Name: treating low back pain in failed back surgery patients with multicolumn-lead spinal cord stimulation
Uploaded: 2018-06-26T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Treating Low Back Pain in Failed Back Surgery Patients with Multicolumn-lead Spinal Cord Stimulation at JoVE.com

The authors would like to thank Gabrielle Leyden for revising the final draft of this paper.

1. Patient Selection
<ol>
	<li>Make a diagnosis of FBSS20.</li>
	<li>Be sure that the FBSS patient meets all the inclusion criteria before being accepted for an SCS trial:
	<ol>
		<li>Chronic low back pain and/or radicular leg pain that were refractory to optimal medical therapy for a minimum of 6 months.</li>
		<li>Persistent pain despite 3 types of pharmacological treatments (paracetamol, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, antidepressant medications, anticonvulsan...

<ol>
	<li>Schofferman, J., Reynolds, J., Herzog, R., Covington, E., Dreyfuss, P., O'Neill, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Failed+back+surgery:+Etiology+and+diagnostic+evaluation.">Failed back surgery: Etiology and diagnostic evaluation.</a> Spine Journal. 3 (5), 400-403 (2003).</li><li>Hazard, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Failed+back+surgery+syndrome:+surgical+and+nonsurgical+approaches.">Failed back surgery syndrome: surgical and nonsurgical approaches.</a> Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 443 (443), 228-232 (2006).</li><li>Rigoard, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Algorithmic+Programming+Approach+for+Back+Pain+Symptoms+in+Failed+Back+Surgery+Syndrome+Using+Spinal+Cord+Stimulation+with+a+Multicolumn+Surgically+Implanted+Epidural+Lead:+A+Multicenter+International+Prospective+Study.">An Algorithmic Programming Approach for Back Pain Symptoms in Failed Back Surgery Syndrome Using Spinal Cord Stimulation with a Multicolumn Surgically Implanted Epidural Lead: A Multicenter International Prospective Study.</a> Pain Practice. 15 (3), 195-207 (2015).</li><li>Thomson, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Failed+back+surgery+syndrome+-+definition,+epidemiology+and+demographics.">Failed back surgery syndrome - definition, epidemiology and demographics.</a> British Journal of Pain. 7 (1), 56-59 (2013).</li><li>Balagu&#233;, F., Mannion, A. F., Pellis&#233;, F., Cedraschi, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-specific+low+back+pain.">Non-specific low back pain.</a> Lancet. 379 (9814), 482-491 (2012).</li><li>Melzack, R., Wall, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pain+Mechanisms:+A+New+Theory.">Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory.</a> Science. 150 (3699), 971-979 (1965).</li><li>Gonz&#225;lez, J. C. A., Melzack, R., Wall, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+gate+theory:+Beyond+the+scientific+concept+two+worlds+scientists+dedicated+to+the+understanding+of+pain.">The gate theory: Beyond the scientific concept two worlds scientists dedicated to the understanding of pain.</a> Revista de la Sociedad Espanola del Dolor. 20 (4), 191-202 (2013).</li><li>Loeser, D., John, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Concepts+of+pain.">Concepts of pain.</a> The Lancet. 353 (May 8), 1607-1609 (1992).</li><li>Cui, J. G., Linderoth, B., Meyerson, B. 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A., Linderoth, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spinal+5-HT+receptors+that+contribute+to+the+pain-relieving+effects+of+spinal+cord+stimulation+in+a+rat+model+of+neuropathy.">Spinal 5-HT receptors that contribute to the pain-relieving effects of spinal cord stimulation in a rat model of neuropathy.</a> Pain. 152 (7), 1666-1673 (2011).</li><li>Waszak, P. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spinal+Cord+Stimulation+in+Failed+Back+Surgery+Syndrome:+Review+of+Clinical+Use,+Quality+of+Life+and+Cost-effectiveness.">Spinal Cord Stimulation in Failed Back Surgery Syndrome: Review of Clinical Use, Quality of Life and Cost-effectiveness.</a> Asian Spine Journal. 10 (6), 1195-1204 (2016).</li><li>Kishima, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modulation+of+neuronal+activity+after+spinal+cord+stimulation+for+neuropathic+pain;+H(2)15O+PET+study.">Modulation of neuronal activity after spinal cord stimulation for neuropathic pain; H(2)15O PET study.</a> Neuroimage. 49 (2), 2564-2569 (2010).</li><li>Stanc&#225;k, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+magnetic+resonance+imaging+of+cerebral+activation+during+spinal+cord+stimulation+in+failed+back+surgery+syndrome+patients.">Functional magnetic resonance imaging of cerebral activation during spinal cord stimulation in failed back surgery syndrome patients.</a> European Journal of Pain (London, England). 12 (2), 137-148 (2008).</li><li>Yang, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bipolar+spinal+cord+stimulation+attenuates+mechanical+hypersensitivity+at+an+intensity+that+activates+a+small+portion+of+A-fiber+afferents+in+spinal+nerve-injured+rats.">Bipolar spinal cord stimulation attenuates mechanical hypersensitivity at an intensity that activates a small portion of A-fiber afferents in spinal nerve-injured rats.</a> Neuroscience. 199, 470-480 (2011).</li><li>North, R. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spinal+cord+stimulation+versus+re-operation+in+patients+with+failed+back+surgery+syndrome:+an+international+multicenter+randomized+controlled+trial+(EVIDENCE+study).">Spinal cord stimulation versus re-operation in patients with failed back surgery syndrome: an international multicenter randomized controlled trial (EVIDENCE study).</a> Neuromodulation: Journal of the International Neuromodulation Society. 14, 330-335 (2011).</li><li>Kapural, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+10-kHz+High-Frequency+and+Traditional+Low-Frequency+Spinal+Cord+Stimulation+for+the+Treatment+of+Chronic+Back+and+Leg+Pain:+24-Month+Results+From+a+Multicenter,+Randomized,+Controlled+Pivotal+Trial.">Comparison of 10-kHz High-Frequency and Traditional Low-Frequency Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Treatment of Chronic Back and Leg Pain: 24-Month Results From a Multicenter, Randomized, Controlled Pivotal Trial.</a> Neurosurgery. 79 (5), 667-677 (2016).</li><li>Remacle, T. Y., Bonhomme, V. L., Renwart, H. J. P., Remacle, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Multicolumn+Lead+Spinal+Cord+Stimulation+on+Low+Back+Pain+in+Failed+Back+Surgery+Patients:+A+Three-Year+Follow-Up.">Effect of Multicolumn Lead Spinal Cord Stimulation on Low Back Pain in Failed Back Surgery Patients: A Three-Year Follow-Up.</a> Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface. 20 (7), 668-674 (2017).</li><li>Veizi, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spinal+Cord+Stimulation+(SCS)+with+Anatomically+Guided+(3D)+Neural+Targeting+Shows+Superior+Chronic+Axial+Low+Back+Pain+Relief+Compared+to+Traditional+SCS-LUMINA+Study.">Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) with Anatomically Guided (3D) Neural Targeting Shows Superior Chronic Axial Low Back Pain Relief Compared to Traditional SCS-LUMINA Study.</a> Pain Medicine (Malden, Mass). 18 (8), 1534-1548 (2017).</li><li>Chan, C., Peng, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Failed+back+surgery+syndrome.">Failed back surgery syndrome.</a> Pain Medicine. 12 (4), 577-606 (2011).</li><li>Hawker, G., Mian, S., Kendzerska, T., French, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measures+of+adult+pain.">Measures of adult pain.</a> Arthritis Care and Research. 63 (11), 240-252 (2011).</li><li>Deer, T. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Neurostimulation+Appropriateness+Consensus+Committee+(NACC)+Safety+Guidelines+for+the+Reduction+of+Severe+Neurological+Injury.">The Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC) Safety Guidelines for the Reduction of Severe Neurological Injury.</a> Neuromodulation. 20 (1), 15-30 (2017).</li><li>Gupta, P., Kumar, A., Kumar, A., Goel, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Congenital+Spinal+Cord+Anomalies:+A+Pictorial+Review.">Congenital Spinal Cord Anomalies: A Pictorial Review.</a> Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology. 42 (2), 57-66 (2013).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Medtronic N'VISION&#174; Programmer Quick Guide. , (2009).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Medtronic MyStim&#174; Programmer Quick Guide. , (2014).</li><li>Frey, M. 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Recent studies have demonstrated that SCS can reliably improve the different pain components of FBSS patients, improve their quality of life (e.g., quality of sleep and physical activity), and these benefits are sustained during a long-term follow-up3,17,18,19.
Depending on the localization of the pain, we use a different approach. When the patient has only ...

Failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) refers to persistent, chronic pain following spinal surgery. Before FBSS can be established, other conditions, such as persistent nerve root compression, permanent nerve root injury as a consequence of the original compression or surgery, arachnoiditis, incorrect initial diagnoses, and documented mechanical causes for low back pain (such as spinal instability, posterior joint osteoarthritis, spondylolysthesis, and discogenic pain), should be excluded1,2,3. FBSS patients may have severe or disabling neuropathic pain, and the syndrome is worrisome since it is chronic and resistant to conventional treatment. Its incidence and prevalence are similar to those of rheumatoid arthritis4. It is thus a great burden for industrialized societies5.
Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) with dorsal epidural leads can be used to treat back pain (BP) and leg pain (LP) in FBSS patients, although the SCS pain relief mechanism has not been fully investigated. According to the gate control theory, which was first proposed by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall in 1965, the brain monitors the activity of a tiny neural network distributed along the dorsal horn of the spinal cord that is regulated by nociceptive but also non-nociceptive afferents6. These complex circuits in the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord are responsible for relieving pain in a specific location in the body when an intense tactile stimulus is applied to the same place7,8. However, several studies have shown that SCS is not only dependent on this theory. Several neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and serotonin) have been reported to have a role in the SCS mechanism9,10,11,12, as well as numerous brain areas13,14 and different spinal fibers15.
An SCS device includes an epidural lead, internal pulse generator (IPG), and an extension cable to connect the lead to the IPG. The stimulation settings are adjusted by an external remote control. Two types of electrode can be used, namely, percutaneous and surgical leads.
The efficacy of SCS in improving the radicular LP component of FBSS has already been demonstrated in previously published studies, including the EVIDENCE study16, and two new technologies have recently been shown to be effective for treating the BP component, which is known to be recalcitrant to SCS. The first one is high-frequency stimulation17. The second one is the use of surgical multicolumn lead3,18. The main disadvantages of the former technique are that their batteries need more frequent charging and that the programming optimization is challenged by longer &#34;wash-in&#34; times19. The latter technique is more invasive than the percutaneous high-frequency stimulation technique because it requires a small laminectomy, making peroperative paresthesia mapping under local anesthesia challenging, although possible3. Indeed, this procedure can be performed under local anesthesia supplemented by conscious sedation or spinal anesthesia3. In our institution, when targeting back pain in FBSS patients, we place such surgical leads through a small laminectomy at the 10th thoracic level with the patient under general anesthesia. The lasting efficacy of this method with such multicolumn leads for treating LP and BP in FBSS patients has been demonstrated by 3 year follow-up18. A detailed protocol of our method is given below.

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			<td>NaCl 0.9% 1 L</td>
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			<td>09461.16</td>
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			<td>Ziehm Vision R FD</td>
			<td>Ziehm Imaging Inc.</td>
			<td>CB05183</td>
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			<td>Marcain 0.5% + adrenaline 1/200.000 20 mL</td>
			<td>Astrazenca</td>
			<td>PA 970/46/2</td>
			<td>0.5% Bupivacaine/1:200,000 adrenaline solution&#160;</td>
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			<td>external Neurostimulator (eNs)&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;Medtronic Inc., MN, USA</td>
			<td>37022</td>
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			<td>Trousse de colonne lombaire CHR Citadelle (Procedure pack)&#160;</td>
			<td>M&#246;lnlycke</td>
			<td>97061425-01</td>
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			<td>Maquet</td>
			<td>1150.30D0</td>
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			<td>OR Lights</td>
			<td>Trumpf</td>
			<td>1929278</td>
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			<td>Specify SureScan MRI</td>
			<td>&#160;Medtronic Inc., MN, USA</td>
			<td>977C165</td>
			<td>Multicolumn lead</td>
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			<td>Primeadvanced surescan mri neurostimulator&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;Medtronic Inc., MN, USA</td>
			<td>97702</td>
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			<td>Polysorb 2/0</td>
			<td>Covidien</td>
			<td>GL123</td>
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			<td>Polysorb 1</td>
			<td>Covidien</td>
			<td>CL535</td>
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			<td>Polysorb 2</td>
			<td>Covidien</td>
			<td>CL055</td>
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			<td>Cutiplast Steril 20x10 cm</td>
			<td>Smith&#38;Nephew</td>
			<td>66001475</td>
			<td>Bandage</td>
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			<td>MyStim Programmer</td>
			<td>&#160;Medtronic Inc., MN, USA</td>
			<td>97740</td>
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			<td>FixoCath</td>
			<td>Pajunk</td>
			<td>001151-37Z</td>
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			<td>N&#39;Vision Programmer&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;Medtronic Inc., MN, USA</td>
			<td>8840</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>3M Tegaderm Film 10x12cm</td>
			<td>3M Deutschland GmbH</td>
			<td>1626W</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Extension Kit</td>
			<td>Medtronic Inc., MN, USA</td>
			<td>37081-40</td>
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			<td>Paracetamol</td>
			<td>Fresenius Kabi</td>
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			<td>Tradonal&#160;</td>
			<td>Meda Pharma</td>
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			<td>Janssen- Cilag</td>
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			<td>Propolipid 1%</td>
			<td>Fresenius Kabi</td>
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			<td>Ketalar (Ketamine Hydrochloride)</td>
			<td>Pfizer</td>
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			<td>Rocuronium Bromide</td>
			<td>Bbraun</td>
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			<td>Cefazolin</td>
			<td>Milan</td>
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treating low back pain in failed back surgery patients with multicolumn-lead spinal cord stimulation

Failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) refers to persistent, chronic pain following spinal surgery. Spinal cord stimulation with dorsal epidural leads can be used to treat back and leg pain in FBSS patients. This paper presents a detailed protocol for using spinal cord stimulation with surgical leads in FBSS patients. In our department, with the patient under general anesthesia, we place the lead in the epidural space by means of a small laminectomy at the 10th thoracic level. Placement of the lead is followed by a 1 month trial period with an externalized lead. If pain relief is greater than 50% at the end of this 1 month stimulation trial (required by Belgian reimbursement criteria), an internal pulse generator is then placed under the skin and connected to the lead in a second surgical procedure. We have demonstrated that using this technique in rigorously selected FBSS patients can significantly improve back pain, leg pain, patient activity, and quality of life for a sustained period of time.

A prospective, non-randomized, controlled study of 62 consecutive FBSS patients who were implanted with a multicolumn lead using this method in our center, CHR Citadelle, in Li&#232;ge, Belgium, was recently published in Neuromodulation18 . All patients had had previous spinal surgery, had been screened for possible secondary causes of their pain, and were refractory to optimal medical therapy. Multicolumn surgical leads were placed in all 62 patients in the projec...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Treating Low Back Pain in Failed Back Surgery Patients with Multicolumn-lead Spinal Cord Stimulation at JoVE.com

Treating Low Back Pain in Failed Back Surgery Patients with Multicolumn-lead Spinal Cord Stimulation

This paper presents a method that uses spinal cord stimulation with a multicolumn lead to treat neuropathic low back pain in failed back surgery patients.

Failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) refers to persistent, chronic pain following spinal surgery. Spinal cord stimulation with dorsal epidural leads can be ...

This method can help answer key question in the neurostimulation field, about spinal cord stimulation efficiency for treating low back pain in failed back surgery patients. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows the device position to be standardization for optimal paresthesia coverage for full to back and leg pain areas. With the patient in the prone position use fluoroscopic assistance to identify the incision site between the T10 and T11 spinous processes.Infiltrate the incision site with five milliliters of a 20 milliliter solution of 0.5%bupivacaine, and 1-to-200, 000 adrenaline. Next, use a surgical blade to make an incision through the skin and dorsal musculature until the thoracic aponeuroses are revealed. Place a retractor into the incision, and dissect the paravertebral musculature on both sides of the T10 superspinous process, and resect the superspinous and interspinous ligaments.Dissect the T10 lamina five millimeters on each side of the process, and five millimeters in the cranial caudal direction, and perform a partial T10 laminectomy. When enough space has been created for the lead, use fluoroscopic guidance to insert the phantom lead into the epidural space, while keeping the insertion of the flavum ligament on the upper part of the T11 lamina intact. Place the lead as medially as possible, until it is midline to the projection of the T8 to T9 bodies, and fix the lead to the interspinous T11 ligament with a single interrupted stitch.If the lead is positioned within the midline of the epidural space in the T8 to T9 projection, remove the retractor, and confirm a lack of bleeding. Using simple interrupted stitches of braided synthetic absorbable suture material, close the musculoaponeurotic layer, and connect the two intrinsic external extensions to the two extrinsic external extensions. Tunnel the extensions into the subcutaneous fat, so that the extensions exit the skin 15 centimeters lateral to the incision site.Use simple interrupted stitches of braided synthetic absorbable suture material to wrap the intrinsic and extrinsic extensions, and to close the subcutaneous layer. If the lead is still positioned within the midline of the epidural space in the T8 to T9 projection, then use finer absorbable 3-0 suture material to make a dermic subcuticular suture, and apply antiseptic and bandages. A few hours after the surgery, connect the external neurostimulator to the extrinsic external lead extensions, and place the clinician programmer onto the external neurostimulator.Turn on the clinician programmer and the neurostimulation with a pulse width set to 260 milliseconds, at a rate of 60 Hertz. Next, use the guarded cathode configuration to first test a transverse tripolar configuration at the top of the lead. If this configuration provides sufficient paresthesia coverage and/or pain suppression, increase the pulse width to 450 milliseconds to fine-tune the back pain area coverage, and to allow enlargement of the stimulation area, adjusting the pulse rate between 40 and 60 Hertz to obtain the most satisfying paresthesia coverage of the painful area.Then, use sharp scissors to cut the external extension flush with the skin, to reduce the risk of infection until the next surgical procedure. In this representative, prospective, non-randomized, controlled study of 62 consecutive failed back surgery syndrome patients who were implanted with a multicolumn lead, leg pain, back pain, and daily activity limitations were significantly improved during the entire follow-up period. Once mastered, this technique can be completed in 30 minutes, if it's performed properly.While attempting this procedure, it's important to use sterile technique, as infection is the biggest complication of this procedure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) with Auditory Stimulation in Songbirds

The neurobiology of birdsong, as a model for human speech, is a pronounced area of research in behavioral neuroscience. Whereas electrophysiology and molecular approaches allow the investigation of either different stimuli on few neurons, or one stimulus in large parts of the brain, blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) allows combining both advantages, i.e. compare the neural activation induced by different stimuli in the entire brain at once. fMRI in songbirds is challenging because of the small size of their brains and because their bones and especially their skull comprise numerous air cavities, inducing important susceptibility artifacts. Gradient-echo (GE) BOLD fMRI has been successfully applied to songbirds 1-5 (for a review, see 6). These studies focused on the primary and secondary auditory brain areas, which are regions free of susceptibility artifacts. However, because processes of interest may occur beyond these regions, whole brain BOLD fMRI is required using an MRI sequence less susceptible to these artifacts. This can be achieved by using spin-echo (SE) BOLD fMRI 7,8 . In this article, we describe how to use this technique in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), which are small songbirds with a bodyweight of 15-25 g extensively studied in behavioral neurosciences of birdsong. The main topic of fMRI studies on songbirds is song perception and song learning. The auditory nature of the stimuli combined with the weak BOLD sensitivity of SE (compared to GE) based fMRI sequences makes the implementation of this technique very challenging.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI with Auditory Stimulation in Songbirds

This article shows an optimized procedure for imaging of the neural substrates of auditory stimulation in the songbird brain using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). It describes the preparation of the sound stimuli, the positioning of the subject and the acquisition and subsequent analysis of the fMRI data.

The neurobiology of birdsong, as a model for human speech, is a pronounced area of research in behavioral neuroscience. Whereas electrophysiology and ...

Use of the Operant Orofacial Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) to Measure Changes in Nociceptive Behavior

We present an operant system for the detection of pain in awake, conscious rodents. The Orofacial Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) assesses pain behaviors in a more clinically relevant way by not relying on reflex-based measures of nociception. Food fasted, hairless (or shaved) rodents are placed into a Plexiglas chamber which has two Peltier-based thermodes that can be programmed to any temperature between 7 &deg;C and 60 &deg;C. The rodent is trained to make contact with these in order to access a reward bottle. During a session, a number of behavioral pain outcomes are automatically recorded and saved. These measures include the number of reward bottle activations (licks) and facial contact stimuli (face contacts), but custom measures like the lick/face ratio (total number of licks per session/total number of contacts) can also be created. The stimulus temperature can be set to a single temperature or multiple temperatures within a session. The OPAD is a high-throughput, easy to use operant assay which will lead to better translation of pain research in the future as it includes cortical input instead of relying on spinal reflex-based nociceptive assays.

Use of the Operant Orofacial Pain Assessment Device OPAD to Measure Changes in Nociceptive Behavior

We present a user-friendly, high-throughput operant system for the evaluation of pain behaviors in awake, conscious rodents. The Orofacial Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) can assess pain through a reward/conflict paradigm thus providing a more humane way of testing. This protocol will yield more clinically relevant and translational data from rodents.

We present an operant  system for the detection of pain in awake, conscious rodents. The Orofacial  Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) assesses pain behaviors ...

Stimulating the Lip Motor Cortex with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. Researchers have used single-pulse and repetitive TMS to stimulate the lip representation in the motor cortex. The excitability of the lip motor representation can be investigated by applying single TMS pulses over this cortical area and recording TMS-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs) via electrodes attached to the lip muscles (electromyography; EMG). Larger MEPs reflect increased cortical excitability. Studies have shown that excitability increases during listening to speech as well as during&#160;viewing speech-related movements. TMS can be used also to disrupt the lip motor representation. A 15-min train of low-frequency sub-threshold repetitive stimulation has been shown to suppress motor excitability for a further 15-20 min. This TMS-induced disruption of the motor lip representation impairs subsequent performance in demanding speech perception tasks and modulates auditory-cortex responses to speech sounds. These findings are consistent with the suggestion that the motor cortex contributes to speech perception. This article describes how to localize the lip representation in the motor cortex and how to define the appropriate stimulation intensity for carrying out both single-pulse and repetitive TMS experiments.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception.&#160; This article describes how to record motor evoked potentials (MEPs) from the lip muscles and how to disrupt the motor lip representation using repetitive TMS.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a useful tool in investigating the role of the articulatory motor cortex in speech perception. ...

Treating Clinical Depression with Repetitive Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Using the Brainsway H1-coil

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an emerging non-pharmacological approach to treating many brain-based disorders. rTMS uses electromagnetic coils to stimulate areas of the brain non-invasively. Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS) with the Brainsway H1-coil system specifically is a type of rTMS indicated for treating patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) who are resistant to medication. The unique H1-coil design of this device is able to stimulate neuronal pathways that lie deeper in the targeted brain areas than those reached by conventional rTMS coils. dTMS is considered to be low-risk and well tolerated, making it a viable treatment option for people who have not responded to medication or psychotherapy trials for their depression.
Randomized, sham-control studies have demonstrated that dTMS produces significantly greater improvement in depressive symptoms than sham dTMS treatment in patients with major depression that has not responded to antidepressant medication. In this paper, we will review the methodology for treating major depression with dTMS using an H1-coil.

Here we present a protocol outlining the methodology for treatment of Major Depressive Disorder using the deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (dTMS) system.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an emerging non-pharmacological approach to treating many brain-based disorders. rTMS uses ...

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to progressive loss of motor and speech abilities. In addition, cognitive functions are impaired in a subset of patients. To evaluate these potential deficits in severely physically impaired ALS patients, eye-tracking is a promising means to conduct cognitive tests. The present article focuses on how eye movements, an indirect means of communication for physically disabled patients, can be utilized to allow for detailed neuropsychological assessment. The requirements, in terms of oculomotor parameters that have to be met for sufficient eye-tracking in ALS patients are presented. The properties of stimuli, including type of neuropsychological tests and style of presentation, best suited to successfully assess cognitive functioning, are also described. Furthermore, recommendations regarding procedural requirements are provided. Overall, this methodology provides a reliable, easy to administer and fast approach for assessing cognitive deficits in patients who are unable to speak or write such as patients with severe ALS. The only confounding factor might be deficits in voluntary eye movement control in a subset of ALS patients.

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to ...

Using Laser Doppler Imaging and Monitoring to Analyze Spinal Cord Microcirculation in Rat

Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a noninvasive method for blood flow (BF) measurement, which makes it preferable for measuring microcirculatory alterations of the spinal cord. In this article, our goal was to use both Laser Doppler imaging and monitoring to analyze the change of BF after spinal cord injury. Both the laser Doppler image scanner and the probe/monitor were being employed to obtain each readout. The data of LDPI provided a local distribution of BF, which gave an overview of perfusion around the injury site and made it accessible for comparative analysis of BF among different locations. By intensely measuring the probing area over a period of time, a combined probe was used to simultaneously measure the BF and oxygen saturation of the spinal cord, showing overall spinal cord perfusion and oxygen supply. LDF itself has a few limitations, such as relative flux, sensitivity to movement, and biological zero signal. However, the technology has been applied in clinical and experimental study due to its simple setup and rapid measurement of BF.

Here we present a combination of laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) and laser Doppler perfusion monitoring (LDPM) to measure spinal cord local blood flows and oxygen saturation (SO2), as well as a standardized procedure for introducing spinal cord trauma on rat.

Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a noninvasive method for blood flow (BF) measurement, which makes it preferable for measuring microcirculatory ...

Paradigms of Lower Extremity Electrical Stimulation Training After Spinal Cord Injury

Skeletal muscle atrophy, increased adiposity and reduced physical activity are key changes observed after spinal cord injury (SCI) and are associated with numerous cardiometabolic health consequences. These changes are likely to increase the risk of developing chronic secondary conditions and impact the quality of life in persons with SCI. Surface neuromuscular electrical stimulation evoked resistance training (NMES-RT) was developed as a strategy to attenuate the process of skeletal muscle atrophy, decrease ectopic adiposity, improve insulin sensitivity and enhance mitochondrial capacity. However, NMES-RT is limited to only a single muscle group. Involving multiple muscle groups of the lower extremities may maximize the health benefits of training. Functional electrical stimulation-lower extremity cycling (FES-LEC) allows for the activation of 6 muscle groups, which is likely to evoke greater metabolic and cardiovascular adaptation. Appropriate knowledge of the stimulation parameters is key to maximizing the outcomes of electrical stimulation training in persons with SCI. Adopting strategies for long-term use of NMES-RT and FES-LEC during rehabilitation may maintain the integrity of the musculoskeletal system, a pre-requisite for clinical trials aiming to restore walking after injury. The current manuscript presents a combined protocol using NMES-RT prior to FES-LEC. We hypothesize that muscles conditioned for 12 weeks prior to cycling will be capable of generating greater power, cycle against higher resistance and result in greater adaptation in persons with SCI.

Spinal cord injury is a traumatic medical condition that may result in elevated risks of chronic secondary metabolic disorders. Here, we presented a protocol using surface neuromuscular electrical stimulation-resistance training in conjunction with functional electrical stimulation-lower extremities cycling as a strategy to ameliorate several of these medical problems.

Skeletal muscle atrophy, increased adiposity and reduced physical activity are key changes observed after spinal cord injury (SCI) and are associated with ...

Brain State-dependent Brain Stimulation with Real-time Electroencephalography-Triggered Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

The effect of a stimulus to the brain depends not only on the parameters of the stimulus but also on the dynamics of brain activity at the time of the stimulation. The combination of electroencephalography (EEG) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in a real-time brain state-dependent stimulation system allows the study of relations of dynamics of brain activity, cortical excitability, and plasticity induction. Here, we demonstrate a newly developed method to synchronize the timing of brain stimulation with the phase of ongoing EEG oscillations using a real-time data analysis system. This real-time EEG-triggered TMS of the human motor cortex, when TMS is synchronized with the surface EEG negative peak of the sensorimotor &#181;-alpha (8-14 Hz) rhythm, has shown differential corticospinal excitability and plasticity effects. The utilization of this method suggests that real-time information about the instantaneous brain state can be used for efficacious plasticity induction. Additionally, this approach enables personalized EEG-synchronized brain stimulation which may lead to the development of more effective therapeutic brain stimulation protocols.

This paper describes real-time electroencephalography-triggered transcranial magnetic stimulation to study and modulate human brain networks.

The effect of a stimulus to the brain depends not only on the parameters of the stimulus but also on the dynamics of brain activity at the time of the ...

Home-Based Prescribed Pulmonary Exercise in Patients with Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

As a systemic disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) affects the respiratory system, inducing restless and exercise dyspnea. It also impacts exercise capacity and forms a vicious circle in which it further aggravates the condition of patients and accelerates disease progression. As a functional holistic exercise, traditional Chinese exercises (TCE) play an important role in the rehabilitation of COPD on the basis of adjusting the breath and performing coordinated movements. This study investigates the effects of prescribed pulmonary exercises (which are modified from TCE) on exercise capacity of upper and lower limbs, endurance exercise capacity, and quality of life in stable COPD patients. The goal is to determine the accessibility of these prescribed exercises in COPD rehabilitation. Participants are randomly divided into a non-exercise control group (CG) or prescribed pulmonary exercise group (PG) at a ratio of 1: 1. The PG receives intervention for 60 min twice per day, 7 days a week, for a total of 3 months. The intensity is measured using the Borg category-ratio 10 scale and with a heart-rate monitor. Then, an exercise capacity test and quality of life questionnaire are scheduled at 1 week before and after the formal intervention. After 3 months of intervention, the 30 s arm curl test, 30 s sit-to-stand test, 6 min walking test, and quality of life show significant improvement in COPD patients (p &#60; 0.05). These findings indicate that prescribed pulmonary exercises can be applied as alternative, convenient, and effective home- and community-based exercises for stable COPD patients.

Presented here is a protocol to investigate the effects of home-based prescribed pulmonary exercise in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, which is modified based on traditional Chinese exercises according to dyspnea and limited exercise capacity observed in COPD patients.

As a systemic disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) affects the respiratory system, inducing restless and exercise dyspnea. It also ...

Using Unidirectional Rotations to Improve Vestibular System Asymmetry in Patients with Vestibular Dysfunction

The vestibular system provides information about head movement and mediates reflexes that contribute to balance control and gaze stabilization during daily activities. Vestibular sensors are located in the inner ear on both sides of the head and project to the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. Vestibular dysfunction is often due to an asymmetry between input from the two sides. This results in asymmetrical neural inputs from the two ears, which can produce an illusion of rotation, manifested as vertigo. The vestibular system has an impressive capacity for compensation, which serves to rebalance how asymmetrical information from the sensory end organs on both sides is processed at the central level. To promote compensation, various rehabilitation programs are used in the clinic; however, they primarily use exercises that improve multisensory integration. Recently, visual-vestibular training has also been used to improve the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) in animals with compensated unilateral lesions. Here, a new method is introduced for rebalancing the vestibular activity on both sides in human subjects. This method consists of five unidirectional rotations in the dark (peak velocity of 320&#176;/s) toward the weaker side. The efficacy of this method was shown in a sequential, double-blinded clinical trial in 16 patients with VOR asymmetry (measured by the directional preponderance in response to sinusoidal rotations). In most cases, VOR asymmetry decreased after a single session, reached normal values within the first two sessions in one week, and the effects lasted up to 6 weeks. The rebalancing effect is due to both an increase in VOR response from the weaker side and a decrease in response from the stronger side. The findings suggest that unidirectional rotation can be used as a supervised rehabilitation method to reduce VOR asymmetry in patients with longstanding vestibular dysfunction.

A new rehabilitation method is presented for rebalancing the vestibular system in patients with asymmetric responses, which consists of unidirectional rotations toward the weaker side. By directly modifying the vestibular pathway rather than enhancing the multisensory aspects of compensation, asymmetry can be normalized within 1-2 sessions and show lasting effects.

The vestibular system provides information about head movement and mediates reflexes that contribute to balance control and gaze stabilization during ...