The authors acknowledge Peter Jonosson and the Lyons New Media Centre for the 3D printing of the chambers. This research was supported by 436100-2013 RGPIN, ER15-11-123, the McMaster Dean of Engineering Excellence Undergraduate Summer Research Award, and the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program.

<ol>
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A., Tromholt, T., Andreasen, B., Krebs, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stability+of+Polymer+Solar+Cells.">Stability of Polymer Solar Cells.</a> Advanced Materials. 24 (5), 580-612 (2012).</li><li>Habisreutinger, S. N., McMeekin, D. P., Snaith, H. J., Nicholas, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Research+Update:+Strategies+for+improving+the+stability+of+perovskite+solar+cells.">Research Update: Strategies for improving the stability of perovskite solar cells.</a> APL Materials. 4 (9), 091503 (2016).</li><li>Reese, M. O., Sigdel, A. K., Berry, J. J., Ginley, D. S., Shaheen, S. 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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Round+robin+performance+testing+of+organic+photovoltaic+devices.">Round robin performance testing of organic photovoltaic devices.</a> Renewable Energy. 63, 376-387 (2014).</li><li>Osterwald, C. R., Hammond, R., Zerlaut, G., D'Aiello, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photovoltaic+module+certification+and+laboratory+accreditation+criteria+development.">Photovoltaic module certification and laboratory accreditation criteria development.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 41, 629-636 (1996).</li><li>Turak, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+analysis+of+processing+parameters+on+the+ordering+and+performance+of+working+poly(3-hexyl-thiophene):[6,6]-phenyl+C(61)-butyric+acid+methyl+ester+solar+cells.">Systematic analysis of processing parameters on the ordering and performance of working poly(3-hexyl-thiophene):[6,6]-phenyl C(61)-butyric acid methyl ester solar cells.</a> Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 2 (5), 53103 (2010).</li><li>Qi, B., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fill+factor+in+organic+solar+cells.">Fill factor in organic solar cells.</a> Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 15 (23), 8972-8982 (2013).</li><li>Lu, N., Li, L., Sun, P., Liu, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Short-circuit+current+model+of+organic+solar+cells.">Short-circuit current model of organic solar cells.</a> Chemical Physics Letters. 614, 27-30 (2014).</li><li>Qi, B., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Open-circuit+voltage+in+organic+solar+cells.">Open-circuit voltage in organic solar cells.</a> Journal of Materials Chemistry. 22 (46), 24315-24325 (2012).</li><li>Xue, J., Uchida, S., Rand, B. P., Forrest, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=4.2%+efficient+organic+photovoltaic+cells+with+low+series+resistances.">4.2% efficient organic photovoltaic cells with low series resistances.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 84 (16), 3013-3015 (2004).</li><li>Hauch, J. A., Schilinsky, P., Choulis, S. A., Rajoelson, S., Brabec, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+water+vapor+transmission+rate+on+the+lifetime+of+flexible+polymer+solar+cells.">The impact of water vapor transmission rate on the lifetime of flexible polymer solar cells.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 93 (10), 103306 (2008).</li><li>Norrman, K., Madsen, M. V., Gevorgyan, S. A., Krebs, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Degradation+Patterns+in+Water+and+Oxygen+of+an+Inverted+Polymer+Solar+Cell.">Degradation Patterns in Water and Oxygen of an Inverted Polymer Solar Cell.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132 (47), 16883-16892 (2010).</li><li>Dameron, A. A., Reese, M. O., Moriconie, T. J., Kempe, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+Moisture+Ingress+and+Packaging+Requirements+for+Photovoltaic+Modules.">Understanding Moisture Ingress and Packaging Requirements for Photovoltaic Modules.</a> Photovoltaics International. 5, 121-130 (2009).</li><li>Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission Rate of Sheet Materials Using Dynamic Relative Humidity Measurement. ASTM E398 - 13 Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.astm.org/Standards/E398">https://www.astm.org/Standards/E398</a> (2013)</li><li>Basha, R. K., Konno, K., Kani, H., Water Kimura, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+Vapor+Transmission+Rate+of+Biomass+Based+Film+Materials.">Water Vapor Transmission Rate of Biomass Based Film Materials.</a> Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food. 4 (2), 37-42 (2011).</li><li>Kim, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+correlation+study+between+barrier+film+performance+and+shelf+lifetime+of+encapsulated+organic+solar+cells.">A correlation study between barrier film performance and shelf lifetime of encapsulated organic solar cells.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 101, 140-146 (2012).</li><li>Reese, M. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathways+for+the+degradation+of+organic+photovoltaic+P3HT:+PCBM+based+devices.">Pathways for the degradation of organic photovoltaic P3HT: PCBM based devices.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 92 (7), 746-752 (2008).</li><li>Kempe, M. D., Reese, M. O., Dameron, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+sensitivity+limits+of+water+vapor+transmission+rate+measurements+using+electrical+calcium+test.">Evaluation of the sensitivity limits of water vapor transmission rate measurements using electrical calcium test.</a> Review of Scientific Instruments. 84 (2), 025109 (2013).</li><li>Reese, M. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consensus+stability+testing+protocols+for+organic+photovoltaic+materials+and+devices.">Consensus stability testing protocols for organic photovoltaic materials and devices.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 95 (5), 1253-1267 (2011).</li><li>. Current landscape of standardisation efforts in organic and printed electronics 2015 - a VAMAS review Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278035615_Current_landscape_of_standardisation_efforts_in_organic_and_printed_electronics_2015_-_a_VAMAS_review">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278035615_Current_landscape_of_standardisation_efforts_in_organic_and_printed_electronics_2015_-_a_VAMAS_review</a> (2015)</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The critical steps in recreating this experiment include the printing of the chambers to avoid cracks, gaps, or poor in-fill characteristics which can decrease the WVTR, sealing the chamber to prevent any ingress of moisture and oxygen by tightening the KF50 clamp to achieve a full sealing between the top and bottom chambers, using a vacuum-rated low-pressure epoxy around the contact pins or any feedthroughs to prevent any leaking, and creating a seal between the sample and the top chamber using a proper O-ring placement...

Organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes based on &#960;-conjugated semiconducting organic molecules and organometal halides are a rapidly growing field of research. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are already a major technological element in lighting and displays1, and organic photovoltaics have begun to achieve efficiencies that make them competitive with amorphous silicon2. The recent rapid advancement of perovskite-based devices for light absorbing and light-emitting applications3,4,5 suggests that low-cost, easily processed devices are likely to soon find widespread deployment. However, all of these technologies suffer from a sensitivity to atmospheric contaminants, particularly moisture and oxygen, which limits their effective lifetimes6,7,8,9.
For researchers studying such systems, it can be useful to have an adaptable, easy-to-use, portable, and reusable chamber to protect such sensitive materials or to expose them to contaminants in a controlled manner10,11. Though it is possible to use a glovebox for the characterization of air-sensitive devices, these large, expensive, and fixed-location, inert environments may be incompatible with the wide range of characterization that might be required. To provide a portable alternative, Reese et al.10 proposed a small metal chamber based on a standard vacuum flange suitable for the electrical and optical characterization of organic devices. We have adapted this design, making it cheaper and more versatile by using 3D-printing to produce the chamber components. The use of 3D-printing, rather than machining, allows for rapid, cost-effective adjustments to changing sample or environmental requirements while maintaining the utility of the basic design. In this contribution, we outline the procedure to make such a chamber, and use it to extract the current-voltage characteristics of an organic diode device.
A good encapsulation of organic and perovskite devices should have WVTRs of 10-3 - 10-6 g/m2/day for long-term device stability12,13, to ensure&#160;little water ingress into the organic device even in very harsh conditions. As this chamber is designed to be a controlled environment for testing purposes rather than a long-term storage or encapsulation method, the requirements for an effective chamber are not as strict. The chamber should be able to maintain the device properties within a reasonable timeframe to perform characterization experiments. The standard operating procedure of using PLA results in a chamber which can be used for several days or even weeks with an incorporated gas flow, without a significant loss of the device properties.
Changing the materials, or even the shape and size of the chamber body can drastically affect the penetration of contaminants from the air into the chamber. Therefore, the ingress of moisture and oxygen needs to be carefully monitored for each design to determine the efficacy of the chamber. We, additionally to the fabrication of the chamber, outline a simple procedure for determining the WVTR of the chamber, using a commercially available humidity sensor, to establish a timeframe for the use of the chamber for experimentation.
Such a simple, yet versatile chamber allows for multiple types of experiments to be performed. They can act as inert atmosphere environments outside the glovebox, suitable for electrical and optical characterizations through the electrical feedthrough ports and window. Their portability allows them to be used with standard electrical characterization equipment outside the lab where they were manufactured, which is useful in round robin testing for reliability14 or to obtain certified measurements of the device performance15. These chambers are also particularly useful for studying the effects of the introduction of contaminants for controlled degradation tests, with simple modifications. The use of 3D printing allows a significant, rapid adaptability to changing device layouts, sizes, or testing requirements.

<table><tbody><tr><td>ORION DELTA DESKTOP 3D PRINTER RTP</td><td>SeeMeCNC</td><td>87999</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; 3D Printer</td></tr><tr><td>1.75 mm PLA Filament</td><td>SeeMeCNC</td><td>50241</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; PLA</td></tr><tr><td>Somos&amp;reg; WaterShed XC 11122 chamber</td><td>Somos</td><td>printed at Custom Prototypes, Toronto.</td><td>https://www.dsm.com/products/somos/en_US/products/offerings-somos-water-shed.html&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; Water resistant polymer</td></tr><tr><td>CURA</td><td>CURA</td><td></td><td>https://ultimaker.com/en/products/cura-software&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; slicing software</td></tr><tr><td>Soldering iron with 600&amp;deg; F tip</td><td>Weller</td><td>WTCPT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xtralien X100 Source Measure Unit</td><td>Ossila</td><td>E561</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; SMU</td></tr><tr><td>ZIF Test Board for Pixelated Anode Substrates</td><td>Ossila</td><td>E221</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; Zero insetion force/ZIF Test Board;</td></tr><tr><td>BNC Cable</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Generic USB A - B</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Generic USB A - Micro</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>#12 O-Ring</td><td></td><td></td><td>Source unkown&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; o-ring</td></tr><tr><td>116 Butyl O-Ring</td><td>Global Rubber Products</td><td>116 VI70</td><td>Bought in-store&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; o-ring</td></tr><tr><td>Retaining ring</td><td>McMaster</td><td>NA</td><td>3D printed in-house</td></tr><tr><td>Bottom Chamber</td><td>McMaster</td><td>NA</td><td>3D printed in-house</td></tr><tr><td>Top Chamber</td><td>McMaster</td><td>NA</td><td>3D printed in-house</td></tr><tr><td>KF50 Cast Clamp (Aluminum)</td><td>Kurt J. Lesker</td><td>QF50-200-C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>KF50 Centering Ring (Aluminum)</td><td>Kurt J. Lesker</td><td>QF50-200-BRB</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sn60/Pb40 Solder</td><td>MG Chemicals</td><td>4895-2270</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>#4-40 x 3/16&quot; machine screw</td><td></td><td></td><td>Hardware store</td></tr><tr><td>#4-40 IntThrd Brass TaperSingleVane Insert For Thermoplastic</td><td>Fastenal</td><td>11125984</td><td>Fastenal requires to be affiliated with company/university&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; #4-40 brass tapered threaded insert</td></tr><tr><td>Varian Torr Seal Vacuum Equipment High Vacuum Epoxy</td><td>Vacuum Products Canada Inc.</td><td></td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; low-pressure epoxy</td></tr><tr><td>Smiths Interconnect/IDI Contact Probes HEADED RADIUS</td><td>Mouser Electornics</td><td>818-S-100-D-3.5-G</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; pogo pin</td></tr><tr><td>Smiths Interconnect/IDI Contact Probes Receptacle Solder Cup</td><td>Mouser Electornics</td><td>818-R-100-SC</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; solder cup</td></tr><tr><td>1/4&quot; Teflon Tubing</td><td></td><td></td><td>Hardware store</td></tr><tr><td>Teflon tape</td><td></td><td></td><td>Hardware store</td></tr><tr><td>1/4&quot; Tube x 1/8&quot; Male NPT Nickel Plated Brass Push-to-Connect Connector</td><td>Fastenal</td><td>442064</td><td>Not the same ones used for this study, but are fuctionally equivalent&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; push-to-connect pneumatic connector</td></tr><tr><td>1/8&quot; NPT Tap and T-wrench</td><td></td><td></td><td>Hardware store</td></tr><tr><td>1/4&quot; Tube Push-to-Connect Manually Operated Valves</td><td>Fluidline</td><td>7910-56-00</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; manually operated push-to-connect valves</td></tr><tr><td>Adafruit DHT22 Humidity Sensor (small)</td><td>Digi-Key</td><td>385</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; internal humidity sensor</td></tr><tr><td>Adafruit DHT22 Humidity Sensor (large)</td><td>Digi-Key</td><td></td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; external humidity sensor</td></tr><tr><td>Arduino Uno</td><td>Arduino</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glovebox environment</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10 kOhm Resistor</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Oscilla Xtralien Scientific Python IDE</td><td>Oscilla</td><td></td><td>https://www.ossila.com/pages/xtralien-scientific-python&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Known in Report As:&lt;/strong&gt; Python IDE</td></tr></tbody></table>

a 3d-printed chamber for organic optoelectronic device degradation testing

In this manuscript, we outline the manufacture of a small, portable, easy-to-use atmospheric chamber for organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, using 3D-printing. As these types of devices are sensitive to moisture and oxygen, such a chamber can aid researchers in characterizing the electronic and stability properties. The chamber is intended to be used as a temporary, reusable, and stable environment with controlled properties (including humidity, gas introduction, and temperature). It can be used to protect air-sensitive materials or to expose them to contaminants in a controlled way for degradation studies. To characterize the properties of the chamber, we outline a simple procedure to determine the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) using relative humidity as measured by a standard humidity sensor. This standard operating procedure, using a 50% infill density of polylactic acid (PLA), results in a chamber that can be used for weeks without any significant loss of device properties. The versatility and ease of use of the chamber allows it to be adapted to any characterization condition that requires a compact-controlled atmosphere.

Current-voltage Measurements:
This chamber is designed to allow for the testing of an air-sensitive diode device, such as an organic or perovskite solar cell or a light-emitting diode. It can act as a reusable, temporary encapsulation or as a method of introducing contaminants to perform controlled degradation testing. The current density-voltage (JV) curves shown here were measured using a ZIF test board attach...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing at JoVE.com

A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing

Here, we present a protocol for the design, manufacture, and use of a simple, versatile 3D-printed and controlled atmospheric chamber for the optical and electrical characterization of air-sensitive organic optoelectronic devices.

In this manuscript, we outline the manufacture of a small, portable, easy-to-use atmospheric chamber for organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, ...

a-3d-printed-chamber-for-organic-optoelectronic-device-degradation

Research

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Engineering

7.9K Views.  McMaster University. Here, we present a protocol for the design, manufacture, and use of a simple, versatile 3D-printed and controlled atmospheric chamber for the optical and electrical characterization of air-sensitive organic optoelectronic devices.

Video: A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing

Blue-hazard-free Candlelight OLED

A candlelight-style organic light emitting diode (OLED) is a human-friendly type of lighting because it is blue-hazard-free and has a low correlated color temperature (CCT) illumination. The low CCT lighting is deprived of high-energy blue radiation, and it can be used for a longer duration before causing retinal damage. This work presents the comprehensive protocols for the fabrication of blue-hazard-free candlelight OLEDs. The emission spectrum of the OLED was characterized by the maximum exposure time limit of the retina and the melatonin suppression sensitivity. The devices can be fabricated using dry and wet processes. The dry-processed OLED resulted in a CCT of 1,940 K and exhibited a maximum retinal exposure limit of 1,287 s at a brightness of 500 lx. It showed 2.61% melatonin suppression sensitivity relative to 480 nm blue light. The wet-processed OLED, where the spin coating is used to deposit hole injection, hole transport, and emissive layers, making fabrication fast and economical, produced a CCT of 1,922 K and showed a maximum retinal exposure limit of 7,092 at a brightness of 500 lx. The achieved relative melatonin suppression sensitivity of 1.05% is 86% and 96% less than that of the light emitting diode (LED) and compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), respectively. Wet-processed blue-hazard-free candlelight OLED exhibited a power efficiency of 30 lm/W, which is 2 times that of the incandescent bulb and 300 times that of the candle.

We present a protocol for the fabrication of a blue-hazard-free candlelight organic light emitting diode (OLED) for eye protection and melatonin secretion.

A candlelight-style organic light emitting diode (OLED) is a human-friendly type of lighting because it is blue-hazard-free and has a low correlated color ...

Fabrication and Testing of Photonic Thermometers

In recent years, a push for developing novel silicon photonic devices for telecommunications has generated a vast knowledge base that is now being leveraged for developing sophisticated photonic sensors. Silicon photonic sensors seek to exploit the strong confinement of light in nano-waveguides to transduce changes in physical state to changes in resonance frequency. In the case of thermometry, the thermo-optic coefficient, i.e., changes in refractive index due to temperature, causes the resonant frequency of the photonic device such as a Bragg grating to drift with temperature. We are developing a suite of photonic devices that leverage recent advances in telecom compatible light sources to fabricate cost-effective photonic temperature sensors, which can be deployed in a wide variety of settings ranging from controlled laboratory conditions, to the noisy environment of a factory floor or a residence. In this manuscript, we detail our protocol for the fabrication and testing of photonic thermometers.

We describe the process of fabrication and testing of photonic thermometers.

In recent years, a push for developing novel silicon photonic devices for telecommunications has generated a vast knowledge base that is now being ...

Chemistry

Production and Characterization of Vacuum Deposited Organic Light Emitting Diodes

A method for producing simple and efficient thermally-activated delayed fluorescence organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) based on guest-host or exciplex donor-acceptor emitters is presented. With a step-by-step procedure, readers will be able to repeat and produce OLED devices based on simple organic emitters. A patterning procedure allowing the creation of personalized indium tin oxide (ITO) shape is shown. This is followed by the evaporation of all layers, encapsulation and characterization of each individual device. The end goal is to present a procedure that will give the opportunity to repeat the information presented in cited publication but also using different compounds and structures in order to prepare efficient OLEDs.

A protocol for the production of simple structured organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) is presented.

A method for producing simple and efficient thermally-activated delayed fluorescence organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) based on guest-host or exciplex ...

Luminescence Lifetime Imaging of O2 with a Frequency-Domain-Based Camera System

We describe a method to image dissolved oxygen (O2), in 2D at high spatial (&#60; 50-100 &#181;m) and temporal (&#60; 10 s) resolution. The method employs O2 sensitive luminescent sensor foils (planar optodes) in combination with a specialized camera system for imaging luminescence lifetime in the frequency-domain. Planar optodes are prepared by dissolving the O2-sensitive indicator dye in a polymer and spreading the mixture on a solid support in a defined thickness via knife coating. After evaporation of the solvent, the planar optode is placed in close contact with the sample of interest - here demonstrated with the roots of the aquatic plant Littorella uniflora. The O2 concentration-dependent change in the luminescence lifetime of the indicator dye within the planar optode is imaged via the backside of the transparent carrier foil and aquarium wall using a special camera. This camera measures the luminescence lifetime (&#181;s) via a shift in phase angle between a modulated excitation signal and emission signal. This method is superior to luminescence intensity imaging methods, as the signal is independent of the dye concentration or intensity of the excitation source, and solely relies on the luminescence decay time, which is an intrinsically referenced parameter. Consequently, an additional reference dye or other means of referencing are not needed. We demonstrate the use of the system for macroscopic O2 imaging of plant rhizospheres, but the camera system can also easily be coupled to a microscope.

Luminescence Lifetime Imaging of O2 with a Frequency-Domain-Based Camera System

We describe the use of a novel, frequency-domain luminescence lifetime camera for mapping 2D O2 distributions with optical sensor foils. The camera system and image analysis procedures are described along with the preparation, calibration and application of sensor foils for visualizing the O2 microenvironment in the rhizosphere of aquatic plants.

We describe a method to image dissolved oxygen (O2), in 2D at high spatial (&#60; 50-100 &#181;m) and temporal (&#60; 10 s) resolution. The method employs ...

Microfluidic Fabrication Techniques for High-Pressure Testing of Microscale Supercritical CO2 Foam Transport in Fractured Unconventional Reservoirs

Pressure limitations of many microfluidic platforms have been a significant challenge in microfluidic experimental studies of fractured media. As a result, these platforms have not been fully exploited for direct observation of high-pressure transport in fractures. This work introduces microfluidic platforms that enable direct observation of multiphase flow in devices featuring surrogate permeable media and fractured systems. Such platforms provide a pathway to address important and timely questions such as those related to CO2 capture, utilization and storage. This work provides a detailed description of the fabrication techniques and an experimental setup that may serve to analyze the behavior of supercritical CO2 (scCO2) foam, its structure and stability. Such studies provide important insights regarding enhanced oil recovery processes and the role of hydraulic fractures in resource recovery from unconventional reservoirs. This work presents a comparative study of microfluidic devices developed using two different techniques: photolithography/wet-etching/thermal-bonding versus Selective Laser-induced Etching. Both techniques result in devices that are chemically and physically resistant and tolerant of high pressure and temperature conditions that correspond to subsurface systems of interest. Both techniques provide pathways to high-precision etched microchannels and capable lab-on-chip devices. Photolithography/wet-etching, however, enables fabrication of complex channel networks with complex geometries, which would be a challenging task for laser etching techniques. This work summarizes a step-by-step photolithography, wet-etching and glass thermal-bonding protocol and, presents representative observations of foam transport with relevance to oil recovery from unconventional tight and shale formations. Finally, this work describes the use of a high-resolution monochromatic sensor to observe scCO2 foam behavior where the entirety of the permeable medium is observed simultaneously while preserving the resolution needed to resolve features as small as 10 &#181;m.

Microfluidic Fabrication Techniques for High-Pressure Testing of Microscale Supercritical CO2 Foam Transport in Fractured Unconventional Reservoirs

This paper describes a protocol along with a comparative study of two microfluidic fabrication techniques, namely photolithography/wet-etching/thermal-bonding and Selective Laser-induced Etching (SLE), that are suitable for high-pressure conditions. These techniques constitute enabling platforms for direct observation of fluid flow in surrogate permeable media and fractured systems under reservoir conditions.

Pressure limitations of many microfluidic platforms have been a significant challenge in microfluidic experimental studies of fractured media. As a ...

Development of Efficient OLEDs from Solution Deposition

The use of highly efficient organic emitters based on the thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) concept is interesting due to their 100% internal quantum efficiency. Presented here is a solution deposition method for the fabrication of efficient organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) based on a TADF emitter in a simple device structure. This fast, low-cost, and efficient process can be used for all OLED emissive layers that follow the host-guest concept. The fundamental steps are described along with necessary information for further reproduction. The goal to establish a general protocol that can be easily adapted for principal organic emitters currently under study and development.

Presented here is a protocol for the fabrication of efficient, simple, solution-deposited organic light-emitting diodes with low roll-off.

The use of highly efficient organic emitters based on the thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) concept is interesting due to their 100% ...

A Simple and Scalable Fabrication Method for Organic Electronic Devices on Textiles

Today, wearable electronics devices combine a large variety of functional, stretchable, and flexible technologies. However, in many cases, these devices cannot be worn under everyday conditions. Therefore, textiles are commonly considered the best substrate to accommodate electronic devices in wearable use. In this paper, we describe how to selectively pattern organic electroactive materials on textiles from a solution in an easy and scalable manner. This versatile deposition technique enables the fabrication of wearable organic electronic devices on clothes.

In this paper, we present a protocol to selectively deposit organic materials on textiles, which allows for the direct integration of organic electronic devices with wearables. The fabricated devices can be fully integrated in textiles, respecting their mechanical appearance and enabling sensing capabilities.

Today, wearable electronics devices combine a large variety of functional, stretchable, and flexible technologies. However, in many cases, these devices ...

Bioengineering

Fabrication and Validation of an Organ-on-chip System with Integrated Electrodes to Directly Quantify Transendothelial Electrical Resistance

Organs-on-chips, in vitro models involving the culture of (human) tissues inside microfluidic devices, are rapidly emerging and promise to provide useful research tools for studying human health and disease. To characterize the barrier function of cell layers cultured inside organ-on-chip devices, often transendothelial or transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) is measured. To this end, electrodes are usually integrated into the chip by micromachining methods to provide more stable measurements than is achieved with manual insertion of electrodes into the inlets of the chip. However, these electrodes frequently hamper visual inspection of the studied cell layer or require expensive cleanroom processes for fabrication. To overcome these limitations, the device described here contains four easily integrated electrodes that are placed and fixed outside of the culture area, making visual inspection possible. Using these four electrodes the resistance of six measurement paths can be quantified, from which the TEER can be directly isolated, independent of the resistance of culture medium-filled microchannels. The blood-brain barrier was replicated in this device and its TEER was monitored to show the device applicability. This chip, the integrated electrodes and the TEER determination method are generally applicable in organs-on-chips, both to mimic other organs or to be incorporated into existing organ-on-chip systems.

This publication describes the fabrication of an organ-on-chip device with integrated electrodes for direct quantification of transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER). For validation, the blood-brain barrier was mimicked inside this microfluidic device and its barrier function was monitored. The presented methods for electrode integration and direct TEER quantification are generally applicable.

Organs-on-chips, in vitro models involving the culture of (human) tissues inside microfluidic devices, are rapidly emerging and promise to provide useful ...

Scalable Fabrication of Stretchable, Dual Channel, Microfluidic Organ Chips

A significant number of lead compounds fail in the pharmaceutical pipeline because animal studies often fail to predict clinical responses in human patients. Human Organ-on-a-Chip (Organ Chip) microfluidic cell culture devices, which provide an experimental in vitro platform to assess efficacy, toxicity, and pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles in humans, may be better predictors of therapeutic efficacy and safety in the clinic compared to animal studies. These devices may be used to model the function of virtually any organ type and can be fluidically linked through common endothelium-lined microchannels to perform in vitro studies on human organ-level and whole body-level physiology without having to conduct experiments on people. These Organ Chips consist of two perfused microfluidic channels separated by a permeable elastomeric membrane with organ-specific parenchymal cells on one side and microvascular endothelium on the other, which can be cyclically stretched to provide organ-specific mechanical cues (e.g., breathing motions in lung). This protocol details the fabrication of flexible, dual channel, Organ Chips through casting of parts using 3D printed molds, enabling combination of multiple casting and post-processing steps. Porous poly (dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS) membranes are cast with micrometer sized through-holes using silicon pillar arrays under compression. Fabrication and assembly of Organ Chips involves equipment and steps that can be implemented outside of a traditional cleanroom. This protocol provides researchers with access to Organ Chip technology for in vitro organ- and body-level studies in drug discovery, safety and efficacy testing, as well as mechanistic studies of fundamental biological processes.

Here, we present a protocol that describes the fabrication of stretchable, dual channel, organ chip microfluidic cell culture devices for recapitulating organ-level functionality in vitro.

A significant number of lead compounds fail in the pharmaceutical pipeline because animal studies often fail to predict clinical responses in human ...

A Lab-On-A-Chip Platform for Stimulating Osteocyte Mechanotransduction and Analyzing Functional Outcomes of Bone Remodeling

Bone remodeling is a tightly regulated process that is required for skeletal growth and repair as well as adapting to changes in the mechanical environment. During this process, mechanosensitive osteocytes regulate the opposing responses between the catabolic osteoclasts and anabolic osteoblasts. To better understand the highly intricate signaling pathways that regulate this process, our lab has developed a foundationary lab-on-a-chip (LOC) platform for analyzing functional outcomes (formation and resorption) of bone remodeling within a small scale system. As bone remodeling is a lengthy process that occurs on the order of weeks to months, we developed long-term cell culturing protocols within the system. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts were grown on functional activity substrates within the LOC and maintained for up to seven weeks. Afterward, chips were disassembled to allow for the quantification of bone formation and resorption. Additionally, we have designed a 3D printed mechanical loading device that pairs with the LOC platform and can be used to induce osteocyte mechanotransduction by deforming the cellular matrix. We have optimized cell culturing protocols for osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts within the LOC platform and have addressed concerns of sterility and cytotoxicity. Here, we present the protocols for fabricating and sterilizing the LOC, seeding cells on functional substrates, inducing mechanical load, and disassembling the LOC to quantify endpoint results. We believe that these techniques lay the groundwork for developing a true organ-on-a-chip for bone remodeling.

Here, we present protocols for analyzing bone remodeling within a lab-on-a-chip platform. A 3D printed mechanical loading device can be paired with the platform to induce osteocyte mechanostransduction by deforming the cellular matrix. The platform can also be used to quantify bone remodeling functional outcomes from osteoclasts and osteoblasts (resorption/formation).

A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing

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