traditional environmental sensors, there are no accepted standards, maintenance practices, or quality controls for SWC data. As such, SWC is a challenging measurement for many environmental monitoring networks to implement. Here, we attempt to establish a community-based standard of practice for in situ SWC sensors so that future research and applications have consistent guidance on site selection, sensor installation, data interpretation, and long-term maintenance of monitoring stations.
The videography focuses on a multi-agency consensus of best-practices and recommendations for the installation of in situ SWC sensors. This paper presents an overview of this protocol along with the various steps essential for high-quality and long-term SWC data collection. This protocol will be of use to scientists and engineers hoping to deploy a single station or an entire network.

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

The determination of soil water content is a critical mission requirement for many state and federal agencies. This protocol synthesizes multi-agency efforts to measure soil water content using buried in situ sensors.

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture ...

Concentration of Virus Particles from Environmental Water and Wastewater Samples Using Skimmed Milk Flocculation and Ultrafiltration

Water and wastewater-based epidemiology have emerged as alternative methods to monitor and predict the course of outbreaks in communities.&#160;The recovery of microbial fractions, including viruses, bacteria, and microeukaryotes from wastewater and environmental water samples&#160;is one of the challenging steps in these approaches. In this study, we focused on the recovery efficiency of sequential ultrafiltration and skimmed milk flocculation (SMF) methods using Armored RNA as a test virus, which is also used as a control by some other studies. Prefiltration with 0.45 &#181;m and 0.2 &#181;m membrane disc filters were applied to eliminate solid particles before ultrafiltration to prevent the clogging of ultrafiltration devices. Test samples, processed with the sequential ultrafiltration method, were centrifuged at two different speeds. An increased speed resulted in lower recovery and positivity rates of Armored RNA.&#160;On the other hand, SMF resulted in relatively consistent recovery and positivity rates of Armored RNA. Additional tests conducted with environmental water samples demonstrated the utility of SMF to concentrate other microbial fractions. The partitioning of viruses into solid particles might have an impact on the overall recovery rates, considering the prefiltration step applied before the ultrafiltration of wastewater samples. SMF with prefiltration performed better when applied to environmental water samples&#160;due to lower solid concentrations in the samples and thus lower partitioning rates to solids. In the present study, the idea of using a sequential ultrafiltration method arose from the necessity to decrease the final volume of the viral concentrates during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the supply of the commonly used ultrafiltration devices was limited, and there was a need for the development of alternative viral concentration methods.

Virus concentration from environmental water and wastewater samples is a challenging task, carried out primarily for the identification and quantification of viruses. While several virus concentration methods have been developed and tested, we demonstrate here the effectiveness of ultrafiltration and skimmed milk flocculation for RNA viruses with different sample types.

Water and wastewater-based epidemiology have emerged as alternative methods to monitor and predict the course of outbreaks in communities.&#160;The ...

Parameterizing V-notch Weir Equations for Flow Monitoring in a Drainage Control Structure

Accurate estimation of drainage discharge (flow rate or water volume per unit time) is essential for calculating nutrient loads delivered to surface water and assessing the performance of edge-of-field conservation practices. Determining drainage flow rates requires monitoring the head in a drainage control structure and applying an appropriate equation for the weir installed in the structure. Previous studies that developed calibrated equations for weirs in control structures have produced different equations (i.e., different weir flow equation coefficients) for the same type of weir and control structure size. This study describes procedures for setting up experimental water flow rate and head measurements within a drainage control structure and developing a weir equation for flows contained within a V-notch weir. Additionally, the procedure for obtaining a weir equation for overtopping flows -- when the water level exceeds the top of the V-notch weir -- is outlined. This process involves using the weir equation developed in the laboratory for a V-notch weir and an online tool, the &#34;Weir Flow Equation Coefficients Calculator&#34;, developed by the authors. The online tool can also generate weir flow equation coefficients for both V-notch-contained and overtopping flows across various sizes of Agri Drain water control structures, even when users lack site-specific flow rate vs. head relationship.

This protocol describes methods for obtaining weir flow equation coefficients for a V-notch weir within a drainage control structure using (1) a laboratory calibration procedure and (2) an online tool, the "Weir Flow Equation Coefficients Calculator", developed by the authors. These methods apply to flows contained within the V-notch and overtopping flows.

Accurate estimation of drainage discharge (flow rate or water volume per unit time) is essential for calculating nutrient loads delivered to surface water ...

Continuous Hydrologic and Water Quality Monitoring of Vernal Ponds

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Chapters in this video

Integrated Field Lysimetry and Porewater Sampling for Evaluation of Chemical Mobility in Soils and Established Vegetation

Use of Chironomidae (Diptera) Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Watershed Planning within a Quantitative Scenario Analysis Framework

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Continuous Instream Monitoring of Nutrients and Sediment in Agricultural Watersheds

Bioindication Testing of Stream Environment Suitability for Young Freshwater Pearl Mussels Using In Situ Exposure Methods

Measuring Phosphorus Release in Laboratory Microcosms for Water Quality Assessment

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

Concentration of Virus Particles from Environmental Water and Wastewater Samples Using Skimmed Milk Flocculation and Ultrafiltration

Parameterizing V-notch Weir Equations for Flow Monitoring in a Drainage Control Structure