This work was supported by the Terry Fox Program of the National Cancer Institute of Canada.

NOTE: The experimental procedures performed in this study were approved by the Animal Care Committee at Sunnybrook Research Institute (Toronto, Ontario, Canada). Procedures for the humane treatment of animals must be observed at all times. It is assumed that the investigator is trained in the basic operation of an ultrasound imaging system. This protocol works best with two people.
1. Animal Models
<ol>
	<li>Mate CD-1 male and female Mus musculus to obtain wild type embryos for perfusion studies.</li>
	<li>For molecular imaging studies, generate Eng+/- mice by homologous recombination using embryonic stem cells of 129/Ola origin as described by Bourdeau et al.14.
	<ol>
		<li>Backcross B6- Eng+/- mice, kindly acquired from Dr. Michelle Letarte, to the CD-1 background. Use Eng+/- CD-1 backcrossed&#160;embryos, as well as their Eng+/+ littermate controls. Mate the mice to produce staged embryos.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Experimental Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Initiate mating of mice and check plugs daily. Embryonic day 0.5 is defined as noon of the day a vaginal plug is observed.</li>
	<li>Prepare embryo media by adding 50 ml of fetal bovine serum, 5 ml of 1 M HEPES and 5 ml of Penicillin-Streptomycin (10,000 units penicillin, 10,000 &#181;g streptomycin) to 500 ml Dulbecco&#8217;s modified Eagle&#8217;s medium (DMEM) with high glucose (4,500 mg/L). Wrap the bottle in foil and keep chilled at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge clear ultrasound gel in 50 ml conical tubes at 140 x g for 20 min. Draw gel up into 30 ml syringes. Fill additional (marked) 30 ml syringes with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and set aside. One litter of embryos will generally require between 2-3 syringes of ultrasound gel and 4 syringes of PBS.</li>
	<li>Pull approximately 30 glass needles and gently fasten to a strip of plasticine in a 100 x 20 mm cell culture dish. This ensures that the needles are separated and secure during handling. Using a glass puller, use the following settings on 1 x 90 mm glass capillaries with filament: Heater 77, Sub magnet 55, Main magnet 70.</li>
	<li>Prepare ten to twelve dissection plates (enough to ensure each embryo within a litter will receive its own dish), using a 1:8 volume ratio of curing agent to base. Pour 40 ml of base into a 50 ml conical tube. Add 5-6 ml curing agent and stir with wooden stick.
	<ol>
		<li>Pour into 60 x 15 mm culture dishes, filling each to approximately half. Let stand O/N to set.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Attach female luers to 400 mm long pieces of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing (inner diameter: 0.79 mm). The tubing must reach from the syringe pump to the ultrasound stage comfortably.</li>
</ol>
3. Experimental Set-up
<ol>
	<li>Arrange the imaging platform under the surgical microscope with a 3D motor and linear array 21 MHz transducer.
	<ol>
		<li>Orient the platform so that the rail mount is on the left, with the stage positioned directly underneath the microscope.</li>
		<li>Attach the 3D motor to the ball joint of the extending arm of the platform. Screw the quick release post of the transducer clamp into the quick release mount on the motor, facing forward, and position the transducer head in the clamp, fastening the latch.</li>
		<li>Secure the transducer connector in the active port on the front panel of the cart. Turn the machine on.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Initiate the 21 MHz ultrasound transducer, selecting the &#8216;cardiology&#8217; setting for molecular imaging studies, and &#8216;general&#8217; for perfusion studies. Shift all time-gain-compensation sliders to the exact middle position. For &#8216;Contrast Mode&#8217;, set the following parameters: Frequency: 18 MHz, transmit power: 4%, (0.39 MPa), Contrast Gain: 30 dB, Foci: 6 &#38; 10 mm, Contrast Mode: Nonlinear, Burst time: 100% at 0.1 sec, Beam width: Wide.</li>
	<li>Aliquot 40 ml embryo media each into four 50 ml conical tubes. Place on ice.</li>
	<li>Heat 1 L of water in a 2 L beaker on a hot plate. Maintain at 45 &#176;C. Add one syringe of ultrasound gel and PBS to the beaker to preheat. Maintain this temperature by monitoring with a thermometer at all times.</li>
	<li>Set aside ten to twelve 1 ml syringes and ten to twelve 21 G needles for the injection of microbubbles.</li>
</ol>
4. Surgical Procedure
NOTE: Have an assistant prepare the bubbles (stage 5) while the surgeon commences the surgical procedure. The protocol described here has been adapted from Whiteley et al.15
<ol>
	<li>Collect E16.5 or E17.5 embryos from the pregnant female mouse following cervical dislocation. 
	NOTE: The effects of anesthesia on embryos have not yet been studied in detail16. Additional methods, including decapitation, may be appropriate options for the sacrifice of the pregnant mice.
	<ol>
		<li>Cut open the abdomen to reveal the uterus &#38; embryos. Carefully and quickly remove the uterus by cutting at the tips of the uterine horns (severing the ovarian and uterine vessels) and severing at the vagina and bladder.</li>
		<li>Using splinter forceps, transfer the uterus to a tube of 40 ml of ice-cold embryo media as quickly as possible without damaging the embryos. Discard the mouse carcass.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Relocate to microscope and stage. Deposit the uterus into a 100 x 20 mm cell culture dish. Transfer the uterus into a new dish filled with 50 ml fresh embryo media.</li>
	<li>Using sterilized (70% ethanol spray) fine forceps, gently tear and pull away the outer membranes of the uterus starting at one end. Expose the placental decidua, parietal yolk sac and Reichert&#8217;s membrane to separate and remove from the underlying visceral yolk sac.</li>
	<li>Dissect out the embryos one by one, keeping the visceral yolk sacs intact and handling the placenta as gently as possible17. Take care to avoid rupture of the yolk sac as the embryos pop out immediately.
	<ol>
		<li>Use the perforated spoon to move the embryos to another dish kept on ice with fresh embryo media. Keep the embryos chilled until needed. Change the media in the embryo dish every 1-1.5 hr. With these conditions embryos are viable for up to 4 hr after dissection.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Microbubble Preparation
NOTE: Perform molecular imaging with ultrasound using both targeted and untargeted microbubbles. A single experiment can require as many as 3 separate vials of microbubbles: i) antibody targeted microbubbles, ii) control isotype antibody targeted microbubbles and iii) untargeted microbubbles. The contrast agent comes as a dry-freeze powder and must be reconstituted with saline before injection. There are ~2 x 109 microbubbles in each untargeted microbubble vial and ~8.8 x 108 microbubbles in the target ready vials. The microbubbles are stable for up to 3 hr after reconstitution.
<ol>
	<li>Reconstitution of Target Ready Vials 
	NOTE: Examples of target ready preparations: endoglin targeted microbubbles (MBE, with biotinylated rat MJ 7/18 antibody to mouse endoglin; in house hybridoma facility); vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) targeted microbubbles (MBV, with biotin anti-mouse CD309); rat isotype IgG2 control antibody targeted microbubbles (MBC, biotin rat isotype IgG2 control targeting mouse IgG2a).
	<ol>
		<li>Dilute the antibody solution (20 &#181;g) into 1 ml (final volume) of saline. Keep on ice.</li>
		<li>Fill syringe with 1 ml saline, removing all air bubbles. Attaching a 21 G needle, inject the solution slowly into the microbubble vial.</li>
		<li>Slowly withdraw the plunger, removing 1 ml of air, and withdraw the needle. Gently agitate. Let stand 5 min on ice. 
		NOTE: Ultrasound microbubbles can be destroyed under high-pressure environments.</li>
		<li>After the elapsed time, fill a new syringe with the antibody dilution and add to the appropriate vial. Gently agitate. Let the mixture (now 2 ml) stand for 10 min. Keep on ice. Assuming complete surface conjugation, the average number of bound ligand for the microbubbles is approximately18 7,600 ligands/&#181;m2.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Reconstitution of Untargeted Vials
	<ol>
		<li>Fill syringe with 1 ml saline, removing all air bubbles. Attaching a 21 G needle, inject the solution slowly into the microbubble vial.</li>
		<li>Slowly withdraw the plunger, removing 1 ml of air, and withdraw the needle. Gently agitate. Let stand 5 min. Add an additional 1 ml saline, as described above. Gently agitate and let stand 10 min on ice.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Coulter Counting
	<ol>
		<li>Gently agitate the desired microbubble vial and draw ~50 &#181;l of the solution into a 1 ml syringe using the 21 G needle. Inject the microbubbles into an empty 2 ml microcentrifuge tube.</li>
		<li>Pipette a 10 &#181;l sample of microbubble stock solution into 10 ml of diluent.</li>
		<li>After gentle mixing, assess the concentration and size distributions of the microbubble population by using coulter counting (see List of Materials). Count a minimum of three 50 &#181;l measurements (per vial sample) using a 30 &#181;m aperture.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparing Microbubbles for Injection 
	NOTE: The assistant performs this step when &#8216;Injection of Microbubbles into Embryos&#8217; (step 6) is commenced. Each embryo is injected once, with the type of microbubble chosen for each injection to be randomly selected by the assistant such that all types of microbubble are evenly distributed throughout the procedure but given in a random order. Ensure the surgeon is blind to the type of bubble being injected.
	<ol>
		<li>Determine the volume of stock bubble solution required to produce a final concentration of 1 x 108 MB/ml in a volume of 400 &#181;l (calculate the volume using the stock concentrations measured in 5.3.3). Aliquot the corresponding volume of saline into an empty microcentrifuge tube.</li>
		<li>Gently agitate the selected microbubble vial and draw an excess volume (~50 &#181;l greater than that calculated above) of the solution into a 1 ml syringe using the 21 G needle. Inject the microbubbles into an empty microcentrifuge tube.</li>
		<li>Pipette the necessary volume of microbubble stock solution and add to the aliquot of saline. Mix by stirring gently with the tip of the pipette.</li>
		<li>Draw the diluted microbubble solution into a clean syringe using the 21 G needle. Removing the needle, eliminate any air bubbles from the syringe and attach the luer and tubing. Slowly push the solution to the end of the tubing making sure not to generate any air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Insert the syringe into a syringe infusion pump set to dispense the microbubbles at a rate of 20 &#181;l/min for a total volume of 20 &#181;l. Attach a pulled glass needle to the end of the tubing. Move the pump close to the injection stage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Injection of Microbubbles into Embryos
<ol>
	<li>Randomly select and remove (with perforated spoon) one embryo from the chilled media dish. Place in dissection dish located on the ultrasound stage under the stereoscope and remove the yolk sac and amniotic membranes with the fine forceps, cutting/tearing from the side that appears least vascularized (the antimesometrial side). This is most easily achieved by piercing an area adjacent to the head region.
	<ol>
		<li>Cut enough to remove the embryo from within, but no more. Stabilize the dissection dishes using small pieces of plasticine.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Gently maneuver the sac from around the embryo. Position the embryo on its side, with the placenta and umbilical vessels in front. Using the insect pins, pin down the yolk sac (4 pins recommended) and edges of the placenta as necessary to affix in place. Avoid major vessels.</li>
	<li>Wash the embryo with pre-warmed 45 &#176;C PBS until the embryo revives. Identify the umbilical vein and its associated vascular network. Position the dish so that injection can be done comfortably. 
	NOTE: Once warmed, blood in the embryo will begin to flow, visibly pumping in the umbilical artery. When flow first begins, the veins will be a bright red, with the blood in both vessels quickly appearing identical. The branches arising from the umbilical vein usually overlay those from the umbilical artery on the placental surface.</li>
	<li>Once the embryo has revived, cover it (but not the placenta) with pre-warmed US gel, being sure to delicately remove any air bubbles (using the fine forceps) from around the embryo. Top up the dish with pre-warmed PBS. 
	NOTE: Keep an eye on the level of solution in the PBS and gel syringes and add backup syringes to the heating beaker as needed.</li>
	<li>Mount the glass needle on a large ball of plasticine at the edge of the dissection dish and insert the needle end into the PBS. Choosing a vein on the chorionic surface of the placental disc, as far from the main branch as reasonable, trim the tip to size using scissors. Injection is easiest if the tip is cut at a slight angle. Remove any jagged edges of the glass using the edge of the spring scissors.</li>
	<li>Using the syringe pump, slowly inject the microbubble solution at 20 &#181;l/min into the glass needle until all of the air is expelled from the needle tip and microbubbles can be seen to flow freely into the PBS. Stop the pump and reset for an injection volume of 20 &#181;l. Do not allow air to enter the embryo&#8217;s vascular system during injection.</li>
	<li>Insert the glass needle tip gently into one of the veins in the placenta and ensure it is immobile. Swing away the stereoscope head and position the transducer above the embryo. Initiate imaging.</li>
</ol>
7. Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
NOTE: Using the contrast nonlinear imaging conditions set previously, position the transducer so that the embryo is situated evenly between the foci at 6 and 10 mm. Once positioned, start the bolus injection of the microbubbles. When the injection is complete, start the timer.
<ol>
	<li>Perfusion Imaging
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that the maximum number of frames for nonlinear contrast mode is selected by pressing the &#8216;study management&#8217; button and clicking the &#8216;Prefs&#8217; tab at the top of the study browser. Check the appropriate box in the &#8216;Preferences&#8217; window.</li>
		<li>Adjust the imaging settings by initiating nonlinear imaging. Press the &#8216;contrast mode&#8217; button on the control panel. Refine the 2D gain by adjusting the &#8216;gain&#8217; dial to 30 dB, reduce the power to 4% using the &#8216;power&#8217; dial, decrease the frequency to 1 Hz using the &#8216;frequency&#8217; dial and set the beam width (bottom left corner) to wide using the roller ball/mouse. 
		NOTE: All controls are located on the control panel of the ultrasound system.</li>
		<li>Capture the entire wash-in and dissipation of the microbubble bolus by recording a 20 min cine loop at a frame rate of 1 Hz. Press scan/freeze to start the data acquisition.</li>
		<li>Once the full sequence of images has been captured, press the &#8216;cine store&#8217; button located on the control panel to save the sequence of images in the system buffer. The system creates a date-stamped cine loop of the nonlinear contrast model data acquired.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Targeted Microbubble Imaging
	<ol>
		<li>Under &#8216;Prefs&#8217;, set the burst time to 0.1 sec. Set the appropriate imaging parameters using the controls described above (7.1.2.).</li>
		<li>Initiate nonlinear contrast imaging by pressing the &#8216;contrast mode&#8217; button on the control panel. Ensure the embryo is properly situated under the transducer and that the flow of microbubble contrast agent through the embryo is visible in the nonlinear contrast mode image.</li>
		<li>To assess targeted microbubble binding during embryonic molecular imaging studies, allow the microbubbles to circulate undisturbed for 3 min and 40 sec after completion of injection. This time is to allow retention of the circulating microbubbles. Press &#8216;scan/freeze&#8217; to halt imaging during this time.</li>
		<li>At 3 min and 40 sec, resume imaging to confirm that the embryo is still visible, is adequately covered with PBS, and that microbubbles continue to circulate. Press &#8216;scan/freeze&#8217; to initiate imaging.</li>
		<li>Acquire the disruption/replenishment sequence at 3 min and 50 sec post injection by recording a &#8216;pre-destruction&#8217; acoustic response sequence at 29 Hz. Press &#8216;scan/freeze&#8217; to start the data acquisition. At 4 min post injection18,19, initiate a 0.1 sec high-frequency acoustic burst. Press the &#8216;burst&#8217; button to implement a burst.</li>
		<li>Continue to record frames for the remainder of the sequence (until the buffer line is full) and save the cine loop by pressing &#8216;cine store&#8217;.</li>
		<li>Collect an additional cine loop of circulating microbubbles. This subsequent &#8216;post-destruction&#8217; imaging sequence is assumed to contain only circulating bubble signals that have replenished the beam. Press &#8216;scan/freeze&#8217; to initiate imaging and &#8216;cine store&#8217; to collect the images.</li>
		<li>Label the cine loops after imaging each embryo. Press &#8216;study management&#8217;, highlight the file using the roller ball and the &#8216;select&#8217; button, press &#8216;image label&#8217; and name appropriately.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
8. Handling of Embryos after Injection
<ol>
	<li>Post imaging, move the transducer, unpin the embryo and euthanize (via decapitation, cervical dislocation, carbon dioxide asphyxiation, or anesthesia followed by rapid freezing or fixation) as desired.</li>
	<li>For each subsequent embryo injection a fresh dissection dish, needle, syringe and tubing segment must be used, with preparation of the next batch of microbubble injection solution taking place during dissection and revival.</li>
	<li>Save tissue samples (e.g., tail, brain) for additional analyses (e.g., genotyping determined by PCR analysis of isolated tail DNA, lacz staining, or semi-quantitative measures of biomarker expression using western blots21).</li>
</ol>

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J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interactions+between+trophoblast+cells+and+the+maternal+and+fetal+circulation+in+the+mouse+placenta.">Interactions between trophoblast cells and the maternal and fetal circulation in the mouse placenta.</a> Dev Biol. 250, 358-35 (2002).</li><li>Needles, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nonlinear+contrast+imaging+with+an+array-based+micro-ultrasound+system.+Ultrasound.">Nonlinear contrast imaging with an array-based micro-ultrasound system. Ultrasound.</a> Medicine Biology. 36 (12), 2097 (2010).</li><li>Watson, E. D., Cross, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+structures+and+transport+functions+in+the+mouse+placenta.">Development of structures and transport functions in the mouse placenta.</a> Physiology. 20 (3), 180-193 (2005).</li><li>Shalaby, F., Rossant, J., Yamaguchi, T. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Failure+of+blood-island+formation+and+vasculogenesis+in+Flk-1-deficient+mice.">Failure of blood-island formation and vasculogenesis in Flk-1-deficient mice.</a> Nature. 376, 62-66 (1995).</li><li>Kwee, L., Baldwin, H. S., Shen, H. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Defective+development+of+the+embryonic+and+extraembryonic+circulatory+systems+in+vascular+cell+adhesion+molecule+(VCAM-1)+deficient+mice.">Defective development of the embryonic and extraembryonic circulatory systems in vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1) deficient mice.</a> Development. 121, (1995).</li><li>Mercurio, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lessons+from+the+&#945;2+integrin+knockout+mouse.">Lessons from the &#945;2 integrin knockout mouse.</a> The American journal of pathology. , 161-163 (2002).</li><li>Hodivala-Dilke, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=&#945;v&#946;3+integrin+and+angiogenesis:+a+moody+integrin+in+a+changing+environment.">&#945;v&#946;3 integrin and angiogenesis: a moody integrin in a changing environment.</a> Curr Opin Cell Biol. 20, 514-519 (2008).</li><li>Pysz, M. A., Gambhir, S. S., Willmann, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+imaging:+current+status+and+emerging+strategies.">Molecular imaging: current status and emerging strategies.</a> Clinical radiology. 65, 500-516 (2010).</li><li>Cybulsky, M. I., Iiyama, K., Li, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+major+role+for+VCAM-1,+but+not+ICAM-1,+in+early+atherosclerosis.">A major role for VCAM-1, but not ICAM-1, in early atherosclerosis.</a> J Clin Invest. 107, 1255-1262 (2001).</li><li>Xu, H., Gonzalo, J. A., St Pierre, ., Y, , et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocytosis+and+resistance+to+septic+shock+in+intercellular+adhesion+molecule+1-deficient+mice.">Leukocytosis and resistance to septic shock in intercellular adhesion molecule 1-deficient mice.</a> J Exp Med. 180, 95-109 (1994).</li><li>Gerwin, N., Gonzalo, J. A., Lloyd, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prolonged+eosinophil+accumulation+in+allergic+lung+interstitium+of+ICAM-2-deficient+mice+results+in+extended+hyperresponsiveness.">Prolonged eosinophil accumulation in allergic lung interstitium of ICAM-2-deficient mice results in extended hyperresponsiveness.</a> Immunity. 10, 9-19 (1999).</li><li>Johnson, R. C., Mayadas, T. N., Frenette, P. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood+cell+dynamics+in+P-selectin-deficient+mice.">Blood cell dynamics in P-selectin-deficient mice.</a> Blood. 86, 1106-1114 (1995).</li><li>Corrigan, N., Brazil, D., McAuliffe, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-frequency+ultrasound+assessment+of+the+murine+heart+from+embryo+through+to+juvenile.">High-frequency ultrasound assessment of the murine heart from embryo through to juvenile.</a> Reproductive Sciences. 17 (2), 147-14 (2010).</li><li>Turnbull, D. H., Bloomfield, T. S., Baldwin, H. S., Foster, F. S., Joyner, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+backscatter+microscope+analysis+of+early+mouse+embryonic+brain+development.">Ultrasound backscatter microscope analysis of early mouse embryonic brain development.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 92, 2239-2243 (1995).</li><li>Greco, A., Mancini, M. L., Gargiulo, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+Biomicroscopy+in+Small+Animal+Research:+Applications+in+Molecular+and+Preclinical+Imaging.">Ultrasound Biomicroscopy in Small Animal Research: Applications in Molecular and Preclinical Imaging.</a> Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. 2012, (2012).</li><li>Pysz, M. A., Guracar, I., Foygel, K., Tian, L., Willmann, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+assessment+of+tumor+angiogenesis+using+real-time+motion-compensated+contrast-enhanced+ultrasound+imaging.">Quantitative assessment of tumor angiogenesis using real-time motion-compensated contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging.</a> Angiogenesis. 15, 433-442 (2012).</li><li>Larina, I. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+imaging+of+blood+flow+in+mammalian+embryos+using+doppler+swept-source+optical+coherence+tomography.">Live imaging of blood flow in mammalian embryos using doppler swept-source optical coherence tomography.</a> J.Biomed.Opt. 13 (6), 060506-06 (2008).</li><li>Garcia, M. D., Udan, R. S., Hadjantonakis, A. K., Dickinson, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Live imaging of mouse embryos. 4 (4), 104-10 (2011).</li><li>Teichert, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endothelial+nitric+oxide+synthase+gene+expression+during+murine+embryogenesis.+Commencement+of+expression+in+the+embryo+occurs+with+the+establishment+of+a+unidirectional+circulatory+system.">Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression during murine embryogenesis. Commencement of expression in the embryo occurs with the establishment of a unidirectional circulatory system.</a> Circulation Research. 103 (1), 24-33 (2008).</li><li>Walls, J. R., Coultas, L., Rossant, J., Henkelman, R. 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F.S. Foster acknowledges his role as consultant to VisualSonics Inc.

Ultrasound contrast agents were injected into late-stage gestation mouse embryos and nonlinear contrast images were acquired to measure perfusion parameters and targeted microbubble binding. Successful imaging of microbubbles within embryonic vasculature was dependent on a number of factors, the first being embryo viability. All equipment and apparatus were prepared in advance in order to minimize the time required for isolation of embryos from the uterus to the start of injection. Since the effects of single or repeated...

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging makes use of microbubble contrast agents to visualize and characterize the vascular environment. These agents enable noninvasive assessment of the microcirculation, vascularity and cardiovascular function. In addition, modification of the bubble surface can result in targeted microbubble binding to endothelial biomarkers, as demonstrated in preclinical applications of angiogenesis, atherosclerosis and inflammation 1,2 making molecular ultrasound imaging of vascular events possible. Contrast enhanced ultrasound can therefore be used to identify the complex and diverse environments that influence healthy and diseased vascular states3-5.
In the past number of years, interest in the utility of microbubble imaging has extended to the versatile mouse embryo model. As a model of mammalian development, introduction of microbubbles into the embryonic vasculature enhances physiological study of the developing circulatory system (e.g., blood flow, cardiac output) and in cases of transgenic and targeted mutant mouse models of cardiac disease 6,7, may yield insights into how genetic factors alter cardiovascular function. In fact, quantitative and qualitative 2D analyses of embryonic brain vasculature have already been achieved8. Furthermore, the mouse embryo presents as an excellent model for examining the binding of targeted microbubbles to vascular markers in vivo. Bartelle et al.9, for instance, have introduced avidin microbubbles into embryo cardiac ventricles to assess targeted binding in Biotag-BirA transgenic embryos and examine vascular anatomy. The generation of heterozygous and homozygous mouse models can be also be used as a surrogate for tumor model studies aiming to define the quantitative nature of molecular ultrasound - an important benchmark in translating this technique to the clinic.
Microbubbles are most frequently introduced to the embryonic circulation via intra-cardiac injections into single embryos exposed through a laparotomy8-10. In utero injections, however, face a number of challenges. These include injection guidance, the need to counter motion in the mother and exteriorized embryo, maintenance of hemodynamic viability in the mother and exteriorized embryos, addressing long-term effects of anesthesia and complications due to bleeding11. Therefore, the goal of the investigation was to develop a technique for injecting microbubbles into isolated living late-stage embryos12. This option offers more freedom in terms of injection control and positioning, reproducibility of the imaging plane without obstruction, and simplified image analysis and quantification.
In the present study, we outline a novel procedure for the injection of microbubbles into living murine embryos for the purposes of studying microbubble kinetic behavior and of studying targeted microbubble binding to endogenous endothelial surface markers. Non-linear contrast specific ultrasound imaging is used to measure of a number of basic perfusion parameters including peak enhancement (PE), wash-in rate and time to peak (TTP) in isolated E17.5 embryos. We also demonstrate the validity of the embryo model for assessing the quantitative nature of molecular ultrasound in an embryonic endoglin loss of function transgenic mouse model, where endoglin is a clinically relevant target due to its high expression in vascular endothelial cells at sites of active angiogenesis13. The adhesion of endoglin-targeted (MBE), rat isotype IgG2 control (MBC) and untargeted (MBU) microbubbles is evaluated in heterozygous endoglin (Eng+/-) and homozygous endoglin (Eng+/+) expressing embryos. Analysis of the targeted binding reveals that molecular ultrasound is capable of differentiating between endoglin genotypes and relating receptor densities to quantifiable molecular ultrasound levels.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1477">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:419px;">Reagents</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:639px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;width:419px;"></td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Antibodies (biotinylated, eBioscience)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td>Antibody choice depends on the experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; rat isotype IgG2 control</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">eBioscience</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">13-4321-85</td>
			<td>This antibody/microbubble combination is often required as experimental control&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; biotin anti-mouse CD309</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">eBioscience</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">13-5821-85</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Biotinylated rat MJ 7/18 antibody to mouse endoglin</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">In house hybridoma</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td>Outside antibodies may also be appropriate: we&#160; have used eBioscience (13-1051-85 ) in the past</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Distilled water</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Embryo media</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 500 mL Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle&#8217;s Medium with high glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D5796</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 50 mL Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">30-2020</td>
			<td>lot # 7592456</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Hepes&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">15630</td>
			<td>5mL, 1M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Penicillin-Streptomycin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">15140-122</td>
			<td>5 mL, 10,000 units Pen., 10,000 ug Strep</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Ethanol, 70%</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Ice</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">76240</td>
			<td>4%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Phosphate Buffered Saline [1x]&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">D8537</td>
			<td>1x, w/o calcium chloride &#38; magnesium chloride</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Pregnant mouse, CD-1</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Charles River Laboratories Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">0.9% sodium chloride (saline)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Hospira</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">0409-7984-11</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Ultrasound contrast agent, target ready and untargeted</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">MicroMarker; VisualSonics Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Ultrasound gel (Aquasonic 100, colourless)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">CSP Medical</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">133-1009</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;"></td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Cell culture plates (4) :&#160; 100x20 mm</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">08-772-22</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Cell culture plates (12) : 60x15 mm</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">D8054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;width:419px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Sorvall Legend RT centrifuge&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Conical tubes, 50 mL BD Falcon</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">21008-938</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Diluent</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Isoton II Diluent, 8448011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Dissection scissors (Wagner)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Wagner 14068-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Forceps (2), Dumont SS (0.10x0.06 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">11200-33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Forceps, splinter</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">25601-134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Glass beaker, 2 L (Griffin Beaker)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">89000-216</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Glass capillaries, 1x90 mm GD-1 with filament</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">GD-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Glass needle puller</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">PN-30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Gloves</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Ansell</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">4002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Gross anatomy probe</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">10088-15</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Hot plate</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">89090-994</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Ice bucket</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Cole Parmer</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">RK 06274-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Imaging Platform</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VisualSonics Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Integrated Rail System</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Light source, fiber-optic</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">12-562-36</td>
			<td>Ideally has adjustable arms</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Luers (12), polypropylene barbed female &#188;-28 UNF thread</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Cole Parmer</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">45500-30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Micro-ultrasound system, high-frequency</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VisualSonics Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Vevo2100</td>
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			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Needles, 21 gauge&#160; (1&#8221;)</td>
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			<td style="width:215px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
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		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Perforated spoon (Moria)</td>
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			<td style="width:207px;">Research Plus&#160; adjustable 3120000038;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 3120000054;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 3120000062</td>
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		<tr height="19">
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			<td></td>
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		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Tubing, Tygon laboratory 1/32x3/32&#8221;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">63010-007</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Wooden applicator stick (swab, cotton head)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">CA89031-270</td>
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		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Surgical microscope 5-8x magnification</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Steromaster</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Syringes, 1 mL Normject</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">14-817-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Syringes (10), 30 mL</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">CA64000-041</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Syringe infusion pump&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Bio-lynx&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">NE-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">Thermometer, -20-110oC</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">89095-598</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Timer</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">33501-418</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Tubes, Eppendorf</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">20170-577</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Tube racks (3)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">82024-462</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Ultrasound transducer, 20 MHz</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">VisualSonics Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">MS250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="19">
			<td height="19" style="height:19px;">Vannas-Tubingen, angled up</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">15005-08</td>
			<td></td>
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contrast imaging in mouse embryos using high-frequency ultrasound

Ultrasound contrast-enhanced imaging can convey essential quantitative information regarding tissue vascularity and perfusion and, in targeted applications, facilitate the detection and measure of vascular biomarkers at the molecular level. Within the mouse embryo, this noninvasive technique may be used to uncover basic mechanisms underlying vascular development in the early mouse circulatory system and in genetic models of cardiovascular disease. The mouse embryo also presents as an excellent model for studying the adhesion of microbubbles to angiogenic targets (including vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) or &#945;v&#946;3) and for assessing the quantitative nature of molecular ultrasound. We therefore developed a method to introduce ultrasound contrast agents into the vasculature of living, isolated embryos. This allows freedom in terms of injection control and positioning, reproducibility of the imaging plane without obstruction and motion, and simplified image analysis and quantification. Late gestational stage (embryonic day (E)16.6 and E17.5) murine embryos were isolated from the uterus, gently exteriorized from the yolk sac and microbubble contrast agents were injected into veins accessible on the chorionic surface of the placental disc. Nonlinear contrast ultrasound imaging was then employed to collect a number of basic perfusion parameters (peak enhancement, wash-in rate and time to peak) and quantify targeted microbubble binding in an endoglin mouse model. We show the successful circulation of microbubbles within living embryos and the utility of this approach in characterizing embryonic vasculature and microbubble behavior.

The injection of ultrasound contrast agents into ex utero mouse embryos is dependent on the successful isolation of living, late-gestational stage embryos from the uterus and maintenance of viability over the course of the injection and related ultrasound imaging. Once the embryo has been exteriorized and positioned, as shown in Figure 1, careful injection of contrast agent into the embryonic vasculature is possible. A typical B-mode ultrasound image of an E17.5 mouse embryo is shown in ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Contrast Imaging in Mouse Embryos Using High-frequency Ultrasound at JoVE.com

Contrast Imaging in Mouse Embryos Using High-frequency Ultrasound

Here, we present a protocol to inject ultrasound microbubble contrast agents into living, isolated late-gestation stage murine embryos. This method enables the study of perfusion parameters and of vascular molecular markers within the embryo using contrast-enhanced high-frequency ultrasound imaging.

Ultrasound contrast-enhanced imaging can convey essential quantitative information regarding tissue vascularity and perfusion and, in targeted ...

contrast-imaging-in-mouse-embryos-using-high-frequency-ultrasound

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

15.2K Views.  University of Toronto. Here, we present a protocol to inject ultrasound microbubble contrast agents into living, isolated late-gestation stage murine embryos. This method enables the study of perfusion parameters and of vascular molecular markers within the embryo using contrast-enhanced high-frequency ultrasound imaging.

Video: Contrast Imaging in Mouse Embryos Using High-frequency Ultrasound

Analyzing In Vivo Cell Migration using Cell Transplantations and Time-lapse Imaging in Zebrafish Embryos

Cell migration is key to many physiological and pathological conditions, including cancer metastasis. The cellular and molecular bases of cell migration have been thoroughly analyzed in vitro. However, in vivo cell migration somehow differs from in vitro migration, and has proven more difficult to analyze, being less accessible to direct observation and manipulation. This protocol uses the migration of the prospective prechordal plate in the early zebrafish embryo as a model system to study the function of candidate genes in cell migration. Prechordal plate progenitors form a group of cells which, during gastrulation, undergoes a directed migration from the embryonic organizer to the animal pole of the embryo. The proposed protocol uses cell transplantation to create mosaic embryos. This offers the combined advantages of labeling isolated cells, which is key to good imaging, and of limiting gain/loss of function effects to the observed cells, hence ensuring cell-autonomous effects. We describe here how we assessed the function of the TORC2 component Sin1 in cell migration, but the protocol can be used to analyze the function of any candidate gene in controlling cell migration in vivo.

Analyzing In Vivo Cell Migration using Cell Transplantations and Time-lapse Imaging in Zebrafish Embryos

Combining cell transplantation, cytoskeletal labeling and loss/gain of function approaches, this protocol describes how the migrating zebrafish prospective prechordal plate can be used to analyze the function of a candidate gene in in vivo cell migration.

Cell migration is key to many physiological and pathological conditions, including cancer metastasis. The cellular and molecular bases of cell migration ...

Live Imaging of Mouse Secondary Palate Fusion

The fusion of the secondary palatal shelves to form the intact secondary palate is a key process in mammalian development and its disruption can lead to cleft secondary palate, a common congenital anomaly in humans. Secondary palate fusion has been extensively studied leading to several proposed cellular mechanisms that may mediate this process. However, these studies have been mostly performed on fixed embryonic tissues at progressive timepoints during development or in fixed explant cultures analyzed at static timepoints. Static analysis is limited for the analysis of dynamic morphogenetic processes such a palate fusion and what types of dynamic cellular behaviors mediate palatal fusion is incompletely understood. Here we describe a protocol for live imaging of ex vivo secondary palate fusion in mouse embryos. To examine cellular behaviors of palate fusion, epithelial-specific Keratin14-cre was used to label palate epithelial cells in ROSA26-mTmGflox reporter embryos. To visualize filamentous actin, Lifeact-mRFPruby reporter mice were used. Live imaging of secondary palate fusion was performed by dissecting recently-adhered secondary palatal shelves of embryonic day (E) 14.5 stage embryos and culturing in agarose-containing media on a glass bottom dish to enable imaging with an inverted confocal microscope. Using this method, we have detected a variety of novel cellular behaviors during secondary palate fusion. An appreciation of how distinct cell behaviors are coordinated in space and time greatly contributes to our understanding of this dynamic morphogenetic process. This protocol can be applied to mutant mouse lines, or cultures treated with pharmacological inhibitors to further advance understanding of how secondary palate fusion is controlled.

Here, we present a protocol for live imaging of mouse secondary palate fusion using confocal microscopy. This protocol can be used in combination with a variety of fluorescent reporter mouse lines, and with pathway inhibitors for mechanistic insight. This protocol can be adapted for live imaging in other developmental systems.

The fusion of the secondary palatal shelves to form the intact secondary palate is a key process in mammalian development and its disruption can lead to ...

A Novel Use of Three-dimensional High-frequency Ultrasonography for Early Pregnancy Characterization in the Mouse

High-frequency ultrasonography (HFUS) is a common method to non-invasively monitor the real-time development of the human fetus in utero. The mouse is routinely used as an in vivo model to study embryo implantation and pregnancy progression. Unfortunately, such murine studies require pregnancy interruption to enable follow-up phenotypic analysis. To address this issue, we used three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction of HFUS imaging data for early detection and characterization of murine embryo implantation sites and their individual developmental progression in utero. Combining HFUS imaging with 3-D reconstruction and modeling, we were able to accurately quantify embryo implantation site number as well as monitor developmental progression in pregnant C57BL6J/129S mice from 5.5 days post coitus (d.p.c.) through to 9.5 d.p.c. with the use of a transducer. Measurements included: number, location, and volume of implantation sites as well as inter-implantation site spacing; embryo viability was assessed by cardiac activity monitoring. In the immediate post-implantation period (5.5 to 8.5 d.p.c.), 3-D reconstruction of the gravid uterus in both mesh and solid overlay format enabled visual representation of the developing pregnancies within each uterine horn. As genetically engineered mice continue to be used to characterize female reproductive phenotypes derived from uterine dysfunction, this method offers a new approach to detect, quantify, and characterize early implantation events in vivo. This novel use of 3-D HFUS imaging demonstrates the ability to successfully detect, visualize, and characterize embryo-implantation sites during early murine pregnancy in a non-invasive manner. The technology offers a significant improvement over current methods, which rely on the interruption of pregnancies for gross tissue and histopathologic characterization. Here we use a video and text format to describe how to successfully perform ultrasounds of early murine pregnancy to generate reliable and reproducible data with reconstruction of the uterine form in mesh and solid 3-D images.

Mice are widely used to study gestational biology. However, pregnancy termination is required for such studies which precludes longitudinal investigations and necessitates the use of large numbers of animals. Therefore, we describe a non-invasive technique of high-frequency ultrasonography for early detection and monitoring of post-implantation events in the pregnant mouse.

High-frequency ultrasonography (HFUS) is a common method to non-invasively monitor the real-time development of the human fetus in utero. The mouse is ...

Fetal Mouse Cardiovascular Imaging Using a High-frequency Ultrasound (30/45MHZ) System

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common cause of childhood morbidity and early mortality. Prenatal detection&#160;of the underlying molecular mechanisms of CHDs is&#160;crucial for inventing new preventive and therapeutic strategies. Mutant mouse models are powerful tools to discover new&#160;mechanisms&#160;and environmental stress modifiers that drive cardiac development and their potential&#160;alteration in CHDs. However, efforts to establish the causality of these putative contributors have been limited to histological&#160;and molecular studies&#160;in non-survival animal experiments, in which&#160;monitoring the key physiological and hemodynamic parameters is&#160;often absent. Live imaging technology has become an essential tool to establish the&#160;etiology of CHDs. In particular,&#160;ultrasound imaging can be used prenatally without surgically exposing the fetuses,&#160;allowing maintaining&#160;their baseline physiology while monitoring the impact of environmental stress&#160;on the hemodynamic and structural aspects of cardiac chamber development. Herein, we use the High-Frequency Ultrasound (30/45)&#160;system to examine the cardiovascular system in fetal mice at E18.5 in utero at the baseline and in response to prenatal hypoxia exposure. We demonstrate the feasibility of the system to measure cardiac chamber size, morphology, ventricular function, fetal heart rate, and umbilical artery flow indices, and their alterations in fetal mice exposed to systemic chronic hypoxia in utero in real time.

Fetal Mouse Cardiovascular Imaging Using a High-frequency Ultrasound 30/45MHZ System

High-frequency ultrasound imaging of the fetal mouse has improved imaging resolution and can provide precise non-invasive characterization of cardiac development and structural defects. The protocol outlined herein is designed to perform real-time fetal mice echocardiography in vivo.

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common cause of childhood morbidity and early mortality. Prenatal detection&#160;of the underlying molecular ...

Visualizing the Node and Notochordal Plate In Gastrulating Mouse Embryos Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Whole Mount Immunofluorescence

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is the formation of the transient organizers, the node and notochordal plate, from cells that have passed through the primitive streak. The proper formation of these signaling centers is essential for the development of the body plan and techniques to visualize them are of high interest to mouse developmental biologists. The node and notochordal plate lie on the ventral surface of gastrulating mouse embryos around embryonic day (E) 7.5 of development. The node is a cup-shaped structure whose cells possess a single slender cilium each. The proper subcellular localization and rotation of the cilia in the node pit determines left-right asymmetry. The notochordal plate cells also possess single cilia albeit shorter than those of the node cells. The notochordal plate forms the notochord which acts as an important signaling organizer for somitogenesis and neural patterning. Because the cells of the node and notochordal plate are transiently present on the surface and possess cilia, they can be visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among other techniques used to visualize these structures at the cellular level is whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF) using the antibodies against the proteins that are highly expressed in the node and notochordal plate. In this report, we describe our optimized protocols to perform SEM and WMIF of the node and notochordal plate in developing mouse embryos to help in the assessment of tissue shape and cellular organization in wild-type and gastrulation mutant embryos.

The node and notochordal plate are transient signaling organizers in developing mouse embryos that can be visualized using several techniques. Here, we describe in detail how to perform two of the techniques to study their structure and morphogenesis: 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and 2) whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF).

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is ...

High Frequency Ultrasound for the Analysis of Fetal and Placental Development In Vivo

Ultrasound imaging is a widespread method used to detect organ anomalies and tumors in human and animal tissues. The method is non-invasive, harmless, and painless, and the application is easy, fast, and can be done anywhere, even with mobile devices. During pregnancy, ultrasound imaging is standardly used to closely monitor fetal development. The technique is important to assess intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), a pregnancy complication with short- and long-term health consequences for both the mother and fetus. Understanding the process of IUGR is indispensable for developing effective therapeutic strategies. 
The ultrasound system used in this manuscript is an ultrasound device produced for the analysis of small animals and can be used in various research fields, including pregnancy research. Here we describe the usage of the system for in vivo analysis of fetuses from natural killer (NK) cell/mast cell (MC)-deficient mothers that give birth to growth-restricted pups. The protocol includes preparation of the system, handling of the mice before and during measurements, and the usage of the B-mode, color doppler mode, and pulse-wave doppler mode. Fetal size, placental size, and blood supply to the fetus were analyzed. We found reduced implantation sizes and smaller placentas in NK/MC-deficient mice from mid-gestation onwards. In addition, MC/NK-deficiency was associated with absent and reversed end diastolic flow in the fetal Arteria umbilicalis(UmA) and an elevated resistance index. The methods described in the protocol can easily be used for related and non-related research topics.

High Frequency Ultrasound for the Analysis of Fetal and Placental Development In Vivo

Here we describe the technique of high frequency ultrasound for in vivo analysis of fetuses in mice. This method allows the follow-up of fetuses and the analysis of placental parameters as well as maternal and fetal blood flow throughout pregnancy.

Ultrasound imaging is a widespread method used to detect organ anomalies and tumors in human and animal tissues. The method is non-invasive, harmless, and ...

Analysis of Congenital Heart Defects in Mouse Embryos Using Qualitative and Quantitative Histological Methods

Congenital heart defects (CHD) are the most common type of birth defect in humans, affecting up to 1% of all live births. However, the underlying causes for CHD are still poorly understood. The developing mouse constitutes a valuable model for the study of CHD, because cardiac developmental programs between mice and humans are highly conserved. The protocol describes in detail how to produce mouse embryos of the desired gestational stage, methods to isolate and preserve the heart for downstream processing, quantitative methods to identify common types of CHD by histology (e.g., ventricular septal defects, atrial septal defects, patent ductus arteriosus), and quantitative histomorphometry methods to measure common muscular compaction phenotypes. These methods articulate all the steps involved in sample preparation, collection, and analysis, allowing scientists to correctly and reproducibly measure CHD.

In this protocol, we describe procedures to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze developmental phenotypes in mice associated with congenital heart defects.

Congenital heart defects (CHD) are the most common type of birth defect in humans, affecting up to 1% of all live births. However, the underlying causes ...

High-Frequency Ultrasound Echocardiography to Assess Zebrafish Cardiac Function

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has become a very popular model organism in cardiovascular research, including human cardiac diseases, largely due to its embryonic transparency, genetic tractability, and amenity to rapid, high-throughput studies. However, the loss of transparency limits heart function analysis at the adult stage, which complicates modeling of age-related heart conditions. To overcome such limitations, high-frequency ultrasound echocardiography in zebrafish is emerging as a viable option. Here, we present a detailed protocol to assess cardiac function in adult zebrafish by non-invasive echocardiography using high-frequency ultrasound. The method allows visualization and analysis of zebrafish heart dimension and quantification of important functional parameters, including heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, and ejection fraction. In this method, the fish are anesthetized and kept underwater and can be recovered after the procedure. Although high-frequency ultrasound is an expensive technology, the same imaging platform can be used for different species (e.g., murine and zebrafish) by adapting different transducers. Zebrafish echocardiography is a robust method for cardiac phenotyping, useful in the validation and characterization of disease models, particularly late-onset diseases; drug screens; and studies of heart injury, recovery, and regenerative capacity.

We describe a protocol to assess heart morphology and function in adult zebrafish using high-frequency echocardiography. The method allows visualization of the heart and subsequent quantification of functional parameters, such as heart rate (HR), cardiac output (CO), fractional area change (FAC), ejection fraction (EF), and blood inflow and outflow velocities.

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has become a very popular model organism in cardiovascular research, including human cardiac diseases, largely due to its ...

Imaging Intranuclear Actin Rods in Live Heat Stressed Drosophila Embryos

The purpose of this protocol is to visualize intranuclear actin rods that assemble in live Drosophila melanogaster embryos following heat stress. Actin rods are a hallmark of a conserved, inducible Actin Stress Response (ASR) that accompanies human pathologies, including neurodegenerative disease. Previously, we showed that the ASR contributes to morphogenesis failures and reduced viability of developing embryos. This protocol allows the continued study of mechanisms underlying actin rod assembly and the ASR in a model system that is highly amenable to imaging, genetics and biochemistry. Embryos are collected and mounted on a coverslip to prepare them for injection. Rhodamine-conjugated globular actin (G-actinRed) is diluted and loaded into a microneedle. A single injection is made into the center of each embryo. After injection, embryos are incubated at elevated temperature and intranuclear actin rods are then visualized by confocal microscopy. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments may be performed on the actin rods; and other actin-rich structures in the cytoplasm can also be imaged. We find that G-actinRed polymerizes like endogenous G-actin and does not, on its own, interfere with normal embryo development. One limitation of this protocol is that care must be taken during injection to avoid serious injury to the embryo. However, with practice, injecting G-actinRed into Drosophila embryos is a fast and reliable way to visualize actin rods and can easily be used with flies of any genotype or with the introduction of other cellular stresses, including hypoxia and oxidative stress.

Imaging Intranuclear Actin Rods in Live Heat Stressed Drosophila Embryos

The goal of this protocol is to inject Rhodamine-conjugated globular actin into Drosophila embryos and image intranuclear actin rod assembly following heat stress.

The purpose of this protocol is to visualize intranuclear actin rods that assemble in live Drosophila melanogaster embryos following heat stress. Actin ...

Is My Mouse Pregnant? High-Frequency Ultrasound Assessment

The mouse is the mammalian animal model of choice for many human diseases and biological processes. Developmental biology often requires staged-pregnant mice to determine evolving processes at various timepoints. Moreover, optimal and efficient breeding of model mice requires an assessment of timed pregnancies. Most commonly, mice are mated overnight, and the presence of a vaginal plug is determined; however, the positive predictive value of this technique is suboptimal, and one needs to wait to know if the mouse is truly pregnant. High-resolution ultrasound biomicroscopy is an effective and efficient tool for imaging: 1) Whether a mouse is pregnant; 2) What gestational stage the mouse has reached; and 3) Whether there are intrauterine losses. In addition to the embryos and fetuses, the investigator must also recognize common artifacts in the abdominal cavity so as not to mistake these for a gravid uterus. This article provides a protocol for imaging along with illustrative examples.

High-resolution ultrasound can help streamline experiments requiring timed-pregnant mice by determining the state of pregnancy, gestational age, and pregnancy losses. Presented here is a protocol to illustrate methods to assess mouse pregnancies as well as potential pitfalls (image artifacts) that may mimic pregnancy.

The mouse is the mammalian animal model of choice for many human diseases and biological processes. Developmental biology often requires staged-pregnant ...