Supported in part by National Institute of Health contracts R01-EY13178, and P30-EY08098 (Bethesda, MD), the Eye and Ear Foundation (Pittsburgh, PA), and unrestricted grants from Research to Prevent Blindness (New York, NY).

Ethics Statement: Approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine before subject recruitment began. All subjects provided written informed consent before participation in the study.
1. Data Acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Pressure Elevation
	<ol>
		<li>Take baseline measurements (IOP and OCT measurements) by instilling one drop of 0.5% proparacaine into the eye. Wait 3 min for efficacy.</li>
		<li>Gently apply pressure to the temporal sclera with the ophthalmody...

<ol>
	<li>Quigley, H. A., Broman, A. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+number+of+people+with+glaucoma+worldwide+2010+and+2020.">The number of people with glaucoma worldwide 2010 and 2020.</a> The British journal of ophthalmolog. 90, 262-267 (2006).</li><li>Sommer, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relationship+between+intraocular+pressure+and+primary+open+angle+glaucoma+among+white+and+black+Americans.+The+Baltimore+Eye+Survey.">Relationship between intraocular pressure and primary open angle glaucoma among white and black Americans. The Baltimore Eye Survey.</a> Archives of ophthalmolog. 109, 1090-1095 (1991).</li><li>Sommer, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Racial+differences+in+the+cause-specific+prevalence+of+blindness+in+east+Baltimore.">Racial differences in the cause-specific prevalence of blindness in east Baltimore.</a> The New England journal of medicin. 325, 1412-1417 (1991).</li><li>Leske, M. C., Connell, A. M., Wu, S. Y., Hyman, L., Schachat, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+intraocular+pressure.">Distribution of intraocular pressure.</a> The Barbados Eye Study. Archives of ophthalmolog. 115, 1051-1057 (1997).</li><li>Leske, M. C., Wu, S. Y., Hennis, A., Honkanen, R., Nemesure, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Risk+factors+for+incident+open-angle+glaucoma:+the+Barbados+Eye+Studies.">Risk factors for incident open-angle glaucoma: the Barbados Eye Studies.</a> Ophthalmolog. 115, 85-93 (2008).</li><li>Mitchell, P., Lee, A. J., Rochtchina, E., Wang, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Open-angle+glaucoma+and+systemic+hypertension:+the+blue+mountains+eye+study.">Open-angle glaucoma and systemic hypertension: the blue mountains eye study.</a> Journal of glaucom. 13, 319-326 (2004).</li><li>Mitchell, P., Smith, W., Attebo, K., Healey, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prevalence+of+open-angle+glaucoma+in+Australia.+The+Blue+Mountains+Eye+Study.">Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma in Australia. The Blue Mountains Eye Study.</a> Ophthalmolog. 103, 1661-1669 (1996).</li><li>Gabelt, B., Kaufman, P., Kaufman, P. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Adler's Physiology of the Ey. , 237-289 (2003).</li><li>Grant, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+aqueous+perfusion+in+enucleated+human+eyes).">Experimental aqueous perfusion in enucleated human eyes).</a> Archives of ophthalmolog. 69, 783-801 (1963).</li><li>Jocson, V. L., Sears, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+aqueous+perfusion+in+enucleated+human+eyes.+Results+after+obstruction+of+Schlemm's+canal.">Experimental aqueous perfusion in enucleated human eyes. Results after obstruction of Schlemm's canal.</a> Archives of ophthalmolog. 86, 65-71 (1971).</li><li>Maepea, O., Bill, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pressures+in+the+juxtacanalicular+tissue+and+Schlemm's+canal+in+monkeys.">Pressures in the juxtacanalicular tissue and Schlemm's canal in monkeys.</a> Experimental eye researc. 54, 879-883 (1992).</li><li>Johnstone, M. A., Grant, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pressure-dependent+changes+in+structures+of+the+aqueous+outflow+system+of+human+and+monkey+eyes.">Pressure-dependent changes in structures of the aqueous outflow system of human and monkey eyes.</a> American journal of ophthalmolog. 75, 365-383 (1973).</li><li>Overby, D. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Altered+mechanobiology+of+Schlemm's+canal+endothelial+cells+in+glaucoma.">Altered mechanobiology of Schlemm's canal endothelial cells in glaucoma.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of Americ. , (2014).</li><li>Allingham, R. R., de Kater, A. W., Ethier, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Schlemm's+canal+and+primary+open+angle+glaucoma:+correlation+between+Schlemm's+canal+dimensions+and+outflow+facility.">Schlemm's canal and primary open angle glaucoma: correlation between Schlemm's canal dimensions and outflow facility.</a> Experimental eye researc. 62, 101-109 (1996).</li><li>Camras, L. J., Stamer, W. D., Epstein, D., Gonzalez, P., Yuan, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+effects+of+trabecular+meshwork+stiffness+on+outflow+facility+in+normal+human+and+porcine+eyes.">Differential effects of trabecular meshwork stiffness on outflow facility in normal human and porcine eyes.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog., &amp; visual scienc. 53, 5242-5250 (2012).</li><li>Last, J. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastic+modulus+determination+of+normal+and+glaucomatous+human+trabecular+meshwork.">Elastic modulus determination of normal and glaucomatous human trabecular meshwork.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog., &amp; visual. 52, 2147-2152 (2011).</li><li>Lutjen-Drecoll, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+morphology+of+the+trabecular+meshwork+in+primate+eyes.">Functional morphology of the trabecular meshwork in primate eyes.</a> Progress in retinal and eye researc. 18, 91-119 (1999).</li><li>Li, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pilocarpine-induced+dilation+of+Schlemm's+canal+and+prevention+of+lumen+collapse+at+elevated+intraocular+pressures+in+living+mice+visualized+by+OCT.">Pilocarpine-induced dilation of Schlemm's canal and prevention of lumen collapse at elevated intraocular pressures in living mice visualized by OCT.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog., &amp; visual scienc. 55, 3737-3746 (2014).</li><li>Francis, A. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphometric+analysis+of+aqueous+humor+outflow+structures+with+spectral-domain+optical+coherence+tomography.">Morphometric analysis of aqueous humor outflow structures with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog., &amp; visual. 53, 5198-5207 (2012).</li><li>Kagemann, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+visualization+of+aqueous+humor+outflow+structures+in-situ+in+humans.">3D visualization of aqueous humor outflow structures in-situ in humans.</a> Experimental eye researc. 93, 308-315 (2011).</li><li>Kagemann, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+and+assessment+of+Schlemm's+canal+by+spectral-domain+optical+coherence+tomography.">Identification and assessment of Schlemm's canal by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog., &amp; visual. 51, 4054-4059 (2010).</li><li>Kagemann, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=IOP+Elevation+Reduces+Schlemm's+Canal+Cross-sectional+Area.">IOP Elevation Reduces Schlemm's Canal Cross-sectional Area.</a> Investigative ophthalmolog &amp; visual scienc. , (2014).</li></ol>

The present technique leverages non-invasive observation of the mechanical response of soft tissue to quantify SC collapse. Future work using human cadaver eyes is needed to calibrate tissue deflections actual tissue stiffness after dissection. But, such studies will suffer the same limitations of previous outflow models; specifically, that the contributions of living muscle to tissue tension will not be present. Further calibration in a living mammalian eye model may allow calibration of imaging&#160;and direct measurem...

Glaucoma is the world&#8217;s second leading cause of irreversible blindness1. Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is a major causal risk factor for the presence and progression of glaucoma2-7.&#160;IOP is regulated by balance between the formation and outflow of aqueous humor8.&#160;The locations of greatest outflow resistance are the juxtacanicular tissue and the inner wall of Schlemm canal (SC), the interface between SC and the trabecular meshwork (TM) 9-11.&#160;While TM stiffness may contribute to the prevention of SC collapse in the face of IOP elevation,&#160;Overby et al. 12&#160;recently demonstrated that gene expression in glaucoma is altered, resulting in increased SC endothelial stiffening, impeding formation of pores, leading to IOP elevation in glaucomatous eyes13.&#160;TM morphology and stiffness correlate with outflow facility14,15,&#160;emphasizing the need to measure its biomechanical characteristics.
Atomic force microscopy measurements of the TM show elevated stiffness in eyes donated by glaucoma patients (81 kPa) compared with eyes from donors without glaucoma (4.0 kPa) 16,&#160;but these measurements were made in dissected ex vivo tissues. The posterior TM is anchored into the ciliary muscle via anterior tendons of the longitudinal muscle cells which insert into the outer lamellated and cribiform TM17.&#160;Ciliary muscle (CM) activity may increase TM tautness, mimicking elevated TM stiffness17.&#160;The ability to observe alterations in resistance to SC collapse induced by perturbations of smooth muscle has been shown in an animal model18.&#160;We have demonstrated the ability to non-invasively image the primary aqueous humor outflow system in living human eyes distal to and including SC using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) 19-21.&#160;Using this technique, we have demonstrated the ability to quantify the morphometric response of the TM and SC to acute IOP elevation22.
The overall goal of the method described herein was to quantify the morphometric response of the living outflow tract to acute IOP elevation in living tissues in situ. This technique has the advantage of examining the TM under physiological conditions, which includes contributions of both contractile fiber activity within the TM and CM to TM stiffness, as compared to published measurements made in dissected tissues. The rationale behind applying this technique to observation of the mechanical TM response is that it provides us with otherwise unavailable insights into the mechanical behavior of the TM, which we now know to be linked directly to outflow resistance and IOP regulation13.&#160;To discern the contribution of contractile tissues to overall stiffness, a small cohort of subjects was examined without and with suppression of smooth muscle activity by administration of tropicamide.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectral Domain OCT</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Cirrus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imaging Workstation</td>
			<td>Apple</td>
			<td>iMac</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmodynamometer</td>
			<td colspan="3">(Baillairt Matalene Ophthalmodynamometer, Surgical instruments CO., Inc. New York, NY)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image Processing Program</td>
			<td>rsb.info.nih.gov/ij</td>
			<td>ImageJ, FIJI</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

trabecular meshwork response to pressure elevation in the living human eye

The mechanical characteristics of the trabecular meshwork (TM) are linked to outflow resistance and intraocular pressure (IOP) regulation. The rationale behind this technique is the direct observation of the mechanical response of the TM to acute IOP elevation. Prior to scanning, IOP is measured at baseline and during IOP elevation. The limbus is scanned by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography at baseline and during IOP elevation (ophthalmodynamometer (ODM) applied at 30 g force). Scans are processed to enhance visualization of the aqueous humor outflow pathway using ImageJ. Vascular landmarks are used to identify corresponding locations in baseline and IOP elevation scan volumes. Schlemm canal (SC) cross-sectional area (SC-CSA) and SC length from anterior to posterior along its long axis are measured manually at 10 locations within a 1 mm segment of SC. Mean inner to outer wall distance (short axis length) is calculated as the area of SC divided by its long axis length. To examine the contribution of adjacent tissues to the effect IOP elevations, measurements are repeated without and with smooth muscle relaxation with instillation of tropicamide. TM migration into SC is resisted by TM stiffness, but is enhanced by the support of its attachment to adjacent smooth muscle within the ciliary body. This technique is the first to measure the living human TM response to pressure elevation in situ under physiological conditions within the human eye.

Using these data acquisition and image analysis techniques, the effects of small and large changes in IOP on outflow tract morphological parameters such as SC cross-sectional area are obtained (Figure 1). We can see that high levels of IOP increase produce an observable collapse of SC, as represented by a large reduction in cross-sectional area. The eye appears to be able to accommodate small increases in IOP, as evidenced by the lack of change in SC-CSA (Figure 1). These results show th...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Trabecular Meshwork Response to Pressure Elevation in the Living Human Eye at JoVE.com

Trabecular Meshwork Response to Pressure Elevation in the Living Human Eye

Trabecular meshwork (TM) migration into Schlemm&#8217;s canal space can be induced by acute pressure elevation by ophthalmodynamometer, and observed by spectral domain optical coherence tomography. The goal of this method is to quantify the morphometric response of the living outflow tract to acute pressure elevation in living tissues in situ.

The mechanical characteristics of the trabecular meshwork (TM) are linked to outflow resistance and intraocular pressure (IOP) regulation. The rationale ...

trabecular-meshwork-response-to-pressure-elevation-living-human

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

9.9K Views.  University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. Trabecular meshwork (TM) migration into Schlemm’s canal space can be induced by acute pressure elevation by ophthalmodynamometer, and observed by spectral domain optical coherence tomography. The goal of this method is to quantify the morphometric response of the living outflow tract to acute pressure elevation in living tissues in situ.

Video: Trabecular Meshwork Response to Pressure Elevation in the Living Human Eye

Trabecular meshwork (TM) migration into Schlemm&#8217;s canal space can be induced by acute pressure elevation by ophthalmodynamometer, and observed by spectral domain optical coherence tomography. The goal of this method is to quantify the morphometric response of the living outflow tract to acute pressure elevation in living tissues in...

laser capture microdissection of highly pure trabecular meshwork from mouse eyes for gene expression analysis

Laser Capture Microdissection of Highly Pure Trabecular Meshwork from Mouse Eyes for Gene Expression Analysis

Here, we describe a protocol for a reproducible laser capture microdissection (LCM) for isolating trabecular meshwork (TM) for downstream RNA analysis. The ability to analyze changes in gene expression in the TM will help in understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of TM-related ocular...

eye removal in living zebrafish larvae to examine innervation-dependent growth and development of the visual system

Eye Removal in Living Zebrafish Larvae to Examine Innervation-dependent Growth and Development of the Visual System

The article explains how to surgically remove eyes from living zebrafish larvae as the first step toward investigating how retinal input influences optic tectum growth and development. In addition, the article provides information about larval anesthetization, fixation, and brain dissection, followed by immunohistochemistry and confocal...

a mouse model of retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury through elevation of intraocular pressure

A Mouse Model of Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Through Elevation of Intraocular Pressure

This article describes a procedure for inducing retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure in mice. Retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure serves to model human pathologies characterized by compromised oxygen and nutrient delivery in the retina, enabling researchers to examine potential cellular mechanisms and treatments for human diseases of the retinal neurovascular...

recording changes in renal sympathetic nerve activity in response to arterial pressure in rats

This video demonstrates a technique of studying the activity of renal sympathetic nerves (RSNs) in response to changes in arterial pressure in rats. Upon attaching a pressure-sensing catheter to the femoral artery, the renal sympathetic nerves are exposed. The nerves are then lifted onto a recording electrode, and their electrical activity is recorded. Next, a vasoconstricting drug is injected to elevate blood pressure, and corresponding changes in RSN activity are...

Recording Changes in Renal Sympathetic Nerve Activity in Response to Arterial Pressure in Rats

Use a bent 22-gauge needle tip to puncture a hole in the artery and insert the cannula into the artery as far as possible. Then, secure the pressure catheter with the proximal and distal suture ties, and tuck the body of the telemetry implant inside the flank adjacent to the incision. Gently move the rat into the prone position in a stereotaxic surgery frame with the head between the ear...

translaminar autonomous system model for the modulation of intraocular and intracranial pressure in human donor posterior segments

Translaminar Autonomous System Model for the Modulation of Intraocular and Intracranial Pressure in Human Donor Posterior Segments

We describe and detail the use of the translaminar autonomous system. This system utilizes the human posterior segment to independently regulate the pressure inside the segment (intraocular) and surrounding the optic nerve (intracranial) to generate a translaminar pressure gradient that mimics features of glaucomatous optic...

estimation of structural sensitivity of intrinsically disordered regions in response to hyperosmotic stress in living cells using fret

Author Spotlight: Unlocking the World of Intrinsically Disordered Regions with Cellular Sensing and Responses

Intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) are flexible protein domains that modify their conformation in response to environmental changes. Ensemble fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) can estimate protein dimensions under different conditions. We present a FRET approach to assess IDR structural sensitivity in living Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells under hyperosmotic...

Estimation of Structural Sensitivity of Intrinsically Disordered Regions in Response to Hyperosmotic Stress in Living Cells Using FRET

cardiac response to &#946;-adrenergic stimulation determined by pressure-volume loop analysis

Cardiac Response to &amp;#946;-Adrenergic Stimulation Determined by Pressure-Volume Loop Analysis

Here we describe a cardiac pressure-volume loop analysis under increasing doses of intravenously infused isoproterenol to determine the intrinsic cardiac function and the &#946;-adrenergic reserve in mice. We use a modified open-chest approach for the pressure-volume loop measurements, in which we include ventilation with positive end-expiratory...

Cardiac Response to &#946;-Adrenergic Stimulation Determined by Pressure-Volume Loop Analysis

trabecular bone microarchitecture evaluation in an osteoporosis mouse model

Author Spotlight: An Economic and Efficient Method for Quantitative Evaluation of Bone Microarchitecture in a Murine Osteoporosis Model 

This protocol presents an economical and efficient method for quantitative evaluation of bone microarchitecture in a mouse model of osteoporosis by combining Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining and micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT)...

Trabecular Bone Microarchitecture Evaluation in an Osteoporosis Mouse Model

assessing myogenic response and vasoactivity in resistance mesenteric arteries using pressure myography

Assessing Myogenic Response and Vasoactivity In Resistance Mesenteric Arteries Using Pressure Myography

Pressure myography is used to assess vasoactivity of small arteries that develop sustained constriction when pressurized. This manuscript provides a detailed protocol to assess in isolated segments of small mesenteric arteries from rats, vasoactivity and the effect of intraluminal pressure on vascular...

intravitreal injections in the ovine eye

Intravitreal Injections in the Ovine Eye

Intravitreal injections were performed in the sheep eye with the aim of delivering viral-mediated gene therapy to the...

the gateway to the brain: dissecting the primate eye

The Gateway to the Brain: Dissecting the Primate Eye

The non-human primate is an important translational species for our understanding of development and aging. The anatomical organization of the primate retina may provide important insights into normal and pathological conditions in...

microdissection of the rodent eye

Microdissection of the Rodent Eye

This paper presents a protocol for ocular micro-dissection in rodents. The process involves the enucleation of the eyeball along with the nictitating membrane (i.e., the third eyelid). This is then followed by the separation of the posterior and anterior eye cups.

imaging subcellular structures in the living zebrafish embryo

Imaging Subcellular Structures in the Living Zebrafish Embryo

Imaging the dynamic behavior of organelles and other subcellular structures in vivo can shed light on their function in physiological and disease conditions. Here, we present methods for genetically tagging two organelles, centrosomes and mitochondria, and imaging their dynamics in living zebrafish embryos using wide-field and confocal microscopy.

anterior eye segment dissection: a method to isolate cornea bearing anterior segment from porcine eye

In this video, we demonstrate the dissection of the cornea-bearing anterior segment of the porcine eye. The isolated segment can be used for organ culturing to study the pathophysiology of eye...

Anterior Eye Segment Dissection: A Method to Isolate Cornea Bearing Anterior Segment from Porcine Eye

efficiently recording the eye-hand coordination to incoordination spectrum

Efficiently Recording the Eye-Hand Coordination to Incoordination Spectrum

Cerebral injury can damage both ocular and somatic motor systems. Characterization of motor control post-injury affords biomarkers that assist in disease detection, monitoring, and prognosis. We review a method to measure eye-hand movement control in health and in pathologic incoordination, with look-and-reach paradigms to assess coordination between eye and...

using eye movements to evaluate the cognitive processes involved in text comprehension

Using Eye Movements to Evaluate the Cognitive Processes Involved in Text Comprehension

The present article describes how to use eye tracking methodologies to study the cognitive processes involved in text comprehension. Descriptions of eye tracking equipment, how to develop experimental stimuli, and procedural recommendations are included. The information presented can be applied to most any study using verbal...

tracking the interaction of a human eye with virtual objects in real time

Tracking the Interaction of a Human Eye with Virtual Objects in Real Time

evaluation of a smartphone-based human activity recognition system in a daily living environment

Evaluation of a Smartphone-based Human Activity Recognition System in a Daily Living Environment

A standardized evaluation method was developed for Wearable Mobility Monitoring Systems (WMMS) that includes continuous activities in a realistic daily living environment. Testing with a series of daily living activities can decrease activity recognition sensitivity; therefore, realistic testing circuits are encouraged for valid evaluation of WMMS...

Epidural Intracranial Pressure Measurement in Rats Using a Fiber-optic Pressure Transducer

Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) is a significant problem in several forms of ischemic brain injury including stroke, traumatic brain injury and cardiac arrest. This elevation may result in further neurological injury, in the form of transtentorial herniation1,2,3,4, midbrain compression, neurological deficit or increased cerebral infarct2,4. Current therapies are often inadequate to control elevated ICP in the clinical setting5,6,7 . Thus there is a need for accurate methods of ICP measurement in animal models to further our understanding of the basic mechanisms and to develop new treatments for elevated ICP.
In both the clinical and experimental setting ICP cannot be estimated without direct measurement. Several methods of ICP catheter insertion currently exist. Of these the intraventricular catheter has become the clinical 'gold standard' of ICP measurement in humans8. This method involves the partial removal of skull and the instrumentation of the catheter through brain tissue. Consequently, intraventricular catheters have an infection rate of 6-11%9. For this reason, subdural and epidural cannulations have become the preferred methods in animal models of ischemic injury. 
Various ICP measurement techniques have been adapted for animal models, and of these, fluid-filled telemetry catheters10 and solid state catheters are the most frequently used11,12,13,14,15. The fluid-filled systems are prone to developing air bubbles in the line, resulting in false ICP readings. Solid state probes avoid this problem (Figure 1). An additional problem is fitting catheters under the skull or into the ventricles without causing any brain injury that might alter the experimental outcomes. Therefore, we have developed a method that places an ICP catheter contiguous with the epidural space, but avoids the need to insert it between skull and brain. 
An optic fibre pressure catheter (420LP, SAMBA Sensors, Sweden) was used to measure ICP at the epidural location because the location of the pressure sensor (at the very tip of the catheter) was found to produce a high fidelity ICP signal in this model. There are other manufacturers of similar optic fibre technologies13 that may be used with our methodology. Alternative solid state catheters, which have the pressure sensor located at the side of the catheter tip, would not be appropriate for this model as the signal would be dampened by the presence of the monitoring screw. 
Here, we present a relatively simple and accurate method to measure ICP. This method can be used across a wide range of ICP related animal models.

A novel technique to record the pressures within the skull is described. The minimally invasive method uses a fibre-optic pressure sensing system to accurately measure intracranial pressure (ICP) in anaesthetized rats without causing significant brain trauma. The technique may be used in a wide range of experimental models.

Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) is a significant problem in several forms of ischemic brain injury including stroke, traumatic brain injury and ...

Subretinal Injection of Gene Therapy Vectors and Stem Cells in the Perinatal Mouse Eye

The loss of sight affects approximately 3.4 million people in the United States and is expected to increase in the upcoming years.1 Recently, gene therapy and stem cell transplantations have become key therapeutic tools for treating blindness resulting from retinal degenerative diseases. Several forms of autologous transplantation for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), such as iris pigment epithelial cell transplantation, have generated encouraging results, and human clinical trials have begun for other forms of gene and stem cell therapies.2 These include RPE65 gene replacement therapy in patients with Leber's congenital amaurosis and an RPE cell transplantation using human embryonic stem (ES) cells in Stargardt's disease.3-4 Now that there are gene therapy vectors and stem cells available for treating patients with retinal diseases, it is important to verify these potential therapies in animal models before applying them in human studies. The mouse has become an important scientific model for testing the therapeutic efficacy of gene therapy vectors and stem cell transplantation in the eye.5-8 In this video article, we present a technique to inject gene therapy vectors or stem cells into the subretinal space of the mouse eye while minimizing damage to the surrounding tissue.

This surgical technique illustrates the injection of gene therapy vectors and stem cells into the subretinal space of the mouse eye.

The loss of sight affects approximately 3.4 million people in the United States and is expected to increase in the upcoming years.1 Recently, gene therapy ...

Development of an Audio-based Virtual Gaming Environment to Assist with Navigation Skills in the Blind

Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES) is virtual environment software designed to improve real world navigation skills in the blind. Using only audio based cues and set within the context of a video game metaphor, users gather relevant spatial information regarding a building's layout. This allows the user to develop an accurate spatial cognitive map of a large-scale three-dimensional space that can be manipulated for the purposes of a real indoor navigation task. After game play, participants are then assessed on their ability to navigate within the target physical building represented in the game. Preliminary results suggest that early blind users were able to acquire relevant information regarding the spatial layout of a previously unfamiliar building as indexed by their performance on a series of navigation tasks. These tasks included path finding through the virtual and physical building, as well as a series of drop off tasks. We find that the immersive and highly interactive nature of the AbES software appears to greatly engage the blind user to actively explore the virtual environment. Applications of this approach may extend to larger populations of visually impaired individuals.

Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES) is virtual environment software designed to improve real world navigation skills in the blind.

Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES) is virtual environment software designed to improve real world navigation skills in the blind. Using only audio ...

Small resistance arteries constrict and dilate respectively in response to increased or decreased intraluminal pressure; this phenomenon known as myogenic response is a key regulator of local blood flow. In isobaric conditions small resistance arteries develop sustained constriction known as myogenic tone (MT), which is a major determinant of systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Hence, ex vivo&#160;pressurized preparations of small resistance arteries are major tools to study microvascular function in near-physiological states. To achieve this, a freshly isolated intact segment of a small resistance artery (diameter ~260 &#956;m) is mounted onto two small glass cannulas and pressurized. These arterial preparations retain most in vivo characteristics and permit assessment of vascular tone in real-time. Here we provide a detailed protocol for assessing vasoactivity in pressurized small resistance mesenteric arteries from rats; these arteries develop sustained vasoconstriction - approximately 25% of maximal diameter - when pressurized at 70 mmHg. These arterial preparations may be used to study the effect of investigational compounds on relationship between intra-arterial pressure and vasoactivity and determine changes in microvascular function in animal models of various diseases.

Pressure myography is used to assess vasoactivity of small arteries that develop sustained constriction when pressurized. This manuscript provides a detailed protocol to assess in isolated segments of small mesenteric arteries from rats, vasoactivity and the effect of intraluminal pressure on vascular diameter.

Small resistance arteries constrict and dilate respectively in response to increased or decreased intraluminal pressure; this phenomenon known as myogenic ...

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. Despite the discovery of key regulators of uterine contractility, this process is still not fully understood. Transgenic mice provide an ideal model in which to study parturition. Previously, the only method to study uterine contractility in the mouse was ex vivo isometric tension recordings, which are suboptimal for several reasons. The uterus must be removed from its physiological environment, a limited time course of investigation is possible, and the mice must be sacrificed. The recent development of radiometric telemetry has allowed for longitudinal, real-time measurements of in vivo intrauterine pressure in mice. Here, the implantation of an intrauterine telemeter to measure pressure changes in the mouse uterus from mid-pregnancy until delivery is described. By comparing differences in pressures between wild type and transgenic mice, the physiological impact of a gene of interest can be elucidated. This technique should expedite the development of therapeutics used to treat myometrial disorders during pregnancy, including preterm labor.

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

This manuscript provides a protocol for implanting telemeters in the mouse for the purpose of measuring intrauterine pressures during pregnancy.

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. ...

Cardiac Catheterization in Mice to Measure the Pressure Volume Relationship: Investigating the Bowditch Effect

Animal models that mimic human cardiac disorders have been created to test potential therapeutic strategies. A key component to evaluating these strategies is to examine their effects on heart function. There are several techniques to measure in vivo cardiac mechanics (e.g., echocardiography, pressure/volume relations, etc.). Compared to echocardiography, real-time left ventricular (LV) pressure/volume analysis via catheterization is more precise and insightful in assessing LV function. Additionally, LV pressure/volume analysis provides the ability to instantaneously record changes during manipulations of contractility (e.g., &#946;-adrenergic stimulation) and pathological insults (e.g., ischemia/reperfusion injury). In addition to the maximum (+dP/dt) and minimum (-dP/dt) rate of pressure change in the LV, an accurate assessment of LV function via several load-independent indexes (e.g., end systolic pressure volume relationship and preload recruitable stroke work) can be attained. Heart rate has a significant effect on LV contractility such that an increase in the heart rate is the primary mechanism to increase cardiac output (i.e., Bowditch effect). Thus, when comparing hemodynamics between experimental groups, it is necessary to have similar heart rates. Furthermore, a hallmark of many cardiomyopathy models is a decrease in contractile reserve (i.e., decreased Bowditch effect). Consequently, vital information can be obtained by determining the effects of increasing heart rate on contractility. Our and others data has demonstrated that the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS1) knockout mouse has decreased contractility. Here we describe the procedure of measuring LV pressure/volume with increasing heart rates using the NOS1 knockout mouse model.

This article describes the measurement of murine left ventricular function via pressure/volume analysis at different heart rates.

Animal models that mimic human cardiac disorders have been created to test potential therapeutic strategies. A key component to evaluating these ...

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and retinal vascular occlusions. Rodent models of I/R injury are providing significant insights into mechanisms and treatment strategies for human I/R injury, especially with regard to neurodegenerative damage in the retinal neurovascular unit. Presented here is a protocol for inducing retinal I/R injury in mice through elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP). In this protocol, the ocular anterior chamber is cannulated with a needle, through which flows the drip of an elevated saline reservoir. Using this drip to raise IOP above systolic arterial blood pressure, a practitioner temporarily halts inner retinal blood flow (ischemia). When circulation is reinstated (reperfusion) by removal of the cannula, severe cellular damage ensues, resulting ultimately in retinal neurodegeneration. Recent studies demonstrate inflammation, vascular permeability, and capillary degeneration as additional elements of this model. Compared to alternative retinal I/R methodologies, such as retinal arterial ligation, retinal I/R injury by elevated IOP offers advantages in its&#160;anatomical specificity, experimental tractability, and technical accessibility, presenting itself as a valuable tool for examining neuronal pathogenesis and therapy in the retinal neurovascular unit.

This article describes a procedure for inducing retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure in mice. Retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure serves to model human pathologies characterized by compromised oxygen and nutrient delivery in the retina, enabling researchers to examine potential cellular mechanisms and treatments for human diseases of the retinal neurovascular unit.

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, ...

Precision Implementation of Minimal Erythema Dose (MED) Testing to Assess Individual Variation in Human Inflammatory Response

Minimal erythema dose (MED) testing is frequently used in clinical settings for determining the smallest amount of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation necessary to produce erythema (inflammatory reddening) on the surface of the skin. In this context, the MED is regarded as a key factor in determining starting doses for UV phototherapy for common skin conditions such as psoriasis and eczema. In research settings, MED testing also has potential to be a powerful tool for assessing within- and between-persons variation in inflammatory responses. However, MED testing has not been widely adopted for use in research settings, likely owing to a lack of published guidelines, which is a barrier to obtaining reproducible results from this assay. Also, protocols and equipment for establishing MED vary widely, making it difficult to compare results across laboratories. Here, we describe a precise and reproducible method to induce and measure superficial erythema using newly designed protocols and methods that can easily be adapted to other equipment and laboratory environments. The method described here includes detail on procedures that will allow extrapolation of a standardized dosage schedule to other equipment so that this protocol can be adapted to any UV radiation source.

Precision Implementation of Minimal Erythema Dose MED Testing to Assess Individual Variation in Human Inflammatory Response

Minimal erythema dose (MED) testing is used to establish dosage schedules for ultraviolet radiation phototherapy. It can assess individual variation in inflammatory response but lacks methodology for achieving reproducible results. Here, we present a precision implementation of MED and demonstrate its ability to capture individual variation in inflammatory response.

Minimal erythema dose (MED) testing is frequently used in clinical settings for determining the smallest amount of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation necessary ...

Characterization of a Novel Human Organotypic Retinal Culture Technique

Previous human organotypic retinal culture (HORC) models have utilized detached retinas; however, without the structural support conferred by retinal pigment epithelium-choroid (RPE-choroid) and sclera, the integrity of the fragile retina can easily be compromised. The aim of this study was to develop a novel HORC model that contains the retina, RPE-choroid and sclera to maintain retinal integrity when culturing retinal explants.
After cutting circumferentially along the limbus to remove iris and lens, four deep incisions were made to flatten the eyecup. In contrast to previous HORC protocols, a trephine was used to cut through not only the retina but also the RPE-choroid and sclera. The resultant triple-layered explants were cultured for 72 h. Hematoxylin and Eosin staining (H&#38;E) was used to assess anatomical structures and retinal explants were further characterized by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for apoptosis, M&#252;ller cell integrity and retinal inflammation. To confirm the possibility of disease induction, explants were exposed to high glucose (HG) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (Cyt), to mimic diabetic retinopathy (DR). The Luminex magnetic bead assay was used to measure DR-related cytokines released into the culture medium.
H&#38;E staining revealed distinct retinal lamellae and compact nuclei in retinal explants with the underlying RPE-choroid and sclera, while retinas without the underlying structures exhibited reduced thickness and severe nuclei loss. IHC results indicated absence of apoptosis and retinal inflammation as well as preserved M&#252;ller cell integrity. The Luminex&#160;assays showed significantly increased secretion of DR-associated pro-inflammatory cytokines in retinal explants exposed to HG + Cyt relative to baseline levels at 24 h.
We successfully developed and characterized a novel HORC protocol in which retinal integrity was preserved without apoptosis or retinal inflammation. Moreover, the induced secretion of DR-associated pro-inflammatory biomarkers when exposing retinal explants to HG + Cyt suggests that this model could be used for clinically translatable retinal disease studies.

This study aims to develop a novel human organotypic retinal culture (HORC) model that prevents compromising retinal integrity during explant handling. This is achieved by culturing the retina with the overlying vitreous and the underlying retinal pigment&#160;epithelium-choroid (RPE-choroid) and sclera.

Previous human organotypic retinal culture (HORC) models have utilized detached retinas; however, without the structural support conferred by retinal ...

Determination of the cardiac function is a robust endpoint analysis in animal models of cardiovascular diseases in order to characterize effects of specific treatments on the heart. Due to the feasibility of genetic manipulations the mouse has become the most common mammalian animal model to study cardiac function and to search for new potential therapeutic targets. Here we describe a protocol to determine cardiac function&#160;in vivo using pressure-volume loop measurements and analysis during basal conditions and under &#946;-adrenergic stimulation by intravenous infusion of increasing concentrations of isoproterenol. We provide a refined protocol including ventilation support taking into account the positive end-expiratory pressure to ameliorate negative effects during open-chest measurements, and potent analgesia (Buprenorphine) to avoid uncontrollable myocardial stress evoked by pain during the procedure. All together the detailed description of the procedure and discussion about possible pitfalls enables highly standardized and reproducible pressure-volume loop analysis, reducing the exclusion of animals from the experimental cohort by preventing possible methodological bias.

Here we describe a cardiac pressure-volume loop analysis under increasing doses of intravenously infused isoproterenol to determine the intrinsic cardiac function and the &#946;-adrenergic reserve in mice. We use a modified open-chest approach for the pressure-volume loop measurements, in which we include ventilation with positive end-expiratory pressure.

Determination of the cardiac function is a robust endpoint analysis in animal models of cardiovascular diseases in order to characterize effects of ...