This study was supported by a Singapore National Research Foundation (NRF) Grant NRF2012NRF-POC001-043.

1. Photomask Fabrication
<ol>
	<li>Clean a 4&#8221; glass wafer with piranha solution (H2SO4/H2O2 in 2:1 ratio) for 20 min at 120 &#176;C by immersion in a quartz tank.</li>
	<li>Deposit a layer of Chromium/Gold (30 nm of Cr/1 &#181;m of Au) layer on the glass wafer using an e-beam evaporator7 (Figure 1A).
	<ol>
		<li>Place the wafers in an e-beam evaporator. Once the vacuum reaches 5 x 10-6 Torr, turn on the high voltage source (10 kV). Control the thickness by the monitor control panel.</li>
		<li>Pre-clean each material for 30 sec using the e-beam gun, keeping the shutter &#8220;OFF&#8221; (in order to avoid the deposition on the wafers).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Generate a Cr/Au photoresist masking layer for deep wet etching of the glass.
	<ol>
		<li>Apply a 2 &#181;m thick photoresist by spinning 5 ml of the solution for 30 sec at 3,000 rpm using a spin-spray coater system. Prebake the photoresist on a hotplate at 100 &#176;C for 1.5 min.</li>
		<li>Expose and hard bake the photoresist at 120 &#176;C for 30 min on a hot plate. It is critical to generate a hydrophobic surface and a strong adhesion of the photoresist to the metal layer. Pattern the Cr/Au layer using Cr and Au etchants through the photoresist mask8,9.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For protection of the un-patterned glass surface, temporarily bond the glass wafer to a dummy silicon wafer.9
	<ol>
		<li>Place the glass wafer on a hot plate at 110 &#176;C and melt the wax on the opposite side of the glass wafer (in such a way that the entire surface of the wafer is covered with wax).</li>
		<li>Place a dummy silicon wafer in contact with the glass wafer and press to remove the excess wax. In order to avoid spilling of the wax, place a clean room tissue paper on the hotplate.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Perform isotropic etching of the lens using optimized hydrofluoric acid (49% v/v) and hydrochloric acid (37% v/v) solution ( in a volumetric ratio of 10:1) with a magnetic stirrer for 8.5 min.10 Presence of the HCl is critical in achieving a good surface quality of generated lenses.
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that the etching rate is 7 &#181;m/min; using a total volume of 200 ml of etching solution. Perform etching in a plastic container and take safety precaution for this processing step.</li>
		<li>Clean the wafer in the deionized (DI) water by rinsing and further drying at RT.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After the process completion, separate the glass wafer from the dummy silicon wafer and warm up the wax using a hot plate at 100 &#176;C for 15 sec. As the wax melts at this temperature, detach the glass wafer from the dummy silicon wafer.</li>
	<li>Remove remaining wax, the photoresist and the overhanging Cr/Au layers at the edges of the lenses using ultrasonication for 1 hr using N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone as the solvent at 80 &#176;C in an ultrasonic tank.</li>
	<li>Create a PDMS mold replica of the microlenses fabricated on the photomasks11.</li>
	<li>Characterize the photomask dimensions (length and width) and the microlenses PDMS mold (depth and diameter) replicas using a scanning electron microscope and stereomicroscope respectively.12-14</li>
</ol>
2. MN Shafts Fabrication
<ol>
	<li>Create a cavity of 2.5 cm &#215; 0.9 cm using the glass slides mounted on either sides of a glass. The number of the glass slides stacked on either side will determine the height of the cavity known as spacer thickness (Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Secure each layer of the glass slide by applying a thin layer of the prepolymer solution containing Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA, MW = 258 Da) with 0.5% w/w 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propiophenone (HMP) onto the glass slide followed by irradiation of the set up with the high intensity ultraviolet (UV) light for 2 sec.</li>
	<li>Position the photomask (previously fabricated) with the Cr/Au coated surfaces facing the interior of the cavity. Ensure that the sides of the cavity walls are not obscuring the lenses embedded in the photomask.</li>
	<li>Fill the cavity with the prepolymer solution until the Cr/Au coated surface is in contact with the solution without any visible bubbles.</li>
	<li>Irradiate the setup with high intensity UV light of a desired intensity for 1 sec at a distance of 3.5 cm from the UV source using the UV curing station with a UV filter range of 320-500 nm. Use a collimating adaptor with the UV light probe.</li>
	<li>Measure the intensity of UV light used using a radiometer.</li>
	<li>Following UV exposure, remove the photomask with the array of MNs. Pour the excess prepolymer solution that is not polymerized in the process back into its original container for reuse.</li>
	<li>Quantify the length and tip diameter of the MNs using a stereomicroscope according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions.</li>
</ol>
3. MN Backing Layer Fabrication
<ol>
	<li>With forceps, place the MNs (previously fabricated) attached onto the photomask in a well of a 24-well plate as shown in the Figure 1C.</li>
	<li>Add a specified volume (300 - 400 &#181;l) of the prepolymer solution into the well until the needles are submerged to a desired height. This volume determines the thickness of the resultant backing layer.</li>
	<li>Irradiate the setup with high intensity UV light (15.1 W/cm2), 10.5 cm away from the UV source for a duration of 1 sec.</li>
	<li>Separate the backing layer on the MN array from the photomask using a sharp blade.</li>
	<li>Quantify the length, tip diameter and base diameter of the MNs with the backing layer using a stereomicroscope according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Zhou, C. P., Liu, Y. L., Wang, H. L., Zhang, P. X., Zhang, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transdermal+delivery+of+insulin+using+microneedle+rollers+in+vivo.">Transdermal delivery of insulin using microneedle rollers in vivo.</a> International journal of pharmaceutics. 392, 127-133 (2010).</li><li>Lee, J. W., Choi, S. O., Felner, E. I., Prausnitz, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissolving+microneedle+patch+for+transdermal+delivery+of+human+growth+hormone.">Dissolving microneedle patch for transdermal delivery of human growth hormone.</a> Small. 7, 531-539 (2011).</li><li>Raphael, A. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=needle-free+vaccinations+in+skin+using+multi+layered,+densely-packed+dissolving+microprojection+arrays.">needle-free vaccinations in skin using multi layered, densely-packed dissolving microprojection arrays.</a> Small. 6, 1785-1793 (2010).</li><li>Lee, J. W., Han, M. R., Park, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymer+microneedles+for+transdermal+drug+delivery.">Polymer microneedles for transdermal drug delivery.</a> Journal of drug targeting. 21, 211-223 (2012).</li><li>Kochhar, J. S., Goh, W. J., Chan, S. Y., Kang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+method+of+microneedle+array+fabrication+for+transdermal+drug+delivery.">A simple method of microneedle array fabrication for transdermal drug delivery.</a> Drug development and industrial pharmacy. 39, 299-309 (2013).</li><li>Kochhar, J. S., Zou, S., Chan, S. Y., Kang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+encapsulation+in+polymeric+microneedles+by+photolithography.">Protein encapsulation in polymeric microneedles by photolithography.</a> International journal of nanomedicine. 7, 3143-3154 (2012).</li><li>Tay, F. E. H., Iliescu, C., Jing, J., Miao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Defect-free+wet+etching+through+pyrex+glass+using+Cr/Au+mask.">Defect-free wet etching through pyrex glass using Cr/Au mask.</a> Microsystem Technologies. 12, 935-939 (2006).</li><li>Iliescu, C., Chen, B., Miao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+wet+etching+of+Pyrex+glass.">On the wet etching of Pyrex glass.</a> Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical. 143, 154-161 (2008).</li><li>Iliescu, C., Taylor, H., Avram, M., Miao, J., Franssila, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+practical+guide+for+the+fabrication+of+microfluidic+devices+using+glass+and+silicon.">A practical guide for the fabrication of microfluidic devices using glass and silicon.</a> Biomicrofluidics. 6, 16505-16516 (2012).</li><li>Iliescu, C., Jing, J., Tay, F. E. H., Miao, J., Sun, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+masking+layers+for+deep+wet+etching+of+glass+in+an+improved+HF/HCl+solution.">Characterization of masking layers for deep wet etching of glass in an improved HF/HCl solution.</a> Surface and Coatings Technology. 198, 314-318 (2005).</li><li>Pan, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+of+a+3D+hair+follicle-like+hydrogel+by+soft+lithography.">Fabrication of a 3D hair follicle-like hydrogel by soft lithography.</a> Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A. 101, 3159-3169 (2013).</li><li>Jay, T. R., Stern, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preshaping+photoresist+for+refractive+microlens+fabrication.">Preshaping photoresist for refractive microlens fabrication.</a> P Soc Photo-Opt Ins. 1992, 275-282 (1993).</li><li>Friedman, G. B., Sandhu, H. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Longitudinal+Spherical+Aberration+of+a+Thin+Lens.">Longitudinal Spherical Aberration of a Thin Lens.</a> Am J Phys. 35, 628 (1967).</li><li>Xu, Q. A., Li, J., Zhang, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collimated+the+laser+diode+beam+by+the+focus+lens.">Collimated the laser diode beam by the focus lens.</a> Semiconductor Lasers and Applications IV. 7844, (2010).</li><li>Lin, T. W., Chen, C. F., Yang, J. J., Liao, Y. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+dual-directional+light-control+film+with+a+high-sag+and+high-asymmetrical-shape+microlens+array+fabricated+by+a+UV+imprinting+process.">A dual-directional light-control film with a high-sag and high-asymmetrical-shape microlens array fabricated by a UV imprinting process.</a> J Micromech Microeng. 18, (2008).</li><li>Dunne, S. M., Millar, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+distance+from+curing+light+tip+to+restoration+surface+on+depth+of+cure+of+composite+resin.">Effect of distance from curing light tip to restoration surface on depth of cure of composite resin.</a> Prim Dent Care. 15, 147-152 (2008).</li><li>Kochhar, J. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microneedle+integrated+transdermal+patch+for+fast+onset+and+sustained+delivery+of+lidocaine.">Microneedle integrated transdermal patch for fast onset and sustained delivery of lidocaine.</a> Molecular pharmaceutics. 10, 4272-4280 (2013).</li><li>Kochhar, J. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+microneedle+array+fabrication+off+a+photomask+to+deliver+collagen+through+skin.">Direct microneedle array fabrication off a photomask to deliver collagen through skin.</a> Pharmaceutical research. 31, 1724-1734 (2014).</li></ol>

The authors declare no conflict of Interest.

The protocol described above for fabrication of the MNs array has been presented to fabricate the MNs array of ~1 cm2. The arrays can be scaled up by creating a large size cavity and by using a larger photomask. The increased cavity size can be created by increasing the width between the spacers on either side. Though each step to fabricate the MN arrays in the protocol was important, the most crucial steps were: the photomask positioning, the filling of prepolymer solution, and irradiation of the setup. Posit...

Transdermal drug delivery offers an attractive alternative approach for drug administration, especially for biomolecules, which are almost exclusively administered by hypodermic injections. However, skin, especially the top layer (the stratum corneum), is a formidable barrier preventing exogenous molecules from entering the human body. Recently, MN devices have emerged as enabling tools to deliver drugs through skin. The MN devices create temporary pores inside the stratum corneum to allow the passage of drug molecules to achieve the desired physiological activity with improved patient compliance and convenience1-3.
Various fabrication methods have been adopted to fabricate polymeric MNs4. However, they usually involve complicated and multiple step processes requiring long times and/or high temperatures to fabricate MNs arrays.4 To simplify the fabrication process, a single step mold-free process using a photomask was developed recently5,6. However, with this method, fabricated MNs had blunt needle tips, as no mechanism was in place to modify the ultraviolet (UV) light path involved in photolithography.
In this study, embedded microlenses in the photomask have been proposed to define the geometry of the MNs. The protocol to fabricate photomasks consisting of embedded microlenses and subsequently MN fabrication with sharp tips using the photomask are reported.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA Mn=258)</td>
			<td>SIGMA&#160;</td>
			<td>475629-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propiophenone (HMP)</td>
			<td>SIGMA&#160;</td>
			<td>405655-50ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine collagen type 1, FITC conjugate&#160;</td>
			<td>SIGMA&#160;</td>
			<td>C4361</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV curing station&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>EXFO Photonic Solutions Inc., Canada</td>
			<td>OmniCure S200-XL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collimating Adaptor&#160;</td>
			<td>EXFO Photonic Solutions Inc., Canada</td>
			<td>EXFO 810-00042</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well plate</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nikon SMZ 1500 stereomicroscope&#160;</td>
			<td>Nikon, Japan</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dillon GL-500 digital force gauge&#160;</td>
			<td>Dillon, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A-1R confocal microscope&#160;</td>
			<td>Nikon, Japan</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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	</tbody>
</table>

polymeric microneedle array fabrication by photolithography

This manuscript describes the fabrication of polymeric microneedle (MN) arrays by photolithography. It involves a simple mold-free process by using a photomask consisting of embedded micro-lenses. Embedded micro-lenses were found to influence MN geometry (sharpness). Robust MN arrays with tip diameters ranging between 41.5 &#181;m &#177; 8.4 &#181;m and 71.6 &#181;m &#177; 13.7 &#181;m, with two different lengths (1,336 &#181;m &#177; 193 &#181;m and 957 &#181;m &#177; 171 &#181;m) were fabricated. These MN arrays may provide potential applications in delivery of low molecular and macromolecular therapeutic agents through skin.

The geometry of the MNs can be significantly affected by the photomask characteristics and embedded microlens. The degree of refraction affects the transmission path of the UV rays, which influenced the MN geometry (Figure 2A). Each microlens was found to have a 350 &#181;m diameter, a 130 &#181;m flattened convex surface, and a 62.3 &#181;m depth (Figure 2B-D). Using the Pythagoras theorem, the radius of curvature of the first surface was found to be 272.89 &#181;m. The focal length was...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Polymeric Microneedle Array Fabrication by Photolithography at JoVE.com

Polymeric Microneedle Array Fabrication by Photolithography

Here, we present a protocol describing a mold-free fabrication process of the polymeric microneedles by photolithography.

This manuscript describes the fabrication of polymeric microneedle (MN) arrays by photolithography. It involves a simple mold-free process by using a ...

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11.9K Views.  National University of Singapore. Here, we present a protocol describing a mold-free fabrication process of the polymeric microneedles by photolithography. 

Video: Polymeric Microneedle Array Fabrication by Photolithography

Fabrication of Micropatterned Hydrogels for Neural Culture Systems using Dynamic Mask Projection Photolithography

Increasingly, patterned cell culture environments are becoming a relevant technique to study cellular characteristics, and many researchers believe in the need for 3D environments to represent in vitro experiments which better mimic in vivo qualities 1-3. Studies in fields such as cancer research 4, neural engineering 5, cardiac physiology 6, and cell-matrix interaction7,8have shown cell behavior differs substantially between traditional monolayer cultures and 3D constructs.
Hydrogels are used as 3D environments because of their variety, versatility and ability to tailor molecular composition through functionalization 9-12. Numerous techniques exist for creation of constructs as cell-supportive matrices, including electrospinning13, elastomer stamps14, inkjet printing15, additive photopatterning16, static photomask projection-lithography17, and dynamic mask microstereolithography18. Unfortunately, these methods involve multiple production steps and/or equipment not readily adaptable to conventional cell and tissue culture methods. The technique employed in this protocol adapts the latter two methods, using a digital micromirror device (DMD) to create dynamic photomasks for crosslinking geometrically specific poly-(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels, induced through UV initiated free radical polymerization. The resulting "2.5D" structures provide a constrained 3D environment for neural growth. We employ a dual-hydrogel approach, where PEG serves as a cell-restrictive region supplying structure to an otherwise shapeless but cell-permissive self-assembling gel made from either Puramatrix or agarose. The process is a quick simple one step fabrication which is highly reproducible and easily adapted for use with conventional cell culture methods and substrates.
Whole tissue explants, such as embryonic dorsal root ganglia (DRG), can be incorporated into the dual hydrogel constructs for experimental assays such as neurite outgrowth. Additionally, dissociated cells can be encapsulated in the photocrosslinkable or self polymerizing hydrogel, or selectively adhered to the permeable support membrane using cell-restrictive photopatterning. Using the DMD, we created hydrogel constructs up to ~1mm thick, but thin film (&lt;200 &mu;m) PEG structures were limited by oxygen quenching of the free radical polymerization reaction. We subsequently developed a technique utilizing a layer of oil above the polymerization liquid which allowed thin PEG structure polymerization.
In this protocol, we describe the expeditious creation of 3D hydrogel systems for production of microfabricated neural cell and tissue cultures. The dual hydrogel constructs demonstrated herein represent versatile in vitro models that may prove useful for studies in neuroscience involving cell survival, migration, and/or neurite growth and guidance. Moreover, as the protocol can work for many types of hydrogels and cells, the potential applications are both varied and vast.

Simple techniques are described for the rapid production of microfabricated neural culture systems using a digital micromirror device for dynamic mask projection lithography on regular cell culture substrates. These culture systems may be more representative of natural biological architecture, and the techniques described could be adapted for numerous applications.

Increasingly, patterned cell culture environments are becoming a relevant technique to study cellular characteristics, and many researchers believe in the ...

Formulation of Diblock Polymeric Nanoparticles through Nanoprecipitation Technique

Nanotechnology is a relatively new branch of science that involves harnessing the unique properties of particles that are nanometers in scale (nanoparticles). Nanoparticles can be engineered in a precise fashion where their size, composition and surface chemistry can be carefully controlled. This enables unprecedented freedom to modify some of the fundamental properties of their cargo, such as solubility, diffusivity, biodistribution, release characteristics and immunogenicity. Since their inception, nanoparticles have been utilized in many areas of science and medicine, including drug delivery, imaging, and cell biology1-4. However, it has not been fully utilized outside of "nanotechnology laboratories" due to perceived technical barrier. In this article, we describe a simple method to synthesize a polymer based nanoparticle platform that has a wide range of potential applications. 
The first step is to synthesize a diblock co-polymer that has both a hydrophobic domain and hydrophilic domain. Using PLGA and PEG as model polymers, we described a conjugation reaction using EDC/NHS chemistry5 (Fig 1). We also discuss the polymer purification process. The synthesized diblock co-polymer can self-assemble into nanoparticles in the nanoprecipitation process through hydrophobic-hydrophilic interactions.
The described polymer nanoparticle is very versatile. The hydrophobic core of the nanoparticle can be utilized to carry poorly soluble drugs for drug delivery experiments6. Furthermore, the nanoparticles can overcome the problem of toxic solvents for poorly soluble molecular biology reagents, such as wortmannin, which requires a solvent like DMSO. However, DMSO can be toxic to cells and interfere with the experiment. These poorly soluble drugs and reagents can be effectively delivered using polymer nanoparticles with minimal toxicity. Polymer nanoparticles can also be loaded with fluorescent dye and utilized for intracellular trafficking studies. Lastly, these polymer nanoparticles can be conjugated to targeting ligands through surface PEG. Such targeted nanoparticles can be utilized to label specific epitopes on or in cells7-10.

This article describes a nanoprecipitation method to synthesize polymer-based nanoparticles using diblock co-polymers. We will discuss the synthesis of diblock co-polymers, the nanoprecipitation technique, and potential applications.

Nanotechnology is a relatively new branch of science that involves harnessing the unique properties of particles that are nanometers in scale ...

Hollow Microneedle-based Sensor for Multiplexed Transdermal Electrochemical Sensing

The development of a minimally invasive multiplexed monitoring system for rapid analysis of biologically-relevant molecules could offer individuals suffering from chronic medical conditions facile assessment of their immediate physiological state. Furthermore, it could serve as a research tool for analysis of complex, multifactorial medical conditions. In order for such a multianalyte sensor to be realized, it must be minimally invasive, sampling of interstitial fluid must occur without pain or harm to the user, and analysis must be rapid as well as selective.
Initially developed for pain-free drug delivery, microneedles have been used to deliver vaccines and pharmacologic agents (e.g., insulin) through the skin.1-2 Since these devices access the interstitial space, microneedles that are integrated with microelectrodes can be used as transdermal electrochemical sensors. Selective detection of glucose, glutamate, lactate, hydrogen peroxide, and ascorbic acid has been demonstrated using integrated microneedle-electrode devices with carbon fibers, modified carbon pastes, and platinum-coated polymer microneedles serving as transducing elements.3-7,8
This microneedle sensor technology has enabled a novel and sophisticated analytical approach for in situ and simultaneous detection of multiple analytes. Multiplexing offers the possibility of monitoring complex microenvironments, which are otherwise difficult to characterize in a rapid and minimally invasive manner. For example, this technology could be utilized for simultaneous monitoring of extracellular levels of, glucose, lactate and pH,9 which are important metabolic indicators of disease states7,10-14 (e.g., cancer proliferation) and exercise-induced acidosis.15

This article details the construction of a multiplexed microneedle-based sensor. The device is being developed for in situ sampling and electrochemical analysis of multiple analytes in a rapid and selective manner. We envision clinical medicine and biomedical research uses for these microneedle-based sensors.

The development of a minimally invasive multiplexed monitoring system for rapid analysis of biologically-relevant molecules could offer individuals ...

Evaluation of Polymeric Gene Delivery Nanoparticles by Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis and High-throughput Flow Cytometry

Non-viral gene delivery using polymeric nanoparticles has emerged as an attractive approach for gene therapy to treat genetic diseases1 and as a technology for regenerative medicine2. Unlike viruses, which have significant safety issues, polymeric nanoparticles can be designed to be non-toxic, non-immunogenic, non-mutagenic, easier to synthesize, chemically versatile, capable of carrying larger nucleic acid cargo and biodegradable and/or environmentally responsive. Cationic polymers self-assemble with negatively charged DNA via electrostatic interaction to form complexes on the order of 100 nm that are commonly termed polymeric nanoparticles. Examples of biomaterials used to form nanoscale polycationic gene delivery nanoparticles include polylysine, polyphosphoesters, poly(amidoamines)s and polyethylenimine (PEI), which is a non-degradable off-the-shelf cationic polymer commonly used for nucleic acid delivery1,3 . Poly(beta-amino ester)s (PBAEs) are a newer class of cationic polymers4 that are hydrolytically degradable5,6 and have been shown to be effective at gene delivery to hard-to-transfect cell types such as human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs)7, mouse mammary epithelial cells8, human brain cancer cells9 and macrovascular (human umbilical vein, HUVECs) endothelial cells10.
A new protocol to characterize polymeric nanoparticles utilizing nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) is described. In this approach, both the particle size distribution and the distribution of the number of plasmids per particle are obtained11. In addition, a high-throughput 96-well plate transfection assay for rapid screening of the transfection efficacy of polymeric nanoparticles is presented. In this protocol, poly(beta-amino ester)s (PBAEs) are used as model polymers and human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) are used as model human cells. This protocol can be easily adapted to evaluate any polymeric nanoparticle and any cell type of interest in a multi-well plate format.

A protocol for nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and high-throughput flow cytometry to evaluate polymeric gene delivery nanoparticles is described. NTA is utilized to characterize the nanoparticle particle size distribution and the plasmid per particle distribution. High-throughput flow cytometry enables quantitative transfection efficacy evaluation for a library of gene delivery biomaterials.

Non-viral gene delivery using polymeric nanoparticles has emerged as an attractive approach for gene therapy to treat genetic diseases1 and as a ...

Microfluidic Fabrication of Polymeric and Biohybrid Fibers with Predesigned Size and Shape

A &#8220;sheath&#8221; fluid passing through a microfluidic channel at low Reynolds number can be directed around another &#8220;core&#8221; stream and used to dictate the shape as well as the diameter of a core stream.&#160;Grooves in the top and bottom of a microfluidic channel were designed to direct the sheath fluid and shape the core fluid.&#160;By matching the viscosity and hydrophilicity of the sheath and core fluids, the interfacial effects are minimized and complex fluid shapes can be formed.&#160;Controlling the relative flow rates of the sheath and core fluids determines the cross-sectional area of the core fluid.&#160;Fibers have been produced with sizes ranging from 300 nm to ~1 mm, and fiber cross-sections can be round, flat, square, or complex as in the case with double anchor fibers. Polymerization of the core fluid downstream from the shaping region solidifies the fibers.&#160;Photoinitiated click chemistries are well suited for rapid polymerization of the core fluid by irradiation with ultraviolet light.&#160;Fibers with a wide variety of shapes have been produced from a list of polymers including liquid crystals, poly(methylmethacrylate), thiol-ene and thiol-yne resins, polyethylene glycol, and hydrogel derivatives. Minimal shear during the shaping process and mild polymerization conditions also makes the fabrication process well suited for encapsulation of cells and other biological components.

Two adjacent fluids passing through a grooved microfluidic channel can be directed to form a sheath around a prepolymer core; thereby&#160;determining both shape and cross-section. Photoinitiated polymerization, such as thiol click chemistry, is well suited for rapidly solidifying the core fluid into a microfiber with predetermined size and shape.

A &#8220;sheath&#8221; fluid passing through a microfluidic channel at low Reynolds number can be directed around another &#8220;core&#8221; stream and ...

Biomembrane Fabrication by the Solvent-assisted Lipid Bilayer (SALB) Method

In order to mimic cell membranes, the supported lipid bilayer (SLB) is an attractive platform which enables in vitro investigation of membrane-related processes while conferring biocompatibility and biofunctionality to solid substrates. The spontaneous adsorption and rupture of phospholipid vesicles is the most commonly used method to form SLBs. However, under physiological conditions, vesicle fusion (VF) is limited to only a subset of lipid compositions and solid supports. Here, we describe a one-step general procedure called the solvent-assisted lipid bilayer (SALB) formation method in order to form SLBs which does not require vesicles. The SALB method involves the deposition of lipid molecules onto a solid surface in the presence of water-miscible organic solvents (e.g., isopropanol) and subsequent solvent-exchange with aqueous buffer solution in order to trigger SLB formation. The continuous solvent exchange step enables application of the method in a flow-through configuration suitable for monitoring bilayer formation and subsequent alterations using a wide range of surface-sensitive biosensors. The SALB method can be used to fabricate SLBs on a wide range of hydrophilic solid surfaces, including those which are intractable to vesicle fusion. In addition, it enables fabrication of SLBs composed of lipid compositions which cannot be prepared using the vesicle fusion method. Herein, we compare results obtained with the SALB and conventional vesicle fusion methods on two illustrative hydrophilic surfaces, silicon dioxide and gold. To optimize the experimental conditions for preparation of high quality bilayers prepared via the SALB method, the effect of various parameters, including the type of organic solvent in the deposition step, the rate of solvent exchange, and the lipid concentration is discussed along with troubleshooting tips. Formation of supported membranes containing high fractions of cholesterol is also demonstrated with the SALB method, highlighting the technical capabilities of the SALB technique for a wide range of membrane configurations.

Biomembrane Fabrication by the Solvent-assisted Lipid Bilayer SALB Method

We present an experimental protocol to form a supported lipid bilayer on solid substrates without using lipid vesicles. We demonstrate a one-step method to form a lipid bilayer on silicon dioxide and gold as well as supported membranes with cholesterol-enriched domain for various biological applications.

In order to mimic cell membranes, the supported lipid bilayer (SLB) is an attractive platform which enables in vitro investigation of membrane-related ...

Fabricating Superhydrophobic Polymeric Materials for Biomedical Applications

Superhydrophobic materials, with surfaces possessing permanent or metastable non-wetted states, are of interest for a number of biomedical and industrial applications. Here we describe how electrospinning or electrospraying a polymer mixture containing a biodegradable, biocompatible aliphatic polyester (e.g., polycaprolactone and poly(lactide-co-glycolide)), as the major component, doped with a hydrophobic copolymer composed of the polyester and a stearate-modified poly(glycerol carbonate) affords a superhydrophobic biomaterial. The fabrication techniques of electrospinning or electrospraying provide the enhanced surface roughness and porosity on and within the fibers or the particles, respectively. The use of a low surface energy copolymer dopant that blends with the polyester and can be stably electrospun or electrosprayed affords these superhydrophobic materials. Important parameters such as fiber size, copolymer dopant composition and/or concentration, and their effects on wettability are discussed. This combination of polymer chemistry and process engineering affords a versatile approach to develop application-specific materials using scalable techniques, which are likely generalizable to a wider class of polymers for a variety of applications.

Two- and three-dimensional superhydrophobic polymeric materials are prepared by electrospinning or electrospraying biodegradable polymers blended with a lower surface energy polymer of similar composition.

Superhydrophobic materials, with surfaces possessing permanent or metastable non-wetted states, are of interest for a number of biomedical and industrial ...

Multi-step Variable Height Photolithography for Valved Multilayer Microfluidic Devices

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to entry for non-specialists who would benefit greatly from the ability to develop their own microfluidic devices to address research questions. Particularly lacking has been the open dissemination of protocols related to photolithography, a key step in the development of a replica mold for the manufacture of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. While the fabrication of single height silicon masters has been explored extensively in literature, fabrication steps for more complicated photolithography features necessary for many interesting device functionalities (such as feature rounding to make valve structures, multi-height single-mold patterning, or high aspect ratio definition) are often not explicitly outlined. 
Here, we provide a complete protocol for making multilayer microfluidic devices with valves and complex multi-height geometries, tunable for any application. These fabrication procedures are presented in the context of a microfluidic hydrogel bead synthesizer and demonstrate the production of droplets containing polyethylene glycol (PEG diacrylate) and a photoinitiator that can be polymerized into solid beads. This protocol and accompanying discussion provide a foundation of design principles and fabrication methods that enables development of a wide variety of microfluidic devices. The details included here should allow non-specialists to design and fabricate novel devices, thereby bringing a host of recently developed technologies to their most exciting applications in biological laboratories.

Multilayer microfluidic devices often involve the fabrication of master molds with complex geometries for functionality. This article presents a complete protocol for multi-step photolithography with valves and variable height features tunable to any application. As a demonstration, we fabricate a microfluidic droplet generator capable of producing hydrogel beads.

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to ...

Fabrication of a Multiplexed Artificial Cellular MicroEnvironment Array

Cellular microenvironments consist of a variety of cues, such as growth factors, extracellular matrices, and intercellular interactions. These cues are well orchestrated and are crucial in regulating cell functions in a living system. Although a number of researchers have attempted to investigate the correlation between environmental factors and desired cellular functions, much remains unknown. This is largely due to the lack of a proper methodology to mimic such environmental cues in vitro, and simultaneously test different environmental cues on cells. Here, we report an integrated platform of microfluidic channels and a nanofiber array, followed by high-content single-cell analysis, to examine stem cell phenotypes altered by distinct environmental factors. To demonstrate the application of this platform, this study focuses on the phenotypes of self-renewing human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Here, we present the preparation procedures for a nanofiber array and the microfluidic structure in the fabrication of a Multiplexed Artificial Cellular MicroEnvironment (MACME) array. Moreover, overall steps of the single-cell profiling, cell staining with multiple fluorescent markers, multiple fluorescence imaging, and statistical analyses, are described.

This article describes the detailed methodology to prepare a Multiplexed Artificial Cellular MicroEnvironment (MACME) array for high-throughput manipulation of physical and chemical cues mimicking in vivo cellular microenvironments and to identify the optimal cellular environment for human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) with single-cell profiling.

Cellular microenvironments consist of a variety of cues, such as growth factors, extracellular matrices, and intercellular interactions. These cues are ...

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) Assays

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause inflammation, fever, hypo- or hypertension, and, in extreme cases, can lead to tissue and organ damage that may become fatal. The amounts of endotoxin in pharmaceutical products, therefore, are strictly regulated. Among the methods available for endotoxin detection and quantification, the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay is commonly used worldwide. While any pharmaceutical product can interfere with the LAL assay, nano-formulations represent a particular challenge due to their complexity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical guide to researchers inexperienced in estimating endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials and nanoparticle-formulated drugs. Herein, practical recommendations for performing three LAL formats including turbidity, chromogenic and gel-clot assays are discussed. These assays can be used to determine endotoxin contamination in nanotechnology-based drug products, vaccines, and adjuvants.

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate LAL Assays

Detection of endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials represents one of the grand challenges in the field of nanomedicine. Here, we present a case study that describes the framework composed of three different LAL formats to estimate potential endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles.