This work was supported by the Singapore National Research Foundation (grant NRF-RF2010-06 to J.Y.Y.).

1. Sample Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Cross the Gal43,22 driver line to UAS-GCaMP5G19 flies (w1118;P{20XUAS-IVS-GCaMP5G}attP40). Allow the cross to grow at 25 &#176;C. 
	Note: Generating flies with multiple copies of the Gal4 or UAS-GCaMP transgenes can help to enhance the fluorescent signal intensity. An earlier version of the UAS-GCaMP transgene (UAS-GCaMP3) showed very weak fluorescence intensity when expressed under the control of the Gr68a-Gal4 driver.
	<ol>
		<li>Collect and separate by sex newly eclosed adult flies and raise at 25 &#176;C. 
		Note: The baseline level of GCaMP5G florescence is optimal in flies aged between 14-28 days. Isolating flies by sex precludes the possibility of social interactions that may influence the neural responses.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Anesthetize a fly under a mild stream of CO2.</li>
	<li>Attach the fly to a glass coverslip by first placing a small drop of nail polish in the center of a 0.17 mm coverslip. Gently place a fly on its side on the drop of clear nail polish and ensure that the entire drop is covered by the fly.</li>
	<li>Perform steps 1.5 and 1.6 under a dissecting stereomicroscope, used at 8X magnification.</li>
	<li>Use a wet paintbrush to extend a foreleg of the fly. Secure the foreleg in position by placing two thin strips of tape over the first and fifth tarsal segments (Figure 2A). This will expose tarsal segments T2-T4 for imaging (Figure 2B).</li>
	<li>To image neurons on the proboscis, place a thin strip of tape over the rostrum of the proboscis to expose the labellum (Figure 2C, D).</li>
	<li>Draw a hydrophobic barrier around the fly with a PAP pen to prevent solution from flowing over the coverslip surface. Make measurements within 30 min of mounting.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Stimulus Solution
<ol>
	<li>Dilute lipophilic ligands (such as CH503, used in this study) in a PBST solution: 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na2HPO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4, 0.1% Triton X-100 (v/v); pH 7.4.
	<ol>
		<li>Make a 1 mg/ml stock solution of the ligand using PBST. Prepare all subsequent dilutions of the stock solution using PBST. 
		Note: Depending on the solubility of the ligand of interest, different solvents may be needed to dissolve the ligand. The solubility of CH503 in various solvents is described in Table 1. Unlike other solvents, PBST did not produce an increase in fluorescence.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Stimulation of Gustatory Neurons and Image Acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Using a 10 &#181;l pipettor, place 10 &#181;l of PBST onto the tarsal segments. 
	Note: This step moistens the leg and prevents the tarsal segments from drifting.</li>
	<li>Use an optical system that has a camera of sufficient speed and sensitivity to achieve good fluorescence signal at high time resolution. 
	Note: For this study we used a spinning disk confocal microscope and a sCMOS camera (see Materials List).</li>
	<li>Choose the specific tarsal segment and neurons to be imaged. Acquire three pre-stimulation confocal Z-stacks.
	<ol>
		<li>Ideally, use acquisition settings that are fast enough to allow maximal time resolution while still capturing the entire cell volume. Example acquisition settings are: 200 msec exposure, binning 2 x 2 and 6 x 0.5 &#181;m2 optical sections, captured every 2 sec. 
		Note: Immobilized legs have been imaged successfully for up to 10 min, at 30 sec intervals, with no discernible bleaching of the GCaMP signal. For longer recording times, ensure that the legs are held very&#160;firmly in place on the coverslip.</li>
		<li>Optimize laser power for highest signal-to-noise achievable with minimal photobleaching during the entire imaging regime. For the experiments described here, use a 491 nm diode laser (100 mW) at 30% transmission for imaging both Gr68a and ppk23 gustatory neurons on the legs and proboscis. Use 2 x 2 binning to allow for shorter exposure times while still achieving sufficient spatial resolution. 
		Note: The laser power settings were optimized to allow detection of fluorescent change ranging from a 1.2- to 4.5-fold increase.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pipette 10 &#181;l of the stimulus solution onto the tarsal segments. For control experiments, add another 10 &#181;l of PBST. Immediately acquire 117 post-stimulation images. 
	Note: The number of post-stimulation images acquired is based on the amount of time in which maximal change in fluorescence was reached (approximately 2 min).
	<ol>
		<li>CRITICAL STEP: Whilst pipetting solution on the preparation, do not to touch the fly with the pipette tip since this will cause the foreleg to move out of position. 
		Note: Alternatively, use a micromanipulator to accurately position a glass capillary containing stimulus close to the tarsal segment to be imaged. Deliver controlled volumes of stimulus using an intracellular microinjection dispenser according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Image Processing and Analysis: Quantification of the Response
<ol>
	<li>Open a series of confocal Z-stacks using Fiji (<a href="http://fiji.sc/Fiji" target="_blank">http://fiji.sc/Fiji</a>)23 or ImageJ (<a href="http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/" target="_blank">http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/</a>)24 image analysis and processing software.</li>
	<li>Make a sum-intensity projection of all six Z slices for each of the 120 time points.
	<ol>
		<li>Select the &#8220;Stack&#8221; option under &#8220;Image&#8221;. Further, select the &#8220;Z projection&#8221; option and enter &#8220;1&#8221; as the start slice and &#8220;4&#8221; as stop slice. For projection type, select &#8220;sum slices&#8221; from the pull down menu, and choose &#34;All time frames.&#34;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Define the region of interest (ROI) by using the freehand selection tool to draw a boundary around a cell body or neuronal projection. Click on the &#8220;Analyze&#8221; label and select the &#8220;ROI manager&#8221; option under &#8220;Tools&#8221;.</li>
	<li>Quantify the fluorescence of the ROI by selecting the &#8220;Set measurements&#8221; option, under the &#8220;Analyze&#8221; menu and checking the boxes for integrated density, area, mean and maximum gray value and label. Then, select the &#8220;More&#8221; option under the ROI manager menu, and further select the &#8220;Multi measure&#8221; option. 
	Note: This will generate a popup box with values for each of the selected parameters.</li>
	<li>Check the maximum grey values to ensure that none of the pixels have reached saturation (e.g., 65,535 for a 16-bit camera). 
	NOTE: For the experiments shown in this paper, responses were measured either from cell bodies or neuronal projections, depending on where the maximal increase in &#916;F/F was observed.</li>
	<li>Calculate the maximum relative change in fluorescence (&#916;F/F) at time point t is as follows: 
	<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53392/53392eq1.jpg" />
	<ol>
		<li>Subtract background fluorescence from each F(cell) value. To quantify background fluorescence, measure the integrated density of a ROI of equivalent size and shape from an area of the foreleg (or proboscis) devoid of detectable neurons.</li>
		<li>To quantify the post-stimulation fluorescence, F(cell)t, measure the integrated density of the ROI of the cell body or process at time point &#8220;t&#8221; after stimulation.</li>
		<li>To quantify the pre-stimulation fluorescence, F(cell)t=0, analyze pre-stimulus images of the cell body or process in the same way as the post-stimulation signal. Use the mean integrated density of 3 images to determine F(cell)t=0.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that there are no competing financial interests.

We describe here a method to perform live calcium imaging of Drosophila peripheral neurons in 2 different sensory organs. The Ca2+-evoked GCaMP fluorescent responses in Gr68a-neurons induced by the pheromone ligand CH503 were dose-dependent and quantitative. It was also possible to discern different neural response patterns such as phasic and tonic responses.
Neurons showing phasic responses are believed to allow rapid adaptation to continuous stimuli. This type of response has been associated with odor detection25 and the generation of rhythmic motor activity patterns26. In contrast, neural oscillations, which have been described in many sensory systems, are thought to synchronize multiple inputs onto a single postsynaptic site and to convey specific features about the stimulus27. The molecular basis of oscillations associated with ppk23 neurons has not yet been reported, to our knowledge. In other types of excitable cells showing oscillatory responses, the frequency of the oscillations has been shown to be regulated by a process called calcium-induced calcium release28. In this process, calcium is released from internal stores under the control of the secondary messenger inositol triphosphate, and the frequency of its release is dependent on the strength of the external stimulus. Insights into the molecular basis of tonic neuronal responses have been gained from studies on oxygen sensing receptors of C. elegans29. A prolonged increase in the calcium levels within neurons was found to be mediated by L-type voltage gated calcium channels, ryanodine, and inositol triphosphate signaling pathways29. It will be important to ascertain whether similar mechanisms play a role in the responses of ppk23 neurons.
Live calcium imaging can be adapted in several ways for the study of other populations of Drosophila sensory neurons or other chemical ligands. First, the responses from gustatory neurons located on the proboscis, legs, or wings can in a screen for ligands for orphan gustatory receptors. Second, modification of the solvent will allow testing neural responses to more polar molecules. Third, an onstage incubator can be coupled with the spinning disc microscope. This setup would be ideal for activating or silencing neuronal activity using temperature-sensitive transgenes like UAS-TrpA1 or UAS-Shibirets, and measuring the corresponding changes in fluorescence in these neurons upon stimulation4. Fourth, the use of a continuous time series for image collection can facilitate detection of fast responding cells. Finally, with the addition of targeted laser illumination, this method could be expanded for use with other advanced live-cell imaging methods such as FRAP and FRET.
Several technical considerations are imperative to obtain stable images and to accurately measure the time course of physiological responses. First, the foreleg must be securely positioned since the fly exhibits vigorous movement upon addition of the solution, which can be a source of variation between preparations. Although bath application of pheromone solution allows the ligand to reach all of the gustatory sensilla on the exposed tarsal segments, some of the solution can flow towards other parts of the mounted preparation. Also, the foreleg could potentially drift away when solution is added. Second, to accurately image near-instantaneous increases in fluorescence, it is important to resume imaging immediately after addition of the stimulus since some neurons show a rapid and maximal response within 4 seconds of stimulation. Alternatively, a continuous time series can be initiated prior to adding the stimulus solution, and the precise time point at which the stimulus is administered can be marked.
Two sources of false positive responses were observed. First, the solvent itself can induce fluorescent responses even in the absence of a ligand. The PBST solvent caused such a response in some ppk23-Gal4 labeled cells. In addition, DMSO, a commonly used solvent for polar and apolar molecules, also induced a response in some Gr68a-Gal4 labeled neurons. It is therefore essential to determine whether the solvent itself induces a fluorescent signal and to select a solvent system with low background activity. Second, a strong phasic-type response in non-neural support cells was observed to the solvent PBST alone. The Gr68a-Gal4 driver is expressed in both neurons and support cells that appear to surround some of the neurons and in general, are larger, amorphously shaped, and lack visible projections. It is therefore important to differentiate neural from non-neuronal responses for each Gal4 line when choosing ROIs.
One major limitation of this method is that the same fly preparation cannot be used for successive experiments to test different concentrations or types of ligands, unless the applied stimulus is first thoroughly removed from the surface of the coverslip. In addition, this method cannot be used for high throughput imaging of several flies at once, due to the high magnification needed for visualization of Drosophila neurons, and the need for fast acquisition and high time resolution. Lastly, this method requires the availability of genetic tools for transgenic gene expression, thus limiting application primarily to major model organisms.
Altogether, this method is an easier alternative to cellular recordings using electrodes and does not require specialized instrumentation. In addition, unlike other genetically encoded reporters such as CaLexA, the animal is kept alive throughout imaging allowing physiological responses to be measured in real-time with high sensitivity in flies of all ages. This feature could potentially allow for screening of age-dependent responses to ligands or comparison of neural responses following changes in social conditions or reproductive state. Moreover, sustained recordings can be performed for at least 10 min without obvious photobleaching or rundown of GCaMP signal.

Animals rely on olfactory and gustatory information to mediate decisions essential for survival and reproduction. Understanding how chemosensory cues are detected and processed by the nervous system requires identification of the sensory receptor(s) and the corresponding chemical ligands. Drosophila detect a staggering variety of volatile and non-volatile compounds and are an excellent model in which to study the physiological mechanisms underlying chemosensation. While the olfactory organs perceive volatile molecules, the gustatory organs are specialized to detect low volatility compounds. Here, we present a method to directly measure neuronal responses from the taste organs of Drosophila melanogaster to low-volatility, lipophilic ligands.
Gustatory organs of the fly include the forelegs, proboscis, and wings. Distributed on the surface of the taste organs are hair-like structures known as sensilla that respond to sugars, bitters, salts, water and pheromones8. The sensilla have been classified morphologically into taste bristles and taste pegs9. There are about 31 taste bristles on the labellum that are classified into the long (l-type), short (s-type) and intermediate (i-type) morphologies. The &#8216;l&#8217; and &#8216;s&#8217; sensilla house 4 sensory neurons that respond physiologically to sugar (the S cell), low salt (the L1 cell), high salt and bitter compounds (the L2 cell) and water (the W cell)10,11. The &#8216;i&#8217; sensilla house 2 sensory neurons, one of which responds both to low salt and sugar, while the other responds to high salt12. There are approximately 41 taste sensilla in males and 26 sensilla in females distributed on each of the forelegs. For both males and females, there are 21 sensilla on the midleg, and about 22 sensilla on the hindleg13. The gustatory neurons enclosed by the taste sensilla on the legs are also classified into L1, L2, W and S types.
One standard method for measuring electrical activity from single neurons uses extracellular or intracellular electrodes to record ion flow. Electrode measurements allow neuronal function to be studied in non-model organisms such as Drosophila species, moths, and bees which lack extensive genetic tools for neural labeling. However, while electrophysiological methods have been routinely used to measure activity from Drosophila taste sensilla4,13,14, applying this approach presents several technical challenges. First, taste bristles need to be identified based on morphology and spatial location. Upon identification, electrophysiological measurements can be hindered by the small size of the sensilla, limited accessibility due to position, and difficulty in applying controlled volumes of a chemical stimulus to a taste bristle. Also, stimulation of sensilla may generate signals from more than one neuronal type15. Second, detection of electrical signals can be confounded by background noise resulting from mechanical vibrations and noise from electronic equipment. Third, the use of a sharpened electrode can damage the fly preparation, if used incorrectly14. Finally, assembling an electrophysiology rig requires specialized electronic components for stimulus delivery, signal recording, and data analysis and can be costly.
In D. melanogaster, the availability of genetically-encoded tools has facilitated the development of imaging techniques that allow the responses of small populations of neurons to be studied. One such approach is the use of the CaLexA reporter16. In this method, gene sequences encoding the LexA-VP16 transcription factor and a calcium sensitive protein NFAT are fused together. Calcium activation of the protein phosphatase calcineurin catalyzes the de-phosphorylation of NFAT and, in turn, facilitates its import into the nucleus. Inside the nucleus, the LexA domain binds to a LexAop-DNA binding motif which directs the expression of a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter, thus allowing sustained identification of functionally activated neurons. The approach has been used successfully to measure the response of specific olfactory glomeruli in the antennal lobe following exposure of live flies to an odorant16. Recently, physiological responses of IR52c gustatory receptor neurons were measured from live flies using CaLexA7. However, for this study, it was necessary to age flies for up to 6 weeks to enhance GFP transcription. While immunostaining with an anti-GFP antibody can be used to boost the CaLexA signal, this method would require tissue fixation, thus precluding possibility for live-cell imaging.
The genetically encoded calcium indicator protein GCaMP has also been extensively used to study neuronal responses in a number of species17. The protein GCaMP fluoresces with low intensity prior to neuronal stimulation. Application of a stimulus triggers an action potential in the neuron, resulting in the influx of Ca2+. GCaMP, bound to Ca2+, undergoes a conformational change, causing it to fluoresce with brighter intensity (Figure 1). A recently developed single&#8211;neuron calcium imaging approach was used to identify glucose as the ligand for the foreleg specific Gr61a gustatory neurons18. In this study, dissected forelegs from transgenic Drosophila expressing GCaMP in Gr61a gustatory neurons were covered with a layer of agarose prior to imaging. However, the use of dissected tissue can cause eventual rundown of GCaMP expression, thus limiting measurement time and detection sensitivity. In addition, agarose can limit sensitivity due to high background levels of fluorescence and its light scattering properties.
To address some of these drawbacks, we describe the use of GCaMP-mediated calcium imaging to record physiological responses from foreleg and proboscis gustatory neurons of intact animals. We show the physiological responses of Gr68a and ppk23 neurons expressing genetically encoded GCaMP5G19 to a Drosophila lipid pheromone, (3R, 11Z, 19Z)-3-acetoxy-11,19-octacosadien-1-ol (CH503)20,21. Neuronal responses are measured by quantifying the increase in fluorescence of the GCaMP5G signal during pheromone stimulation. In this protocol, neurons are imaged for a total duration of 120 sec, which is sufficient to differentiate patterns of neuronal activation in individual cells.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Gr68a-Gal4</td><td></td><td></td><td>Gift from H. Amrein (Texas A&amp;amp;M Health Science Center, TX, USA) and J. Carlson (Yale University, CT, USA)</td></tr><tr><td>ppk23-Gal4</td><td></td><td></td><td>Gift from K. Scott (Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, USA)</td></tr><tr><td>UAS-GCaMP5&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td>42037</td><td>Bloomington Drosophila&amp;nbsp; Stock Center</td></tr><tr><td>0.17 mm coverslip (Gold-Seal coverslip)</td><td>Electron Microscopy Services</td><td>63790-10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nail polish, &quot;Hard as Nails Clear&quot;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sally Hansen</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PAP pen</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Z377821</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paint brush</td><td></td><td></td><td>fine-tipped brush</td></tr><tr><td>Tape&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Scotch brand</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich&amp;nbsp;</td><td>13021</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol, lab grade</td><td>Merck</td><td>10094</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hexane, HPLC grade</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich&amp;nbsp;</td><td>H303SK-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMSO</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich&amp;nbsp;</td><td>472301</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBST</td><td></td><td></td><td>Recipe described in the protocol section</td></tr><tr><td>CH&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td>Synthesis described in Mori &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2010</td></tr><tr><td>sCMOS Camera (ORCA Flash4.0)</td><td>Hamamatsu&amp;nbsp;</td><td>C11578-22U</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope (Ti-Eclipse)</td><td>Nikon</td><td>Ni-E</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Spinning Disk Scan head&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Yokogawa</td><td>CSU-X1-A1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aquistion Software (MetaMorph Premier)</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td>40002</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fiji software</td><td>open source</td><td></td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://fiji.sc/Fiji&quot;&gt;http://fiji.sc/Fiji&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr></tbody></table>

measuring physiological responses of drosophila sensory neurons to lipid pheromones using live calcium imaging

Unlike mammals, insects such as Drosophila have multiple taste organs. The chemosensory neurons on the legs, proboscis, wings and ovipositor of Drosophila express gustatory receptors1,2, ion channels3-6, and ionotropic receptors7 that are involved in the detection of volatile and non-volatile sensory cues. These neurons directly contact tastants such as food, noxious substances and pheromones and therefore influence many complex behaviors such as feeding, egg-laying and mating. Electrode recordings and calcium imaging have been widely used in insects to quantify the neuronal responses evoked by these tastants. However, electrophysiology requires specialized equipment and obtaining measurements from a single taste sensillum can be technically challenging depending on the cell-type, size, and position. In addition, single neuron resolution in Drosophila can be difficult to achieve since taste sensilla house more than one type of chemosensory neuron. The live calcium imaging method described here allows responses of single gustatory neurons in live flies to be measured. This method is especially suitable for imaging neuronal responses to lipid pheromones and other ligand types that have low solubility in water-based solvents.

The GCaMP calcium indicator was genetically expressed using Gr68a-Gal4 or ppk23-Gal4 drivers. Distinct populations of foreleg neurons and non-neural support cells are labeled by each driver (Figure 3A-C). Ligand-specific responses to the lipophilic pheromone CH503 were observed in Gr68a-Gal4 and ppk23-Gal4 cells expressing GCaMP (Figure 3D). The relative change in fluorescence intensity of the GCaMP5G signal (&#916;F/F) and increased with higher concentrations of CH503 (Figure 3E). Interestingly, the 5 ng dose of CH503 may suppress the neural response.
Gr68a and ppk23 neurons exhibited different response patterns. Gr68a neurons showed a tonic pattern of neuronal response (Figure 3F), whereas ppk23 neurons showed a phasic, oscillatory response (Figure 3G). Responses from ppk23 neurons in the proboscis were also measured using this preparation and exhibited a combination of phasic and oscillatory responses (Figure 3H).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53392/53392fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Basic principle of the GCaMP calcium imaging technique. GCaMP5G is genetically expressed in Gal4-labeled cells and fluoresces with low intensity prior to neuronal stimulation. Application of a stimulus triggers an action potential in the neuron and causes Ca2+ influx. GCaMP5G, once bound to Ca2+, undergoes a conformational change, resulting in increased fluorescence (&#916;F), which changes over time. The baseline fluorescence (F) refers to fluorescent signal intensity prior to stimulation.
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/53392/53392fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Mounting a live fly for imaging of the foreleg or proboscis neurons. (A) Mounting the foreleg: a 3.2X image of a live male fly, showing the forelegs fastened to the coverslip with tape. (B) A 40X image of the fly, showing each of the tarsal segments (T1-5) and the placement of tape above the first tarsal segment and on the fifth tarsal segments. (C) Mounting the proboscis: a piece of tape is placed over the rostrum to expose the tip of the proboscis. (D) The pipette tip for stimulus addition is held slightly above the fly and does not make direct contact with the preparation.
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/53392/53392fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Pheromone-induced neural responses in GCaMP-expressing neurons. (A) Schematic of the male foreleg of Drosophila showing the spatial positions of Gr68a-Gal4 labeled cells on tarsal segments T2-4. Non-neural cells (identified based on size and shape) are colored yellow. (B) Raw fluorescent image of the male foreleg showing neural and support cells labeled by the Gr68a-Gal4 driver. Scale bar = 50 &#181;m. (C) Schematic of the male foreleg of Drosophila showing the spatial positions of ppk23-Gal4 labeled cells on tarsal segments T2-4. (D) Response of Gr68a- and ppk23-expressing T4 neurons to CH503 (chemical structure shown above). The average &#916;F/F in response to CH503 was compared to the average &#916;F/F following application of PBST solvent alone; Student&#8217;s t-test with unequal variance (for Gr68a) or Mann-Whitney test (for ppk23): *p &#60;0.05, ***p &#60;0.001. Error bars depict s.e.m. Statistical power = 0.93. (E) A dose-dependent change in &#916;F/F is observed in Gr68a neurons in T4. Student&#8217;s t-test with unequal variance: **p &#60;0.01, ***p &#60;0.001. Statistical power = 0.86-0.96. (F) A color-coded time course showing the tonic response in GCaMP fluorescence following CH503 stimulation (500 ng) of Gr68a-expressing neurons. The positions of the neurons on the foreleg are shown in the raw fluorescent image (left). Scale bar = 10 &#181;m; time scale = 0-96 sec. The accompanying line graph shows the tonic response from a Gr68a neuron to stimulation by 500 ng of CH503. The red arrow indicates the time point at which the stimulus was added. The peak response occurs at 120 sec. (G) A color-coded time course showing an oscillatory, phasic response in GCaMP fluorescence following CH503 stimulation (500 ng) of ppk23-expressing neurons. The positions of the neurons on the foreleg are shown in the raw fluorescent image (left). Scale bar: 10 &#181;m; time scale: 0-96 sec. The accompanying line graph shows a bursting response from a ppk23 neuron to stimulation by 500 ng of CH503. Red arrow indicates the time at which the stimulus was added. The peak response occurs at 76 sec. (H) A color-coded time course of ppk23-expressing neurons on the proboscis showing a late-onset tonic response from the cell body and an oscillatory response from an axonal projection following CH503 stimulation (500 ng). The positions of the cells are shown in the raw fluorescent image (left). Scale bar = 10 &#181;m; time scale: 0-96 sec. Reproduced with permission from Shankar, S., et al. The neuropeptide tachykinin is essential for pheromone detection in a gustatory neural circuit. doi: 10.7554/eLife.06914 (2015). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53392/53392fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Solvent1,2</td>
			<td>Solubility of CH5033</td>
			<td>Does the solvent alone trigger neuronal activity?4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.1% PBST</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>NO</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Ethanol</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>YES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Hexane</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>YES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Ethanol</td>
			<td>NO</td>
			<td>(not tested)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Hexane</td>
			<td>NO</td>
			<td>(not tested)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% DMSO</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>YES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% DMSO</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>YES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.4% DMSO</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>YES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.2% DMSO</td>
			<td>YES</td>
			<td>YES</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Solubility of CH503 in various solvents.1 DMSO: Dimethyl sulfoxide.2 Ethanol, hexane, and DMSO solutions were in diluted with dH2O (v/v).3 Solubility of CH503&#160; in 0.2% DMSO was limited only to 250 ng/ml.4 Increase in &#916;F/F with solvent alone was equivalent to that observed upon stimulation with pheromone.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Physiological Responses of Drosophila Sensory Neurons to Lipid Pheromones Using Live Calcium Imaging at JoVE.com

Measuring Physiological Responses of Drosophila Sensory Neurons to Lipid Pheromones Using Live Calcium Imaging

The forelegs and proboscis of Drosophila contain a rich repertoire of gustatory sensory neurons. Here, we present a method using calcium imaging to measure physiological responses from sensory neurons in the foreleg and proboscis of live flies upon exogenous application of a gustatory pheromone.

Measuring Physiological Responses of Drosophila Sensory Neurons to Lipid Pheromones Using Live Calcium Imaging

Unlike mammals, insects such as Drosophila have multiple taste organs. The chemosensory neurons on the legs, proboscis, wings and ovipositor of Drosophila ...

measuring-physiological-responses-drosophila-sensory-neurons-to-lipid

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

8.5K Views.  Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory. The forelegs and proboscis of Drosophila contain a rich repertoire of gustatory sensory neurons. Here, we present a method using calcium imaging to measure physiological responses from sensory neurons in the foreleg and proboscis of live flies upon exogenous application of a gustatory pheromone. 

Video: Measuring Physiological Responses of Drosophila Sensory Neurons to Lipid Pheromones Using Live Calcium Imaging

Loading Drosophila Nerve Terminals with Calcium Indicators

Calcium plays many roles in the nervous system but none more impressive than as the trigger for neurotransmitter release, and none more profound than as the messenger essential for the synaptic plasticity that supports learning and memory. To further elucidate the molecular underpinnings of Ca2+-dependent synaptic mechanisms, a model system is required that is both genetically malleable and physiologically accessible. Drosophila melanogaster provides such a model. In this system, genetically-encoded fluorescent indicators are available to detect Ca2+ changes in nerve terminals. However, these indicators have limited sensitivity to Ca2+ and often show a non-linear response. Synthetic fluorescent indicators are better suited for measuring the rapid Ca2+ changes associated with nerve activity. Here we demonstrate a technique for loading dextran-conjugated synthetic Ca2+ indicators into live nerve terminals in Drosophila larvae. Particular emphasis is placed on those aspects of the protocol most critical to the technique's success, such as how to avoid static electricity discharges along the isolated nerves, maintaining the health of the preparation during extended loading periods, and ensuring axon survival by providing Ca2+ to promote sealing of severed axon endings. Low affinity dextran-conjugated Ca2+-indicators, such as fluo-4 and rhod, are available which show a high signal-to-noise ratio while minimally disrupting presynaptic Ca2+ dynamics. Dextran-conjugation helps prevent Ca2+ indicators being sequestered into organelles such as mitochondria. The loading technique can be applied equally to larvae, embryos and adults.

Calcium is a ubiquitous messenger in the nervous system, essential for triggering neurotransmitter release and changes in synaptic strength. Here we demonstrate a technique for loading Ca2+-indicators into Drosophila nerve terminals. We also demonstrate fabrication of the required apparatus and emphasize points critical for the technique's success.

Calcium plays many roles in the nervous system but none more impressive than as the trigger for neurotransmitter release, and none more profound than as ...

Biology

Imaging Calcium in Drosophila at Egg Activation

Egg activation is a universal process that includes a series of events to allow the fertilized egg to complete meiosis and initiate embryonic development. One aspect of egg activation, conserved across all organisms examined, is a change in the intracellular concentration of calcium (Ca2+) often termed a 'Ca2+ wave'. While the speed and number of oscillations of the Ca2+ wave varies between species, the change in intracellular Ca2+ is key in bringing about essential events for embryonic development. These changes include resumption of the cell cycle, mRNA regulation, cortical granule exocytosis, and rearrangement of the cytoskeleton.
In the mature Drosophila egg, activation occurs in the female oviduct prior to fertilization, initiating a series of Ca2+-dependent events. Here we present a protocol for imaging the Ca2+ wave in Drosophila. This approach provides a manipulable model system to interrogate the mechanism of the Ca2+ wave and the downstream changes associated with it.

Imaging Calcium in Drosophila at Egg Activation

This article describes an adaptable ex vivo protocol for visualizing Ca2+ during egg activation in Drosophila.

Egg activation is a universal process that includes a series of events to allow the fertilized egg to complete meiosis and initiate embryonic development. ...

Developmental Biology

Calcium Imaging of Odor-evoked Responses in the Drosophila Antennal Lobe

The antennal lobe is the primary olfactory center in the insect brain and represents the anatomical and functional equivalent of the vertebrate olfactory bulb1-5. Olfactory information in the external world is transmitted to the antennal lobe by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), which segregate to distinct regions of neuropil called glomeruli according to the specific olfactory receptor they express. Here, OSN axons synapse with both local interneurons (LNs), whose processes can innervate many different glomeruli, and projection neurons (PNs), which convey olfactory information to higher olfactory brain regions.
Optical imaging of the activity of OSNs, LNs and PNs in the antennal lobe - traditionally using synthetic calcium indicators (e.g. calcium green, FURA-2) or voltage-sensitive dyes (e.g. RH414) - has long been an important technique to understand how olfactory stimuli are represented as spatial and temporal patterns of glomerular activity in many species of insects6-10. Development of genetically-encoded neural activity reporters, such as the fluorescent calcium indicators G-CaMP11,12 and Cameleon13, the bioluminescent calcium indicator GFP-aequorin14,15, or a reporter of synaptic transmission, synapto-pHluorin16 has made the olfactory system of the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster, particularly accessible to neurophysiological imaging, complementing its comprehensively-described molecular, electrophysiological and neuroanatomical properties2,4,17. These reporters can be selectively expressed via binary transcriptional control systems (e.g. GAL4/UAS18, LexA/LexAop19,20, Q system21) in defined populations of neurons within the olfactory circuitry to dissect with high spatial and temporal resolution how odor-evoked neural activity is represented, modulated and transformed22-24.
Here we describe the preparation and analysis methods to measure odor-evoked responses in the Drosophila antennal lobe using G-CaMP25-27. The animal preparation is minimally invasive and can be adapted to imaging using wide-field fluorescence, confocal and two-photon microscopes.

Calcium Imaging of Odor-evoked Responses in the Drosophila Antennal Lobe

We describe an established technique to measure and analyze odor-evoked calcium responses in the antennal lobe of living Drosophila melanogaster.

The antennal lobe is the primary olfactory center in the insect brain and represents the anatomical and functional equivalent of the vertebrate olfactory ...

Neuroscience

Simultaneous Recording of Calcium Signals from Identified Neurons and Feeding Behavior of Drosophila melanogaster

To study neuronal networks in terms of their function in behavior, we must analyze how neurons operate when each behavioral pattern is generated. Thus, simultaneous recordings of neuronal activity and behavior are essential to correlate brain activity to behavior. For such behavioral analyses, the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, allows us to incorporate genetically encoded calcium indicators such as GCaMP1, to monitor neuronal activity, and to use sophisticated genetic manipulations for optogenetic or thermogenetic techniques to specifically activate identified neurons2-5. Use of a thermogenetic technique has led us to find critical neurons for feeding behavior (Flood et al., under revision). As a main part of feeding behavior, a Drosophila adult extends its proboscis for feeding6 (proboscis extension response; PER), responding to a sweet stimulus from sensory cells on its proboscis or tarsi. Combining the protocol for PER7 with a calcium imaging technique8 using GCaMP3.01, 9, I have established an experimental system, where we can monitor activity of neurons in the feeding center &#x2013; the suboesophageal ganglion (SOG), simultaneously with behavioral observation of the proboscis. I have designed an apparatus ("Fly brain Live Imaging and Electrophysiology Stage": "FLIES") to accommodate a Drosophila adult, allowing its proboscis to freely move while its brain is exposed to the bath for Ca2+ imaging through a water immersion lens. The FLIES is also appropriate for many types of live experiments on fly brains such as electrophysiological recording or time lapse imaging of synaptic morphology. Because the results from live imaging can be directly correlated with the simultaneous PER behavior, this methodology can provide an excellent experimental system to study information processing of neuronal networks, and how this cellular activity is coupled to plastic processes and memory.

Simultaneous Recording of Calcium Signals from Identified Neurons and Feeding Behavior of Drosophila melanogaster

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, extends its proboscis for feeding, responding to a sugar stimulus from its proboscis or tarsus. I have combined observations of the proboscis extension response (PER) with a calcium imaging technique, allowing us to monitor the activity of neurons in the brain, simultaneously with behavioral observation.

To study neuronal networks in terms of their function in behavior, we must analyze how neurons operate when each behavioral pattern is generated.  Thus, ...

Ex Vivo Calcium Imaging for Visualizing Brain Responses to Endocrine Signaling in Drosophila

Organ-to-organ communication by endocrine signaling, for example, from the periphery to the brain, is essential for maintaining homeostasis. As a model animal for endocrine research, Drosophila melanogaster, which has sophisticated genetic tools and genome information, is being increasingly used. This article describes a method for the calcium imaging of Drosophila brain explants. This method enables the detection of the direct signaling of a hormone to the brain. It is well known that many peptide hormones act through G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), whose activation causes an increase in the intracellular Ca2+concentration. Neural activation also elevates intracellular Ca2+ levels, from both Ca2+ influx and the release of Ca2+ stored in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). A calcium sensor, GCaMP, can monitor these Ca2+ changes. In this method, GCaMP is expressed in the neurons of interest, and the GCaMP-expressing larval brain is dissected and cultured ex vivo. The test peptide is then applied to the brain explant, and the fluorescent changes in GCaMP are detected using a spinning disc confocal microscope equipped with a CCD camera. Using this method, any water-soluble molecule can be tested, and various cellular events associated with neural activation can be imaged using the appropriate fluorescent indicators. Moreover, by modifying the imaging chamber, this method can be used to image other Drosophila organs or the organs of other animals.

Ex Vivo Calcium Imaging for Visualizing Brain Responses to Endocrine Signaling in Drosophila

This paper describes a protocol for ex vivo calcium imaging of the Drosophila brain. In this method, natural or synthetic compounds can be applied to the buffer to test their ability to activate particular neurons in the brain.

Organ-to-organ communication by endocrine signaling, for example, from the periphery to the brain, is essential for maintaining homeostasis. As a model ...

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. Learning-induced changes in synaptic transmission are often distributed across many neurons and levels of processing in the brain. Therefore, methods to visualize learning-dependent synaptic plasticity across neurons are needed. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster represents a particularly favorable model organism to study neuronal circuits underlying learning. The protocol presented here demonstrates a way in which the processes underlying the formation of associative olfactory memories, i.e., synaptic activity and their changes, can be monitored in vivo. Using the broad array of genetic tools available in Drosophila, it is possible to specifically express genetically encoded calcium indicators in determined cell populations and even single cells. By fixing a fly in place, and opening the head capsule, it is possible to visualize calcium dynamics in these cells whilst delivering olfactory stimuli. Additionally, we demonstrate a set-up in which the fly can be subjected, simultaneously, to electric shocks to the body. This provides a system in which flies can undergo classical olfactory conditioning - whereby a previously na&#239;ve odor is learned to be associated with electric shock punishment - at the same time as the representation of this odor (and other untrained odors) is observed in the brain via two-photon microscopy. Our lab has previously reported the generation of synaptically localized calcium sensors, which enables one to confine the fluorescent calcium signals to pre- or postsynaptic compartments. Two-photon microscopy provides a way to spatially resolve fine structures. We exemplify this by focusing on neurons integrating information from the mushroom body, a higher-order center of the insect brain. Overall, this protocol provides a method to examine the synaptic connections between neurons whose activity is modulated as a result of olfactory learning.

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Here we present a protocol with which pre- and/or postsynaptic calcium can be visualized in the context of Drosophila learning and memory. In vivo calcium imaging using synaptically localized calcium sensors is combined with a classical olfactory conditioning paradigm such that the synaptic plasticity underlying this type of associative learning may be determined.

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. ...

Monitoring Epileptiform Events in Drosophila via Calcium Imaging

Ex Vivo Calcium Imaging for Drosophila Model of Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, partially correlated with genetic origin, affecting over 70 million individuals worldwide. Despite the clinical importance of epilepsy, the functional analysis of neural activity in the central nervous system is still to be developed. Recent advancements in imaging technology, in combination with stable expression of genetically encoded calcium indicators, such as GCaMP6, have revolutionized the study of epilepsy at both brain-wide and single-cell resolution levels. Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a tool for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying epilepsy due to its sophisticated molecular genetics and behavioral assays. In this study, we present a novel and efficient protocol for ex vivo calcium imaging in GCaMP6-expressing adult Drosophila to monitor epileptiform activities. The whole brain is prepared from cac, a well-known epilepsy gene, knockdown flies for calcium imaging with a confocal microscope to identify the neural activity as a follow-up to the bang-sensitive seizure-like behavior assay. The cac knockdown flies showed a higher rate of seizure-like behavior and abnormal calcium activities, including more large spikes and fewer small spikes than wild-type flies. The calcium activities were correlated to seizure-like behavior. This methodology serves as an efficient methodology in screening the pathogenic genes for epilepsy and exploring the potential mechanism of epilepsy at the cellular level.

Author Spotlight: Insights into the Techniques and Findings of Recent Advancements in Epilepsy Research 

Here, we present a protocol for ex vivo calcium imaging in GCaMP6-expressing adult Drosophila to monitor epileptiform activities. The protocol provides a valuable tool for investigating ictal events in adult Drosophila through ex vivo calcium imaging, allowing for exploration of the potential mechanisms of epilepsy at the cellular levels.

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, partially correlated with genetic origin, affecting over 70 million individuals ...

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Taste-Induced Neural Responses in Adult Drosophila

For nearly two decades, in vivo calcium imaging has been an effective method for measuring cellular responses to taste stimuli in the fruit fly model organism, Drosophila melanogaster. A key strength of this methodology is its ability to record taste-induced neural responses in awake animals without the need for anesthesia. This approach employs binary expression systems (e.g., Gal4-UAS) to express the calcium indicator GCaMP in specific neurons of interest. This protocol describes a procedure in which flies expressing GCaMP are mounted with the labellum securely positioned, enabling fluorescence in the brain to be recorded at millisecond resolution under a confocal microscope while a solution is applied to the labellum, stimulating all labellar taste sensilla. The examples provided focus on calcium responses in primary gustatory receptor neurons of D. melanogaster. However, this approach can be adapted to record from other neurons of interest within the brain of Drosophilids or other insect species. This imaging method enables researchers to simultaneously record collective calcium responses from groups of gustatory neurons across the labellum, complementing electrophysiological tip recordings that quantify action potentials from individual neurons. The in vivo calcium imaging technique outlined here has been instrumental in uncovering molecular and cellular mechanisms of chemosensation, identifying unique temporal response patterns in primary taste neurons, investigating mechanisms of gustatory modulation, and exploring taste processing in downstream circuits.

A calcium imaging approach enables the recording of taste-induced responses in the brains of awake flies while a solution is applied to the labellum. Primary gustatory responses in Drosophila melanogaster are used as an example, but this protocol can be adapted to study downstream neurons or other species.

For nearly two decades, in vivo calcium imaging has been an effective method for measuring cellular responses to taste stimuli in the fruit fly model ...

Drosophila In Vivo Calcium Imaging: A Method for Functional Imaging of Neuronal Activity

Source: Hancock, C. E., et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/60288/" target="_blank">In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster</a>. J. Vis. Exp. (2019).
This video describes in vivo calcium imaging in Drosophila neurons using GCaMP. The featured protocol clip shows how to record changes in GCaMP fluorescence from mushroom body neurons during an olfactory conditioning experiment.

Source: Hancock, C. E., et al. In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster. J. Vis. Exp. (2019).
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JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)

Adult

In Vivo Calcium Imaging Using Synaptically Localized Calcium Sensors in Drosophila melanogaster

Source: Hancock, C. E. et al., <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/60288">In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster.</a>&#160;J. Vis. Exp. (2019).
This video demonstrates a method for in vivo calcium imaging using synaptically localized calcium sensors in flies. It outlines the steps for preparing the flies for microscopy, conducting olfactory conditioning, and visualizing odor-induced calcium influx.

1. Transgenic fruit flies,&#160;Drosophila melanogaster

	Cross female virgin and male flies (raised at 25 &#176;C in 60% relative humidity on a 12 h ...

Measuring Physiological Responses of Drosophila Sensory Neurons to Lipid Pheromones Using Live Calcium Imaging

Summary

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Drosophila In Vivo Calcium Imaging: A Method for Functional Imaging of Neuronal Activity

In Vivo Calcium Imaging Using Synaptically Localized Calcium Sensors in Drosophila melanogaster