The authors wish to thank Drs. Sung-wan An and Mike O&#8217;Donnell for practical advice on establishing this assay, Dr. Chih-Jen Cheng for helpful discussions on the use of ion-specific electrodes, and Dr. Chou-Long Huang for his mentorship and support. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (K08DK091316 to ARR) and the American Society of Nephrology Gottschalk Award to ARR.

<ol>
	<li>Ramsay, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+Transport+of+Water+by+the+Malpighian+Tubules+of+the+Stick+Insect,+Dixippus-Morosus+(Orthoptera,+Phasmidae).">Active Transport of Water by the Malpighian Tubules of the Stick Insect, Dixippus-Morosus (Orthoptera, Phasmidae).</a> J Exp Biol. 31, 104-113 (1954).</li><li>Dow, J. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+a+novel+phenotype+for+studies+of+fluid+secretion+and+its+control.">The malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster: a novel phenotype for studies of fluid secretion and its control.</a> J Exp Biol. 197, 421-428 (1994).</li><li>Brand, A. H., Perrimon, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+gene+expression+as+a+means+of+altering+cell+fates+and+generating+dominant+phenotypes.">Targeted gene expression as a means of altering cell fates and generating dominant phenotypes.</a> Development. 118, 401-415 (1993).</li><li>Sozen, M. A., Armstrong, J. D., Yang, M., Kaiser, K., Dow, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+domains+are+specified+to+single-cell+resolution+in+a+Drosophila+epithelium.">Functional domains are specified to single-cell resolution in a Drosophila epithelium.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 94, 5207-5212 (1997).</li><li>Rosay, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-type+specific+calcium+signalling+in+a+Drosophila+epithelium.">Cell-type specific calcium signalling in a Drosophila epithelium.</a> J Cell Sci. 110 (15), 1683-1692 (1997).</li><li>Dow, J. T., Davies, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrative+physiology+and+functional+genomics+of+epithelial+function+in+a+genetic+model+organism.">Integrative physiology and functional genomics of epithelial function in a genetic model organism.</a> Physiol Rev. 83, 687-729 (2003).</li><li>Beyenbach, K. W., Skaer, H., Dow, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+developmental,+molecular,+and+transport+biology+of+Malpighian+tubules.">The developmental, molecular, and transport biology of Malpighian tubules.</a> Annu Rev Entomol. 55, 351-374 (2010).</li><li>Donnell, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hormonally+controlled+chloride+movement+across+Drosophila+tubules+is+via+ion+channels+in+stellate+cells.">Hormonally controlled chloride movement across Drosophila tubules is via ion channels in stellate cells.</a> Am J Physiol. 274, 1039-1049 (1998).</li><li>Linton, S. M., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contributions+of+K+:Cl-+cotransport+and+Na+/K+-ATPase+to+basolateral+ion+transport+in+malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Contributions of K+:Cl- cotransport and Na+/K+-ATPase to basolateral ion transport in malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster.</a> J Exp Biol. 202, 1561-1570 (1999).</li><li>Rheault, M. R., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+epithelial+K(+)+transport+in+Malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+evidence+for+spatial+and+temporal+heterogeneity.">Analysis of epithelial K(+) transport in Malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster: evidence for spatial and temporal heterogeneity.</a> J Exp Biol. 204, 2289-2299 (2001).</li><li>Donnell, M. J., Dow, J. A., Huesmann, G. R., Tublitz, N. J., Maddrell, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separate+control+of+anion+and+cation+transport+in+malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+Melanogaster.">Separate control of anion and cation transport in malpighian tubules of Drosophila Melanogaster.</a> J Exp Biol. 199, 1163-1175 (1996).</li><li>Cabrero, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloride+channels+in+stellate+cells+are+essential+for+uniquely+high+secretion+rates+in+neuropeptide-stimulated+Drosophila+diuresis.">Chloride channels in stellate cells are essential for uniquely high secretion rates in neuropeptide-stimulated Drosophila diuresis.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 111, 14301-14306 (2014).</li><li>Torrie, L. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resolution+of+the+insect+ouabain+paradox.">Resolution of the insect ouabain paradox.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101, 13689-13693 (2004).</li><li>Rodan, A. R., Baum, M., Huang, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+NKCC+Ncc69+is+required+for+normal+renal+tubule+function.">The Drosophila NKCC Ncc69 is required for normal renal tubule function.</a> Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 303, 883-894 (2012).</li><li>Ianowski, J. P., Christensen, R. J., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Na++competes+with+K++in+bumetanide-sensitive+transport+by+Malpighian+tubules+of+Rhodnius+prolixus.">Na+ competes with K+ in bumetanide-sensitive transport by Malpighian tubules of Rhodnius prolixus.</a> J Exp Biol. 207, 3707-3716 (2004).</li><li>Naikkhwah, W., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salt+stress+alters+fluid+and+ion+transport+by+Malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+evidence+for+phenotypic+plasticity.">Salt stress alters fluid and ion transport by Malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster: evidence for phenotypic plasticity.</a> J Exp Biol. 214, 3443-3454 (2011).</li><li>Donini, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Secretion+of+water+and+ions+by+malpighian+tubules+of+larval+mosquitoes:+effects+of+diuretic+factors,+second+messengers,+and+salinity.">Secretion of water and ions by malpighian tubules of larval mosquitoes: effects of diuretic factors, second messengers, and salinity.</a> Physiol Biochem Zool. 79, 645-655 (2006).</li><li>Maddrell, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Secretion+by+Malpighian+Tubules+of+Rhodnius+movements+of+Ions+and+Water.">Secretion by Malpighian Tubules of Rhodnius movements of Ions and Water.</a> J Exp Biol. 51, 71-97 (1969).</li><li>Maddrell, S. H., Overton, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stimulation+of+sodium+transport+and+fluid+secretion+by+ouabain+in+an+insect+malpighian+tubule.">Stimulation of sodium transport and fluid secretion by ouabain in an insect malpighian tubule.</a> J Exp Biol. 137, 265-276 (1988).</li><li>Williams, J. C., Beyenbach, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+effects+of+secretagogues+on+Na+and+K+secretion+in+the+Malpighian+tubules+of+Aedes+Aegypti+(L).">Differential effects of secretagogues on Na and K secretion in the Malpighian tubules of Aedes Aegypti (L).</a> J Comp Physiol. 149, 511-517 (1983).</li><li>Maddrell, S. H., O'Donnell, M. J., Caffrey, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+regulation+of+haemolymph+potassium+activity+during+initiation+and+maintenance+of+diuresis+in+fed+Rhodnius+prolixus.">The regulation of haemolymph potassium activity during initiation and maintenance of diuresis in fed Rhodnius prolixus.</a> J Exp Biol. 177, 273-285 (1993).</li><li>Messerli, M. A., Kurtz, I., Smith, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+optimized+Na++and+Cl-+liquid+membranes+for+use+with+extracellular,+self-referencing+microelectrodes.">Characterization of optimized Na+ and Cl- liquid membranes for use with extracellular, self-referencing microelectrodes.</a> Anal Bioanal Chem. 390, 1355-1359 (2008).</li><li>Ianowski, J. P., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Basolateral+ion+transport+mechanisms+during+fluid+secretion+by+Drosophila+Malpighian+tubules:+Na++recycling,+Na+:K+:2Cl-+cotransport+and+Cl-+conductance.">Basolateral ion transport mechanisms during fluid secretion by Drosophila Malpighian tubules: Na+ recycling, Na+:K+:2Cl- cotransport and Cl- conductance.</a> J Exp Biol. 207, 2599-2609 (2004).</li><li>Neufeld, D. S., Leader, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrochemical+characteristics+of+ion+secretion+in+malpighian+tubules+of+the+New+Zealand+alpine+weta+(Hemideina+maori).">Electrochemical characteristics of ion secretion in malpighian tubules of the New Zealand alpine weta (Hemideina maori).</a> J Insect Physiol. 44, 39-48 (1997).</li><li>Greenspan, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Fly Pushing: The Theory and Practice of Drosophila Genetics. , (1997).</li><li>Jayakannan, M., Babourina, O., Rengel, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+measurements+of+Na++fluxes+in+plants+using+calixarene-based+microelectrodes.">Improved measurements of Na+ fluxes in plants using calixarene-based microelectrodes.</a> J Plant Physiol. 168, 1045-1051 (2011).</li><li>Wu, Y., Schellinger, J. N., Huang, C. L., Rodan, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hypotonicity+Stimulates+Potassium+Flux+through+the+WNK-SPAK/OSR1+Kinase+Cascade+and+the+Ncc69+Sodium-Potassium-2-Chloride+Cotransporter+in+the+Drosophila+Renal+Tubule.">Hypotonicity Stimulates Potassium Flux through the WNK-SPAK/OSR1 Kinase Cascade and the Ncc69 Sodium-Potassium-2-Chloride Cotransporter in the Drosophila Renal Tubule.</a> J Biol Chem. 289, 26131-26142 (2014).</li><li>Blumenthal, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modulation+of+tyramine+signaling+by+osmolality+in+an+insect+secretory+epithelium.">Modulation of tyramine signaling by osmolality in an insect secretory epithelium.</a> Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 289, 1261-1267 (2005).</li><li>Dow, J. A., Maddrell, S. H., Davies, S. A., Skaer, N. J., Kaiser, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+role+for+the+nitric+oxide-cGMP+signaling+pathway:+the+control+of+epithelial+function+in+Drosophila.">A novel role for the nitric oxide-cGMP signaling pathway: the control of epithelial function in Drosophila.</a> Am J Physiol. 266, 1716-1719 (1994).</li><li>Dube, K., McDonald, D. G., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+transport+by+isolated+anterior+and+posterior+Malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+roles+of+sequestration+and+secretion.">Calcium transport by isolated anterior and posterior Malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster: roles of sequestration and secretion.</a> J Insect Physiol. 46, 1449-1460 (2000).</li><li>Efetova, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separate+roles+of+PKA+and+EPAC+in+renal+function+unraveled+by+the+optogenetic+control+of+cAMP+levels+in+vivo.">Separate roles of PKA and EPAC in renal function unraveled by the optogenetic control of cAMP levels in vivo.</a> J Cell Sci. 126, 778-788 (2013).</li><li>Rheault, M. R., O'Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organic+cation+transport+by+Malpighian+tubules+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+application+of+two+novel+electrophysiological+methods.">Organic cation transport by Malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster: application of two novel electrophysiological methods.</a> J Exp Biol. 207, 2173-2184 (2004).</li><li>Donnell, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Too+much+of+a+good+thing:+how+insects+cope+with+excess+ions+or+toxins+in+the+diet.">Too much of a good thing: how insects cope with excess ions or toxins in the diet.</a> J Exp Biol. 212, 363-372 (2009).</li><li>Cheng, C. J., Truong, T., Baum, M., Huang, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kidney-specific+WNK1+inhibits+sodium+reabsorption+in+the+cortical+thick+ascending+limb.">Kidney-specific WNK1 inhibits sodium reabsorption in the cortical thick ascending limb.</a> Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 303, 667-673 (2012).</li><li>Cheng, C. J., Yoon, J., Baum, M., Huang, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=STE20/SPS1-related+Proline/alanine-rich+Kinase+(SPAK)+is+Critical+for+Sodium+Reabsorption+in+Isolated+Perfused+Thick+Ascending+Limb.">STE20/SPS1-related Proline/alanine-rich Kinase (SPAK) is Critical for Sodium Reabsorption in Isolated Perfused Thick Ascending Limb.</a> Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. , (2014).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The use of the Ramsay assay, together with ion-specific electrodes, allows the measurement of fluid secretion rates and ion fluxes in isolated insect Malpighian (renal) tubules. Twenty or more tubules can be assayed at a time, allowing higher throughput compared to the assay of individual in vitro microperfused tubules. In addition, ion-specific electrodes allow the determination of ion concentrations within the secreted fluid in situ, limiting errors that may be introduced in the transfer of the small ...

Renal epithelial ion transport underlies organismal iono- and osmoregulation. The Drosophila&#160;melanogaster Malpighian (renal) tubule offers an unparalleled opportunity to study the molecular mechanisms of epithelial ion transport. This is due to the combination of the powerful genetics of Drosophila, paired with the accessibility of its renal tubules to physiological study. The Ramsay assay, named after the investigator who pioneered the technique1, measures fluid secretion rates from isolated Malpighian tubules, and was established in Drosophila in 1994 by Dow and colleagues2. This paved the way for further studies using Drosophila genetic tools, such as the GAL4-UAS system3,4, to define cell-specific signaling pathways regulating fluid secretion. An example includes calcium signaling in response to a peptide hormone5, amongst many others6,7.
A combination of genetic techniques and classical physiological study has shown that urine generation in the fly occurs through the secretion of a potassium chloride-rich fluid from the main segment of the tubule. This occurs through the parallel transepithelial secretion of cations, primarily K+ but also Na+, through the principal cell, and Cl- secretion through the stellate cell8-12. The ability to separately measure transepithelial K+ and Na+ fluxes allows a more detailed characterization of transport mechanisms than the measurement of fluid secretion alone. For example, in unstimulated Drosophila tubules, the Na+/K+-ATPase inhibitor ouabain has no effect on fluid secretion2, even when its uptake into principal cells is inhibited by the organic anion transporter inhibitor taurocholate13. However, Linton and O&#8217;Donnell showed that ouabain depolarizes the basolateral membrane potential, and increases Na+ flux9. As shown in the Representative Results, we replicated these findings, and showed that K+ flux is concomitantly decreased14; the increased Na+ flux and decreased K+ flux have opposing effects on fluid secretion, resulting in no net change in secretion. Thus, there are two resolutions to the &#8220;ouabain paradox,&#8221; i.e., the initial observation that ouabain has no effect on fluid secretion in the Drosophila tubule: first, in stimulated tubules, the effect of ouabain on fluid secretion is not apparent due to its uptake by the organic anion transporter13; and second, in unstimulated tubules, ouabain has opposing effects on transepithelial Na+ and K+ flux, resulting in no net change in fluid secretion (see Representative Results and ref. 9). Therefore, the primary role of the Na+/K+-ATPase in unstimulated tubules is to lower intracellular Na+ concentration to generate a favorable concentration gradient for Na+-coupled transport processes across the basolateral membrane. Indeed, by separately measuring Na+ and K+ fluxes, we demonstrated that tubules lacking the fly sodium-potassium-2-chloride cotransporter (NKCC) have decreased transepithelial K+ flux, with no further decrease after ouabain addition, and no change in transepithelial Na+ flux14. These findings supported our conclusion that Na+ entering the cell through the NKCC is recycled through the Na+/K+-ATPase. In another example, Ianowski et al. observed that lowering bath K+ concentration from 10 mM to 6 mM decreased transepithelial K+ flux and increased transepithelial Na+ flux in tubules from Rhodnius prolixus, with no net change in fluid secretion15. Differential effects on Na+ flux and K+ flux across larval tubules have also been observed in Drosophila tubules in response to varying salt diets16 and in two mosquito species in response to rearing salinity17.
The greatest challenge in the measurement of transepithelial ion flux in the Ramsay assay preparation is the determination of ion concentrations within the secreted fluid. This challenge has been met with varying solutions, including flame photometery18, use of radioactive ions19, and electron probe wavelength dispersive spectroscopy20. These techniques require transfer of the secreted fluid drop to an instrument for measurement of ion concentrations. Since the volume of fluid secreted by the unstimulated Drosophila tubule is small, typically ~0.5 nl/min, this poses a technical challenge and also introduces error if some of the secreted fluid is lost upon transfer. In contrast, the use of ion-specific electrodes allows the measurement of ion activity (from which ion concentration can be calculated) in situ. The current protocol was adapted from that used by Maddrell and colleagues to measure transepithelial K+ flux across the Rhodnius tubule using valinomycin as the K+ ionophore21, and also describes the use of a 4-tert-butylcalix[4]arene-tetraacetic acid tetraethyl ester-based Na+-specific ion-specific electrode characterized by Messerli et. al.22. Ion-specific electrodes have also been used to measure ion concentrations in fluid secreted by Malpighian tubules in the Ramsay assay in adult9,23 and larval16Drosophila melanogaster, the New Zealand Alpine Weta (Hemideina maori)24 and in mosquitoes17.
Here, we describe in detail the use of the Ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion rates in Malpighian tubules from Drosophila melanogaster, as well as the use of ion-specific electrodes to determine the concentrations of K+ and Na+ within the secreted fluid and thus the calculation of transepithelial ion fluxes. An overview of the assay is provided in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53144/53144fig1.jpg" />
Figure 1.&#160;Schematic of the Malpighian Tubules and the Ramsay Assay with Use of Ion-specific Electrodes to Measure Ion Concentrations. This figure illustrates the setup for the Ramsay assay. (A) Each fly has four tubules, a pair of anterior tubules and a pair of posterior tubules, that float in the abdominal cavity surrounded by hemolymph. In each pair, the two tubules join at the ureter, which then empties the urine at the junction of the midgut and hindgut. The tubules are blind-ended. Urine is generated by the fluid-secreting main segment (shown in red), and flows toward the ureter and out into the gut. After dissection, the tubule pair is dissociated from the gut by transecting the ureter. (B) The pair of tubules is then transferred into a droplet of bathing saline within a well of the assay dish. One of the two tubules, referred to here as the &#8220;anchor tubule,&#8221; is wrapped around a metal pin and is inert. The other tubule is the secreting tubule. The initial segment (which does not secrete fluid) and main segment of the secreting tubule remain within the droplet of bathing saline. Ions and water move from the bathing saline and into the tubule lumen of the main segment, and then move toward the ureter, as would occur in vivo. The lower segment (blue) is outside the bathing saline and therefore inert. Since the ureter is cut, the secreted fluid emerges as a droplet from the cut end of the ureter. The secreted fluid droplet enlarges over time as secretion continues, and its diameter is measured using an ocular micrometer. A layer of mineral oil prevents evaporation of the secreted fluid. The reference and ion specific electrodes measure the ion concentration of the secreted fluid. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53144/53144fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard 184 Silicone Elastomer Kit</td>
			<td>Ellsworth Adhesives</td>
			<td>http://www.ellsworth.com/dow-corning-sylgard-184-silicone-encapsulant-0-5kg-kit-clear/</td>
			<td>May be purchased from multiple distributors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish, polystyrene, 100 mm x 15 mm</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>FB0875712</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish, polystyrene, 35 mm x 10 mm</td>
			<td>Corning Life Sciences</td>
			<td>Fisher 08-757-100A</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel Handle #3</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>10003-12</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel Blades #1</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>10011-00</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important; use appropriate sharps precautions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle, 30G x 1/2</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>305106</td>
			<td>Use appropriate sharps precautions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minutien pins, black anodized, 0.15 mm</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>26002-15</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereomicroscope with ocular micrometer</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>SMZ800</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important; this is given as an example</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sheet of black stained glass, 3 mm (1/8 inch) thick</td>
			<td>Hobby shop</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Example includes Spectrum Black Opal by Spectrum Glass (http://www.delphiglass.com/spectrum-glass/opalescent/spectrum-black-opal)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass cutting tools (glass cutter, glass cutting pliers)</td>
			<td>Hobby shop</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Examples include the Studio Pro Lightweight Running Pliers by Diamond Tech (http://www.delphiglass.com/glass-cutters-tools/pliers-nippers/studio-pro-lightweight-running-pliers) and the Studio Pro Brass Glass Cutter by Diamond Tech (http://www.delphiglass.com/glass-cutters-tools/glass-cutters/studio-pro-brass-glass-cutter). Use appropriate safety precautions when cutting glass</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillary tube, unfilamented, GC120-10, OD 1.2 mm, ID 0.69 mm, length 10 cm</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>30-0042</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillary tube, filamented, GC120F-10, OD 1.2 mm, ID 0.69 mm, length 10 cm</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>30-0044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitric acid, 70%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>438073</td>
			<td>CAUTION: see Material Data Safety Sheet for appropriate storage and handling guidelines. Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cimarec 7 in x 7 in hotplate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>11675911Q</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important; caution when heated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Selectophore dichlorodimethylsilane</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>40136-1ML</td>
			<td>CAUTION: see Material Data Safety Sheet for appropriate storage and handling guidelines</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Two-step vertical pipet puller</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>PC-10</td>
			<td>Other pipet pullers can be used; this is given as an example</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass petri dish, 150 mm diameter x 15 mm height</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>08-748E</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important; only one dish needed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>World Precision Instruments E210 1 mm micropipette storage jar</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-821-852</td>
			<td>May be available from other distributors. Useful to have two jars. Note that although this jar is specified for 1 mm pipets, and the pipets used here are 1.2 mm, in our experience the 1 mm jar works best for the 1.2 mm pipets.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silica Gel, Tel-Tale Desiccant, indicating, 10-18 mesh</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S161-500</td>
			<td>Indicating silica useful for determining whether silica gel retains desiccating ability</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>World Precision Instruments MicroFil, 34G</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-821-914</td>
			<td>May be available from other distributors.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 ml syringe with luer lock</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>309659</td>
			<td>May be available from other distributors.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 ml syringe with luer lock</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>309657</td>
			<td>May be available from other distributors.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D300 3-way stopcock with female luer lock inlet port, male luer outlet port with rotating collar and guard</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>UX-30600-02</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Female Luer Locking Connector</td>
			<td>4 Medical Solutions</td>
			<td>ADC 9873-10</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important; barbed end is ~4 mm at narrowest point and ~7 mm at widest point.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone Tubing I.D. x O.D. x Wall: 1/16 x 1/8 x 1/32 in. (1.59 x 3.18 x 0.79 mm)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-179-110</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-3603 tubing, I.D. x O.D.: 1/32 x 3/32 in</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14171208</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Modeling clay</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Selectophore potassium ionophore I, cocktail B</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>99373</td>
			<td>CAUTION: see Material Data Safety Sheet for appropriate storage and handling guidelines</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Selectophore sodium ionophore X</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>71747</td>
			<td>Sodium ionphore X = 4-tert-butylcalix[4]arene-tetraacetic acid tetraethylester</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Selectophore 2-nitrophenyl octyl ether</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>73732</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Selectophore sodium tetraphenylborate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>72018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Schneider&#39;s Drosophila medium</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21720024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High impedance electrometer</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>FD223a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microelectrode holder 1 mm with 45&#176; body, vented, with handle</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>64-1051</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microelectrode holder 1 mm with straight body, vented</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>64-1007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silver wire</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>64-1318</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulators, pair</td>
			<td>Leitz</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Various brands/models will work; this is an example</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Faraday cage</td>
			<td>Technical Manufacturing Corporation</td>
			<td>81-334-03</td>
			<td>This is an example; any Faraday cage will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Single gooseneck fiberoptic light</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mineral oil</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP-2629</td>
			<td>Specific brand is not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>forceps, Dumont #5 with Biologie tip</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tool</td>
			<td>11295-10</td>
			<td>May be available from other distributors.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of the ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion and ion flux rates in the drosophila melanogaster malpighian tubule

Modulation of renal epithelial ion transport allows organisms to maintain ionic and osmotic homeostasis in the face of varying external conditions. The Drosophila&#160;melanogaster Malpighian (renal) tubule offers an unparalleled opportunity to study the molecular mechanisms of epithelial ion transport, due to the powerful genetics of this organism and the accessibility of its renal tubules to physiological study. Here, we describe the use of the Ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion rates from isolated fly renal tubules, with the use of ion-specific electrodes to measure sodium and potassium concentrations in the secreted fluid. This assay allows study of transepithelial fluid and ion fluxes of ~20 tubules at a time, without the need to transfer the secreted fluid to a separate apparatus to measure ion concentrations. Genetically distinct tubules can be analyzed to assess the role of specific genes in transport processes. Additionally, the bathing saline can be modified to examine the effects of its chemical characteristics, or drugs or hormones added. In summary, this technique allows the molecular characterization of basic mechanisms of epithelial ion transport in the Drosophila tubule, as well as regulation of these transport mechanisms.

Figures 7 and 8 demonstrate that use of the Ramsay assay with ion-specific electrodes to measure K+ and Na+ concentrations can distinguish genetically and pharmacologically distinct K+ and Na+ fluxes, information that is not captured by measuring fluid secretion rates alone. Figure 7 shows that decreased fluid secretion in tubules from flies carrying a homozygous null mutation in the NKCC is driven by a decrease in K+ flux in the mut...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of the Ramsay Assay to Measure Fluid Secretion and Ion Flux Rates in the Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule at JoVE.com

Use of the Ramsay Assay to Measure Fluid Secretion and Ion Flux Rates in the Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule

This protocol describes the use of the Ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion rates from isolated Malpighian (renal) tubules from Drosophila melanogaster. In addition, the use of ion-specific electrodes to measure sodium and potassium concentrations in the secreted fluid, allowing calculation of transepithelial ion flux, is described.

Use of the Ramsay Assay to Measure Fluid Secretion and Ion Flux Rates in the Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule

Modulation of renal epithelial ion transport allows organisms to maintain ionic and osmotic homeostasis in the face of varying external conditions. The ...

use-ramsay-assay-to-measure-fluid-secretion-ion-flux-rates-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.7K Views.  University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center. This protocol describes the use of the Ramsay assay to measure fluid secretion rates from isolated Malpighian (renal) tubules from Drosophila melanogaster. In addition, the use of ion-specific electrodes to measure sodium and potassium concentrations in the secreted fluid, allowing calculation of transepithelial ion flux, is described.

Video: Use of the Ramsay Assay to Measure Fluid Secretion and Ion Flux Rates in the Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo for studying mitosis1. Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced genome, and it can be easily maintained and manipulated. Many mitotic mutants exist, and transgenic flies expressing functional fluorescently (e.g. GFP) - tagged mitotic proteins have been and are being generated. Targeted gene expression is possible using the GAL4/UAS system2. 

The Drosophila early embryo carries out multiple mitoses very rapidly (cell cycle duration, &asymp;10 min). It is well suited for imaging mitosis, because during cycles 10-13, nuclei divide rapidly and synchronously without intervening cytokinesis at the surface of the embryo in a single monolayer just underneath the cortex. These rapidly dividing nuclei probably use the same mitotic machinery as other cells, but they are optimized for speed; the checkpoint is generally believed to not be stringent, allowing the study of mitotic proteins whose absence would cause cell cycle arrest in cells with a strong checkpoint. Embryos expressing GFP labeled proteins or microinjected with fluorescently labeled proteins can be easily imaged to follow live dynamics (Fig. 1). In addition, embryos can be microinjected with function-blocking antibodies or inhibitors of specific proteins to study the effect of the loss or perturbation of their function3. These reagents can diffuse throughout the embryo, reaching many spindles to produce a gradient of concentration of inhibitor, which in turn results in a gradient of defects comparable to an allelic series of mutants. Ideally, if the target protein is fluorescently labeled, the gradient of inhibition can be directly visualized4. It is assumed that the strongest phenotype is comparable to the null phenotype, although it is hard to formally exclude the possibility that the antibodies may have dominant effects in rare instances, so rigorous controls and cautious interpretation must be applied. Further away from the injection site, protein function is only partially lost allowing other functions of the target protein to become evident.

Microinjection Techniques for Studying Mitosis in the Drosophila melanogaster Syncytial Embryo

This protocol describes the use of microinjection and high resolution imaging in the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo to study mitosis.

This protocol describes the use of the Drosophila melanogaster syncytial embryo  for studying mitosis1.  Drosophila has useful genetics with a sequenced ...

Photobleaching Assays (FRAP &amp; FLIP) to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with good spatial and temporal resolution. Here we describe how to perform FRAP and FLIP assays of chromatin proteins, including H1 and HP1, in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells. In a FRAP experiment, cells are transfected, either transiently or stably, with a protein of interest fused with the green fluorescent protein (GFP) or derivatives thereof (YFP, CFP, Cherry, etc.). In the transfected, fluorescing cells, an intense focused laser beam bleaches a relatively small region of interest (ROI). The laser wavelength is selected according to the fluorescent protein used for fusion. The laser light irreversibly bleaches the fluorescent signal of molecules in the ROI and, immediately following bleaching, the recovery of the fluorescent signal in the bleached area - mediated by the replacement of the bleached molecules with the unbleached molecules - is monitored using time lapse imaging. The generated fluorescence recovery curves provide information on the protein's mobility. If the fluorescent molecules are immobile, no fluorescence recovery will be observed. In a complementary approach, Fluorescence Loss in Photobleaching (FLIP), the laser beam bleaches the same spot repeatedly and the signal intensity is measured elsewhere in the fluorescing cell. FLIP experiments therefore measure signal decay rather than fluorescence recovery and are useful to determine protein mobility as well as protein shuttling between cellular compartments. Transient binding is a common property of chromatin-associated proteins. Although the major fraction of each chromatin protein is bound to chromatin at any given moment at steady state, the binding is transient and most chromatin proteins have a high turnover on chromatin, with a residence time in the order of seconds. These properties are crucial for generating high plasticity in genome expression1. Photobleaching experiments are therefore particularly useful to determine chromatin plasticity using GFP-fusion versions of chromatin structural proteins, especially in ES cells, where the dynamic exchange of chromatin proteins (including heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), linker histone H1 and core histones) is higher than in differentiated cells2,3.

Photobleaching Assays FRAP &amp; FLIP to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

We describe photobleaching methods including Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) to monitor chromatin protein dynamics in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Chromatin protein dynamics, which is considered to be one of the means to study chromatin plasticity, is enhanced in pluripotent cells.

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with ...

Insulin Injection and Hemolymph Extraction to Measure Insulin Sensitivity in Adult Drosophila melanogaster

Conserved nutrient sensing mechanisms exist between mammal and fruit fly where peptides resembling mammalian insulin and glucagon, respectively function to maintain glucose homeostasis during developmental larval stages 1,2. Studies on largely post-mitotic adult flies have revealed perturbation of glucose homeostasis as the result of genetic ablation of insulin-like peptide (ILP) producing cells (IPCs) 3. Thus, adult fruit flies hold great promise as a suitable genetic model system for metabolic disorders including type II diabetes. To further develop the fruit fly system, comparable physiological assays used to measure glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in mammals must be established. To this end, we have recently described a novel procedure for measuring oral glucose tolerance response in the adult fly and demonstrated the importance of adult IPCs in maintaining glucose homeostasis 4,5. Here, we have modified a previously described procedure for insulin injection 6 and combined it with a novel hemolymph extraction method to measure peripheral insulin sensitivity in the adult fly. Uniquely, our protocol allows direct physiological measurements of the adult fly's ability to dispose of a peripheral glucose load upon insulin injection, a methodology that makes it feasible to characterize insulin signaling mutants and potential interventions affecting glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in the adult fly.

Insulin Injection and Hemolymph Extraction to Measure Insulin Sensitivity in Adult Drosophila melanogaster

Conserved insulin signaling pathways found in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster make this organism a potential tool for modeling metabolic disorders including type II diabetes. To this end, it is critical to establish physiological assays to effectively measure systemic insulin action in peripheral glucose disposal in the adult fly.

Conserved nutrient sensing mechanisms exist between mammal and fruit fly where peptides resembling mammalian insulin and glucagon, respectively function ...

Measurement of Lifespan in Drosophila melanogaster

Aging is a phenomenon that results in steady physiological deterioration in nearly all organisms in which it has been examined, leading to reduced physical performance and increased risk of disease. Individual aging is manifest at the population level as an increase in age-dependent mortality, which is often measured in the laboratory by observing lifespan in large cohorts of age-matched individuals. Experiments that seek to quantify the extent to which genetic or environmental manipulations impact lifespan in simple model organisms have been remarkably successful for understanding the aspects of aging that are conserved across taxa and for inspiring new strategies for extending lifespan and preventing age-associated disease in mammals.
The vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is an attractive model organism for studying the mechanisms of aging due to its relatively short lifespan, convenient husbandry, and facile genetics. However, demographic measures of aging, including age-specific survival and mortality, are extraordinarily susceptible to even minor variations in experimental design and environment, and the maintenance of strict laboratory practices for the duration of aging experiments is required. These considerations, together with the need to practice careful control of genetic background, are essential for generating robust measurements. Indeed, there are many notable controversies surrounding inference from longevity experiments in yeast, worms, flies and mice that have been traced to environmental or genetic artifacts1-4. In this protocol, we describe a set of procedures that have been optimized over many years of measuring longevity in Drosophila using laboratory vials. We also describe the use of the dLife software, which was developed by our laboratory and is available for download (<a href="http://sitemaker.umich.edu/pletcherlab/software">http://sitemaker.umich.edu/pletcherlab/software</a>). dLife accelerates throughput and promotes good practices by incorporating optimal experimental design, simplifying fly handling and data collection, and standardizing data analysis. We will also discuss the many potential pitfalls in the design, collection, and interpretation of lifespan data, and we provide steps to avoid these dangers.

Measurement of Lifespan in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model organism for exploring the molecular basis of longevity regulation. This protocol will discuss the steps involved in generating a reproducible, population-based measurement of longevity as well as potential pitfalls and how to avoid them.

Aging is a phenomenon that results in steady physiological deterioration in nearly all organisms in which it has been examined, leading to reduced ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Imaging Through the Pupal Case of Drosophila melanogaster

The longstanding use of Drosophila as a model for cell and developmental biology has yielded an array of tools. Together, these techniques have enabled analysis of cell and developmental biology from a variety of methodological angles. Live imaging is an emerging method for observing dynamic cell processes, such as cell division or cell motility. Having isolated mutations in uncharacterized putative cell cycle proteins it became essential to observe mitosis in situ using live imaging. Most live imaging studies in Drosophila have focused on the embryonic stages that are accessible to manipulation and observation because of their small size and optical clarity. However, in these stages the cell cycle is unusual in that it lacks one or both of the gap phases. By contrast, cells of the pupal wing of Drosophila have a typical cell cycle and undergo a period of rapid mitosis spanning about 20 hr of pupal development. It is easy to identify and isolate pupae of the appropriate stage to catch mitosis in situ. Mounting intact pupae provided the best combination of tractability and durability during imaging, allowing experiments to run for several hours with minimal impact on cell and animal viability. The method allows observation of features as small as, or smaller than, fly chromosomes. Adjustment of microscope settings and the details of mounting, allowed extension of the preparation to visualize membrane dynamics of adjacent cells and fluorescently labeled proteins such as tubulin. This method works for all tested fluorescent proteins and can capture submicron scale features over a variety of time scales. While limited to the outer 20 &#181;m of the pupa with a conventional confocal microscope, this approach to observing protein and cellular dynamics in pupal tissues in vivo may be generally useful in the study of cell and developmental biology in these tissues.

Imaging Through the Pupal Case of Drosophila melanogaster

This paper demonstrates the use of a fast scanning confocal microscope to image cell behavior directly through the puparium. By leaving the pupal case intact, this method allows observation and measurement of dynamic cell processes at a stage of Drosophila development that is difficult to study directly.

The longstanding use of Drosophila as a model for cell and developmental biology has yielded an array of tools. Together, these techniques have enabled ...

Quantitative Immunofluorescence Assay to Measure the Variation in Protein Levels at Centrosomes

Centrosomes are small but important organelles that serve as the poles of mitotic spindle to maintain genomic integrity or assemble primary cilia to facilitate sensory functions in cells. The level of a protein may be regulated differently at centrosomes than at other .cellular locations, and the variation in the centrosomal level of several proteins at different points of the cell cycle appears to be crucial for the proper regulation of centriole assembly. We developed a quantitative fluorescence microscopy assay that measures relative changes in the level of a protein at centrosomes in fixed cells from different samples, such as at different phases of the cell cycle or after treatment with various reagents. The principle of this assay lies in measuring the background corrected fluorescent intensity corresponding to a protein at a small region, and normalize that measurement against the same for another protein that does not vary under the chosen experimental condition. Utilizing this assay in combination with BrdU pulse and chase strategy to study unperturbed cell cycles, we have quantitatively validated our recent observation that the centrosomal pool of VDAC3 is regulated at centrosomes during the cell cycle, likely by proteasome-mediated degradation specifically at centrosomes.

Here, a novel quantitative fluorescence assay is developed to measure changes in the level of a protein specifically at centrosomes by normalizing that protein&#8217;s fluorescence intensity to that of an appropriate internal standard.

Centrosomes are small but important organelles that serve as the poles of mitotic spindle to maintain genomic integrity or assemble primary cilia to ...

Optical Quantification of Intracellular pH in Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule Epithelia with a Fluorescent Genetically-encoded pH Indicator

Epithelial ion transport is vital to systemic ion homeostasis as well as maintenance of essential cellular electrochemical gradients. Intracellular pH (pHi) is influenced by many ion transporters and thus monitoring pHi is a useful tool for assessing transporter activity. Modern Genetically Encoded pH-Indicators (GEpHIs) provide optical quantification of pHi in intact cells on a cellular and subcellular scale. This protocol describes real-time quantification of cellular pHi regulation in Malpighian Tubules (MTs) of Drosophila melanogaster through ex vivo live-imaging of pHerry, a pseudo-ratiometric GEpHI with a pKa well-suited to track pH changes in the cytosol. Extracted adult fly MTs are composed of morphologically and functionally distinct sections of single-cell layer epithelia, and can serve as an accessible and genetically tractable model for investigation of epithelial transport. GEpHIs offer several advantages over conventional pH-sensitive fluorescent dyes and ion-selective electrodes. GEpHIs can label distinct cell populations provided appropriate promoter elements are available. This labeling is particularly useful in ex vivo, in vivo, and in situ preparations, which are inherently heterogeneous. GEpHIs also permit quantification of pHi in intact tissues over time without need for repeated dye treatment or tissue externalization. The primary drawback of current GEpHIs is the tendency to aggregate in cytosolic inclusions in response to tissue damage and construct over-expression. These shortcomings, their solutions, and the inherent advantages of GEpHIs are demonstrated in this protocol through assessment of basolateral proton (H+) transport in functionally distinct principal and stellate cells of extracted fly MTs. The techniques and analysis described are readily adaptable to a wide variety of vertebrate and invertebrate preparations, and the sophistication of the assay can be scaled from teaching labs to intricate determination of ion flux via specific transporters.

Optical Quantification of Intracellular pH in Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian Tubule Epithelia with a Fluorescent Genetically-encoded pH Indicator

Cellular ion transport can often be assessed by monitoring intracellular pH (pHi). Genetically Encoded pH-Indicators (GEpHIs)&#160;provide optical quantification of intracellular pH in intact cells. This protocol details the quantification of intracellular pH through cellular ex vivo live-imaging of Malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster with pHerry, a pseudo-ratiometric genetically encoded pH-indicator.

Epithelial ion transport is vital to systemic ion homeostasis as well as maintenance of essential cellular electrochemical gradients. Intracellular pH ...

Oral Bacterial Infection and Shedding in Drosophila melanogaster

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the best developed model systems of infection and innate immunity. While most work has focused on systemic infections, there has been a recent increase of interest in the mechanisms of gut immunocompetence to pathogens, which require methods to orally infect flies. Here we present a protocol to orally expose individual flies to an opportunistic bacterial pathogen (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and a natural bacterial pathogen of D. melanogaster (Pseudomonas entomophila). The goal of this protocol is to provide a robust method to expose male and female flies to these pathogens. We provide representative results showing survival phenotypes, microbe loads, and bacterial shedding, which is relevant for the study of heterogeneity in pathogen transmission. Finally, we confirm that Dcy mutants (lacking the protective peritrophic matrix in the gut epithelium) and Relish mutants (lacking a functional immune deficiency (IMD) pathway), show increased susceptibility to bacterial oral infection. This protocol, therefore, describes a robust method to infect flies using the oral route of infection, which can be extended to the study of a variety genetic and environmental sources of variation in gut infection outcomes and bacterial transmission.

Oral Bacterial Infection and Shedding in Drosophila melanogaster

This protocol describes methods to orally expose and infect the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster with bacterial pathogens, and to measure the number of infectious bacteria shed following gut infection. We further describe the effect of immune mutants on fly survival following oral bacterial infection.

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the best developed model systems of infection and innate immunity. While most work has focused on systemic ...

Visualizing and Tracking Endogenous mRNAs in Live Drosophila melanogaster Egg Chambers

Fluorescence-based imaging techniques, in combination with developments in light microscopy, have revolutionized how cell biologists conduct live cell imaging studies. Methods for detecting RNAs have expanded greatly since seminal studies linked site-specific mRNA localization to gene expression regulation. Dynamic mRNA processes can now be visualized via approaches that detect mRNAs, coupled with microscopy set-ups that are fast enough to capture the dynamic range of molecular behavior. The molecular beacon technology is a hybridization-based approach capable of direct detection of endogenous transcripts in living cells. Molecular beacons are hairpin-shaped, internally quenched, single-nucleotide discriminating nucleic acid probes, which fluoresce only upon hybridization to a unique target sequence. When coupled with advanced fluorescence microscopy and high-resolution imaging, they enable one to perform spatial and temporal tracking of intracellular movement of mRNAs. Although this technology is the only method capable of detecting endogenous transcripts, cell biologists have not yet fully embraced this technology due to difficulties in designing such probes for live cell imaging. A new software application, PinMol, allows for enhanced and rapid design of probes best suited to efficiently hybridize to mRNA target regions within a living cell. In addition, high-resolution, real-time image acquisition and current, open source image analysis software allow for a refined data output, leading to a finer evaluation of the complexity underlying the dynamic processes involved in the mRNA&#39;s life cycle.
Here we present a comprehensive protocol for designing and delivering molecular beacons into Drosophila melanogaster egg chambers. Direct and highly specific detection and visualization of endogenous maternal mRNAs is performed via spinning disc confocal microscopy. Imaging data is processed and analyzed using object detection and tracking in Icy software to obtain details about the dynamic movement of mRNAs, which are transported and localized to specialized regions within the oocyte.

Visualizing and Tracking Endogenous mRNAs in Live Drosophila melanogaster Egg Chambers

Here, we present a protocol for the visualization, detection, analysis and tracking of endogenous mRNA trafficking in live Drosophila melanogaster egg chamber using molecular beacons, spinning disc confocal microscopy, and open-source analysis software.

Fluorescence-based imaging techniques, in combination with developments in light microscopy, have revolutionized how cell biologists conduct live cell ...