We thank Anne Dodson and Stephanie Heinrich for advice on how to optimize the smFISH protocol, Xavier Darzacq for help with the analysis platform, Haiyan Huang for suggestions on the statistical analysis. This work was supported by funds from the March of Dimes (5-FY15-99), Pew Charitable Trusts (00027344), Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation (35-15) and Glenn Foundation to E&#220;, and a NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Grant No. DGE-1106400 to JC.

NOTE: All the buffers and the media used in this protocol are listed in Table 1. The vendor information for the reagents is listed in the Table of Materials.
Day 1/Day 1-2:
NOTE: For vegetative culture, grow cells to an OD600 of 0.4 to 0.6 in a preferred medium. For meiotic culture, induce cells to undergo meiosis using a preferred method (typically culturing in&#160;an OD600 of 1.85).
1. Sample Fixation and Digestion
<ol>
	<li>Fix a total of ~3.5 OD600 of cells in 3% formaldehyde.
	<ol>
		<li>For vegetative culture, add 5.52 mL of culture to 480 &#181;L of 37% formaldehyde in 15-mL conical tubes.</li>
		<li>For meiotic culture, add 1840 &#181;L of culture to 160 &#181;L of 37% formaldehyde in 2-mL microcentrifuge tubes. Invert ~5 times to mix. 
		CAUTION: Formaldehyde is toxic. Handle and dispose according to institutional regulations.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place tubes on a roller drum at room temperature for 20 min. For meiotic samples, after fixing at room temperature for 20 min, continue fixing overnight at 4 &#730;C, rotating. 
	NOTE: The overnight fixation increases the reproducibility and quality of the smFISH data obtained for&#160;meiotic samples. Fixation time should be optimized.</li>
	<li>While the samples are fixing, thaw 200 mM Vanadyl Ribonucleoside Complexes (VRC) at 65 &#730;C for at least 10 min.</li>
	<li>Prepare digestion master mix in a 15-mL tube: for 1 sample, mix 425 &#181;L of Buffer B with 40 &#181;L of 200 mM VRC (warmed to 65 &#730;C);&#160;for 5 samples, mix 2125&#160;&#181;L of Buffer B with 200 &#181;L of 200 mM VRC (warmed to 65 &#730;C). Vortex ~5 s to fully resuspend the VRC before adding to the master mix, which will appear light brownish green after VRC addition. 
	NOTE: Addition of VRC during digestion improves the consistency of smFISH results, potentially by inhibiting the nuclease contaminant introduced by the zymolyase mixture, which is purified from crude extract. The amount of VRC required at this step should be optimized.</li>
	<li>For vegetative samples, centrifuge the tubes at ~1057 x g for 3 min. For meiotic samples (after overnight fixation), centrifuge at 21,000 x g for 1.5 min. Decant or aspirate the supernatant to formaldehyde waste. 
	NOTE: All the centrifugation steps are performed at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Resuspend cells in 1.5 mL of cold Buffer B by pipetting up and down or by inverting the tubes and flicking to mix. Transfer vegetative samples to 2-mL tubes after resuspension.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 21,000 x g for 1.5 min. Remove the bulk of the liquid by vacuum aspiration or by pipetting, leaving behind ~100 &#181;L.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cells in 1.5 mL of cold Buffer B.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 21,000 x g for 1.5 min. Remove the bulk of the liquid by vacuum aspiration or by pipetting, leaving behind ~100 &#181;L.</li>
	<li>Resuspend cells in 1.5 mL of cold Buffer B. Centrifuge at 21,000 x g for 1.5 min. Aspirate the liquid completely by vacuum or by pipetting.</li>
	<li>Resuspend cells in 425 &#181;L of digestion master mix, and briefly vortex to resuspend. Add 5 &#181;L of 100T 10 mg/mL zymolyase to each tube. 
	NOTE: Vortex the zymolyase every time before adding to the tubes. Add zymolyase to each tube individually, instead of adding to the master mix. Both steps help maintain digestion consistency among tubes because zymolyase precipitates quickly.</li>
	<li>Vortex 2-3 s to mix. Place the tubes on a roller drum, and digest at 30 &#730;C for 15-30 min. For vegetative cells and early meiotic stages, it usually takes ~15 min, and for meiotic prophase and meiotic divisions, it usually takes ~30 min. 
	NOTE: Check on the microscope every 5 min after 15 min, and stop the digestion when ~80% of cells appear non-transparent and non-refractive. From this point on, cells are very fragile. Handle cells gently and avoid using vacuum aspiration or vortexing.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tubes at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove the liquid completely by pipetting.</li>
	<li>Gently resuspend cells with 1 mL of Buffer B by pipetting up and down 1-2 times to mix.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tubes at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove Buffer B liquid by pipetting. Gently resuspend cells in 1 mL of 70% ethanol (diluted with RNase-free water).</li>
	<li>Incubate at room temperature for 3.5-4 hours.</li>
</ol>
2. Hybridization
<ol>
	<li>Bring formamide to room temperature (for 50-mL aliquot, it takes ~30 min in water bath). 
	NOTE: Do not open the formamide bottle until the bottle reaches room temperature to avoid oxidation of formamide. 
	CAUTION: Formamide is toxic. Handle and dispose according to institutional regulations.</li>
	<li>Prepare 10% formamide wash buffer in a 15-mL conical tube.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tubes at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove 500 &#181;L of 70% ethanol by pipetting. Gently pipet up and down to resuspend the remaining cells, and then transfer the cells to low-adhesion tubes. 
	NOTE: Using low-adhesion tubes greatly reduces cell loss during subsequent washes.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tubes again at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove all the ethanol by pipetting.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of 10% formamide wash buffer, and gently pipet up and down 2-3 times to resuspend the cells.</li>
	<li>Allow the cells to sit at room temperature for ~20 min while preparing the Hybridization Solution. For 1 sample, mix&#160;50 &#181;L of Hybridization Buffer (room temp.), 5 &#181;L of 200 mM VRC (warmed to 65 &#730;C), and 1 &#181;L of each probe (200 nM final). For 5 samples, mix 250 &#181;L of Hybridization Buffer (room temp.), 25 &#181;L of 200 mM VRC (warmed to 65 &#730;C), and 5 &#181;L of each probe (200 nM final).
	<ol>
		<li>Thaw Hybridization Buffer (frozen at -20 &#730;C) to room temperature before opening the tube to prevent formamide oxidation.</li>
		<li>After adding the 200 mM VRC, vortex for 5-10 s before adding the probes, which are designed and purchased commercially, and reconstituted according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions.</li>
		<li>If two probes are co-incubated, add 1 &#181;L of the 1:10 dilution of the probe #1 stock, as well as 1 &#181;L of the 1:10 dilution of the probe #2 stock, to make a final dilution of ~1:500 for either&#160;probe. The concentration needed for the best signal-to-noise ratio needs to be optimized (See Discussion for details).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the samples at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove the supernatant into hazardous waste by pipetting.</li>
	<li>Add at least 50 &#181;L of&#160;Hybridization Solution to each tube. Flick the tubes to mix.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 30 &#730;C on a roller drum for at least 16 hours in the dark.</li>
</ol>
Day 2/Day 3
3. Washing and imaging
<ol>
	<li>Bring formamide to room temperature.</li>
	<li>Prepare 10% formamide wash buffer (FWB) in a 15-mL conical tube.</li>
	<li>Remove the tubes from the roller drum and place them into a foil-covered box to protect from light.&#160;</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the samples at ~376 x g for 3 min.&#160;Remove the supernatant into hazardous waste by pipetting.</li>
	<li>Resuspend in 1 mL of 10% FWB by gently pipetting up and down 2-3 times.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 30 &#730;C for 30 min (not rotating) in the&#160;foil-covered box.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the samples at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove the supernatant to hazardous waste by pipetting, and leave ~50 &#181;L.</li>
	<li>Meanwhile, prepare DAPI/FWB in a 15-mL conical tube: For&#160;1 sample, mix 1000 &#181;L of 10% formamide wash buffer with 1 &#181;L of 5 mg/mL DAPI. For 10 samples, mix 10 mL of 10% formamide wash buffer with 10 &#181;L of 5 mg/mL DAPI. Resuspend in 1 mL of DAPI/FWB by gently pipetting up and down&#160;2-3 times.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 30 &#730;C for 30 min (not rotating) in the&#160;foil-covered box.</li>
	<li>Thaw anti-bleach reagents on ice.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the samples at ~376 x g for 3 min. Remove the supernatant completely by pipetting. If needed, centrifuge again to remove all of the supernatant.</li>
	<li>For samples that are not imaged immediately, resuspend the pellet in 50 &#181;L of GLOX Buffer without enzymes. Pipet up and down 3-4 times to mix.
	<ol>
		<li>Keep all the unimaged samples in the foil-covered box at 4 &#730;C until ready to image. When ready to image, centrifuge the samples at ~376 x g for 2 min and remove the supernatant completely by pipetting. Resuspend in GLOX with enzymes as below.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For samples being imaged immediately, add 15-20 &#181;L of GLOX buffer with enzymes.&#160;Gently pipet up and down to mix. 
	NOTE: The volume added can&#160;vary&#160;depending on the size of the cell pellet. We recommend resuspending the pellet in 15 &#181;L of GLOX buffer with enzymes and check the cell density on microscope. If cells are too dense (cells clumping on top of one another), add extra GLOX buffer with enzymes. If cells are too sparse, centrifuge the sample and remove ~5 &#181;L of buffer.</li>
	<li>Pipet 5 &#181;L onto a coverslip (18 mm x 18 mm, No. 1), and put the coverslip on a slide.</li>
	<li>Put a laboratory wipe on top of the slide where the coverslip is placed. Gently press on the laboratory wipe to set slide (should see liquid coming off from all four edges of the coverslip).</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide to the microscope room in a box covered by aluminum foil.</li>
	<li>Image using a wide-field fluorescence microscope with high magnification (60-100X) and high numerical aperture. 
	NOTE: To collect the maximal number of photons emitted by the smFISH probes, confocal microscopes are not recommended, as they significantly limit the amount of light to be collected. Here, the data were collected on a microscope equipped with a 100X, 1.4 NA objective, using filters CY5 (EX632/22, EM679/34) imaged at 1.3 s, 100% T; TRITC (EX542/27, EM597/45), 1.3 s, 100% T; and DAPI (EX390/18, EM435/48), 0.05-0.1 s, 32%-50% T. A bright-field reference image should also be acquired. Acquire 15-25 slices with a step size of 0.1-0.2 &#181;m, from entirely below the focus of the field of view to entirely above, in order to ensure that all of the RNA spots are accounted for.</li>
</ol>
4. Image Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Analyze the smFISH data with published smFISH analysis tools such as FISH-quant17&#160;and StarSearch2, or with custom-made programs, depending on the exact requirements of the experiment. 
	NOTE: A good analysis pipeline should allow the users to determine a threshold to separate the true RNA spots from the background, and output statistics such as the X, Y, and Z (optional) coordinates and the intensity of each spot, the number of spots in each cell, and possibly fitting parameters as a way to filter out false detections.</li>
</ol>

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A., van Oudenaarden, A., Tyagi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+individual+mRNA+molecules+using+multiple+singly+labeled+probes.">Imaging individual mRNA molecules using multiple singly labeled probes.</a> Nat Methods. 5 (10), 877-879 (2008).</li><li>Rahman, S., Zenklusen, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+resolution+fluorescent+in+situ+hybridization+(smFISH)+in+the+yeast+S.+cerevisiae.">Single-molecule resolution fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH) in the yeast S. cerevisiae.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 1042, 33-46 (2013).</li><li>Gaspar, I., Ephrussi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strength+in+numbers:+quantitative+single-molecule+RNA+detection+assays.">Strength in numbers: quantitative single-molecule RNA detection assays.</a> Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol. 4 (2), 135-150 (2015).</li><li>Vargas, D. 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M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mating+type+switching+in+yeast+controlled+by+asymmetric+localization+of+ASH1+mRNA.">Mating type switching in yeast controlled by asymmetric localization of ASH1 mRNA.</a> Science. 277 (5324), 383-387 (1997).</li><li>Park, H. Y., Trcek, T., Wells, A. L., Chao, J. A., Singer, R. 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The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.

The protocol presented here is derived from other published smFISH protocols2,3,21,22,23, and is specifically optimized for the yeast strain background SK1. The parameters optimized included the cell number, fixation duration, centrifugation speed and duration, digestion duration, digestion buffer, probe concentration, and hybridization buffer. Other parameters such as hybridization temperature and duration were not optimized. In this section, we share a few notes that would help adapt this protocol to any yeast strain background and the growth conditions of interest.
The cell wall of budding yeast is one major challenge against obtaining high-quality smFISH images in budding yeast because the cell wall prevents probe penetration. Incomplete digestion of the cell wall by zymolyase leads to inefficient hybridization of the probes and high cell-to-cell variability in signal. However, over-digestion can make&#160;cells too fragile, leading to significant cell loss during the washing steps and cell bursting during slide preparation for imaging. Thus, optimizing the duration of digestion is crucial. We recommend conducting a pilot smFISH experiment by digesting the same sample for different amounts of time. In our case, we obtained the best smFISH data if we stopped the digestion when ~80% of cells became non-refractive. Typically, for the same growth condition, different genetic mutant strains can be digested with similar timing. However, the duration of digestion differs when compared among different growth conditions and different stages of meiosis in budding yeast. Once the timing is determined, the quality of smFISH is reproducible. Note that for mutant strains with defective cell wall synthesis and/or composition, digestion may be completed in less than 15 min. Use of different batches of zymolyase may also slightly change the digestion timing.
Optimal probe concentration is needed to achieve a high signal-to-noise ratio. We designed and purchased our smFISH probes commercially. Good probes (often 20-mers) should have a percentage of GC ranging&#160;from 35% to 45%, a minimum spacing of 2 base pairs between probes, and low cross-reactivity. We used a web-based probe designer from the manufacturer to generate a list of probes, and if there were enough probes to choose from, we would use the BLAST algorithm in the Saccharomyces Genome Database to eliminate the probes with more than 17 base pairs overlapped with other genomic regions. We chose the more photostable fluorescent dye (CAL Fluor 590) for the probe set that anneals to the unique region of NDC80luti (CF 590) because in this set, the number of probes that satisfied all of the above criteria (20 probes) was lower than the minimum number recommended by the manufacturer (~25 probes). After reconstituting the probe solution following the manufacturer&#39;s instructions, we made a 1:10 dilution of the stock solution and stored the diluted solution in 5-&#181;L aliquots at -20 &#730;C. Each aliquot was used only one time. For optimization, one should make serial dilutions from the 1:10 diluted solution and test which concentration yields the best signal-to-noise ratio. We recommend making a dilution series of 1:250, 1:500, 1:1000, and 1:2000 from the original stock. In our case, a 1:500 dilution factor resulted in the best signal-to-noise ratio, for both the CF 590 and Q 670 probe sets.
Optimal fixation time is also critical for successful smFISH in budding yeast. We found that overnight fixation at 4 &#730;C, rather than fixing at room temperature for 20 min, significantly improved the consistency and quality of the smFISH results for meiotic samples. Although we have not tested how overnight fixation might impact vegetative samples, fixation at room temperature worked well for this growth condition. Thus, to optimize the smFISH protocol for new strains or growth conditions, we recommend starting with short fixation time at room temperature and increasing the fixation time if high variability of signal is encountered.
Compared with other published protocols3,22,23, our protocol uses&#160;the RNase inhibitor VRC during digestion and&#160;a higher concentration of VRC during hybridization. Addition of VRC in these two steps improved the consistency of the smFISH results, possibly by better preserving RNA molecules against nuclease activity, which may be introduced by the zymolyase mix (the enzyme is purified from crude extracts and may contain RNase contaminants). Thus, we recommend using the amount of VRC as listed in our protocol or even higher concentrations of VRC for optimization.
A significant portion of the cells can be lost during the washing steps in both Buffer B and the formamide wash buffer. To reduce cell loss, one could increase the centrifugation speed. In our case, using a high speed (21,000 x g) to pellet our samples during the Buffer B washes significantly reduced&#160;cell loss. However, cells become very fragile after zymolyase digestion, so changing centrifugation speed is not recommended. Instead, we suggest using the low-adhesion tubes from USA Scientific, which greatly help pellet the cells during the washes in the formamide wash buffer. Overall, our protocol can consistently generate a monolayer of cells dense enough for efficient imaging. Typically, 7 fields of view should yield &#62;130 cells suitable for quantification.
Lastly, it is important to determine the optimal parameters for and the outputs needed from image analysis. To detect smFISH spots, published analysis programs commonly filter the raw images using Gaussian kernel to remove background signal, and ask the users to determine the signal-to-noise ratio to use for each set of images2,17. Unfortunately, there is not currently a single standard by which the proper parameters are determined, and so some empirical testing of these different settings is necessary. To set the parameters needed for each of these steps, one needs to iteratively input different sets of parameters and check how well the results obtained from each set matches that from manual counting in a few representative cells. Once one set of parameters is found, it can be used for most of the images obtained despite different growth conditions and genetic backgrounds.
In addition, one can test if maximum-intensity projection of the smFISH images can be performed prior to quantification22. This step simplifies the spot detection algorithm and significantly reduces imaging time, though at the cost of some potentially useful information about individual spots, such as their subcellular localization. In our case, the number of mRNA molecules produced by the NDC80 gene was low enough that the spots were well separated after this processing (not uncommon for transcripts in budding yeast3,7). In cases where colocalization analysis is critical, the analysis pipeline needs to determine the location of each smFISH spot in each channel to assess colocalization. Depending on the specific questions being asked, other information such as the intensity of each spot may also need to be extracted from the pipeline for further analysis. Optimizing the key steps in the protocol and the image analysis pipeline is crucial in obtaining high quality of smFISH data to study the question of interest.

Dynamic regulation of gene expression drives the development of an organism, as well as its response to environmental stress, infection, and changes in metabolism. Studies that focus on transcriptional regulation rely on technologies that measure RNA abundance. One such method, termed single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH), is used for detection of individual RNA molecules in single cells1,2. This method allows&#160;measurement of the cell-to-cell variability in gene expression and determination of intracellular RNA localization.
In the most commonly used smFISH technique, detection of an individual RNA molecule requires multiple short DNA probes (often ~48 20-mer probes) that are complementary to the target RNA&#160;and are conjugated to the same fluorescent dye. Binding of a single fluorescent probe results in weak signal, but the signal from the ensemble of all the probes is robust. This feature greatly improves the signal-to-noise ratio because even though a single probe can exhibit off-target binding, such signal is expected to be very weak compared to that of the target RNA molecule3. Within error of detection, the number of RNA molecules can be counted and compared across various growth conditions and among different mutants.
Since its first development, smFISH has been adapted to study various aspects of gene expression4, such as transcription elongation1,2, splicing5,6, transcriptional bursting7,8,9, intracellular allelic expression10,11,12, and RNA localization13,14,15. Recently, we have used this method to study the expression of two transcript isoforms of the same gene, in which the short transcript isoform (NDC80ORF) has its entire sequence shared with the long isoform (NDC80luti)16. To uniquely identify the two mRNA isoforms, we used two probe sets: one set is specific to the unique sequence of NDC80luti, and the other set, conjugated to another fluorescent dye, binds to the common region of the two isoforms. The&#160;NDC80luti RNA is identified as a colocalized spot with both fluorescent signals, whereas the NDC80ORF RNA is the one that contains only the signal from the common probe set. Since the number of the NDC80ORF transcripts is calculated by a &#34;subtraction&#34; method, high efficiency of probe hybridization and a high signal-to-noise ratio are necessary to confidently identify smFISH spots and reduce error propagation.
This paper describes an optimized protocol for performing smFISH in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this protocol, the cell number, fixation time, digestion time, digestion buffer, probe concentration, and hybridization buffer used for the smFISH experiments were optimized for the SK1 strain background of S. cerevisiae undergoing vegetative growth or meiosis. However, we also note in this manuscript: (1) the method to check the quality of smFISH data after image acquisition, and (2) the steps in the protocol that may require additional optimization for different strain backgrounds and growth conditions.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:881px;" width="881">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">BSA, RNase-free (50 mg/mL)</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">AM2616</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">Catalase</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">C3515</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at 4 &#176;C for short-term. Vortex before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">DAPI</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">D9564</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C after reconstitution in water. Protect from light.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">50% Dextran Sulfate</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Milli Pore</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">S4030</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature. Very viscous liquid. Handle with patience.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">E. coli tRNA</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">R4251</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C in aliquots after reconstitution in water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">Ethanol (100%, 200 proof)</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">various</td>
			<td style="width:87px;"></td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Flammable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">37% Formaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Fisher</td>
			<td>F79-500</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature. Toxic. Use and dispose with caution.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:205px;">Formamide</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">AM9342</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at 4 &#176;C. Open after the temperature equilibrates to room temperature in order to prevent oxidation. Toxic. Use and dispose with caution.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">various</td>
			<td style="width:87px;"></td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at 4 &#176;C after dissolving in nuclease-free water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">Glucose oxidase</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">G2133</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C in aliquots after reconstitution in 50 mM NaOAc, pH 5.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:205px;">Nuclease-free water</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">AM9932</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:205px;">Potassium phosphate (monobasic and dibasic)</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">various</td>
			<td style="width:87px;"></td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:205px;">Probe library, diluted in TE, pH 8.0&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Biosearch Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:87px;"></td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C in aliquots (5 &#181;L) after reconstitution in TE pH 8.0, following the instructions from the manufacturer. Protect from light.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:205px;">Sorbitol</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">various</td>
			<td style="width:87px;"></td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:205px;">20X SSC</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">AM9763</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:205px;">TE, pH 8.0</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">AM9849</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="30">
			<td height="30" style="height:31px;width:205px;">1 M Tris, pH 8.0</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">AM9856</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:205px;">Trolox</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">238813</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C in aliquots.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:205px;">200 mM Vanadyl ribonucleoside complex (VRC)</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">S1402S</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C in aliquots after reconstitution, following the instructions from the manufacturer.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;width:205px;">Zymolyase 100T</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td style="width:87px;">08320932</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at -20 &#176;C in aliquots after reconstitution in water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="28">
			<td height="28" style="height:28px;width:205px;">Low-adhesion tubes</td>
			<td style="width:99px;">USA Scientific</td>
			<td>1415-2600</td>
			<td style="width:491px;">Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smfish) analysis in budding yeast vegetative growth and meiosis

Single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a powerful technique to study gene expression in single cells due to its ability to detect and count individual RNA molecules. Complementary to deep sequencing-based methods, smFISH provides information about the cell-to-cell variation in transcript abundance and the subcellular localization of a given RNA. Recently, we have used smFISH to study the expression of the gene&#160;NDC80&#160;during meiosis in budding yeast, in which two transcript isoforms exist and the short transcript isoform has its entire sequence shared with the long isoform. To confidently identify each transcript isoform, we optimized known smFISH protocols and obtained high consistency and quality of smFISH data for the samples acquired during budding yeast meiosis. Here, we describe this optimized protocol, the criteria that we use to determine whether high quality of smFISH data is obtained, and some tips for implementing this protocol in&#160;other yeast strains and growth conditions.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single Molecule Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization smFISH Analysis in Budding Yeast Vegetative Growth and Meiosis at JoVE.com

Single Molecule Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization smFISH Analysis in Budding Yeast Vegetative Growth and Meiosis

This single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization protocol is optimized to quantify the number of RNA molecules in budding yeast during vegetative growth and meiosis.

Single Molecule Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (smFISH) Analysis in Budding Yeast Vegetative Growth and Meiosis

Single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a powerful technique to study gene expression in single cells due to its ability to detect ...

single-molecule-fluorescence-situ-hybridization-smfish-analysis

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

19.1K Views.  University of California, Berkeley. This single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization protocol is optimized to quantify the number of RNA molecules in budding yeast during vegetative growth and meiosis.

Video: Single Molecule Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization smFISH Analysis in Budding Yeast Vegetative Growth and Meiosis

Detection of Inter-chromosomal Stable Aberrations by Multiple Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (mFISH) and Spectral Karyotyping (SKY) in Irradiated Mice

Ionizing radiation (IR) induces numerous stable and unstable chromosomal aberrations. Unstable aberrations, where chromosome morphology is substantially compromised, can easily be identified by conventional chromosome staining techniques. However, detection of stable aberrations, which involve exchange or translocation of genetic materials without considerable modification in the chromosome morphology, requires sophisticated chromosome painting techniques that rely on in situ hybridization of fluorescently labeled DNA probes, a chromosome painting technique popularly known as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). FISH probes can be specific for whole chromosome/s or precise sub-region on chromosome/s. The method not only allows visualization of stable aberrations, but it can also allow detection of the chromosome/s or specific DNA sequence/s involved in a particular aberration formation. A variety of chromosome painting techniques are available in cytogenetics; here two highly sensitive methods, multiple fluorescence in situ hybridization (mFISH) and spectral karyotyping (SKY), are discussed to identify inter-chromosomal stable aberrations that form in the bone marrow cells of mice after exposure to total body irradiation. Although both techniques rely on fluorescent labeled DNA probes, the method of detection and the process of image acquisition of the fluorescent signals are different. These two techniques have been used in various research areas, such as radiation biology, cancer cytogenetics, retrospective radiation biodosimetry, clinical cytogenetics, evolutionary cytogenetics, and comparative cytogenetics.

Detection of Inter-chromosomal Stable Aberrations by Multiple Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization mFISH and Spectral Karyotyping SKY in Irradiated Mice

The present protocol describes the usefulness of multiple fluorescence in situ hybridization (mFISH) and spectral karyotyping (SKY) in identifying inter-chromosomal stable aberrations in the bone marrow cells of mice after exposure to total body irradiation.

Ionizing radiation (IR) induces numerous stable and unstable chromosomal aberrations. Unstable aberrations, where chromosome morphology is substantially ...

Targeted in Situ Mutagenesis of Histone Genes in Budding Yeast

We describe a PCR- and homologous recombination-based system for generating targeted mutations in histone genes in budding yeast cells. The resulting mutant alleles reside at their endogenous genomic sites and no exogenous DNA sequences are left in the genome following the procedure. Since in haploid yeast cells each of the four core histone proteins is encoded by two non-allelic genes with highly homologous open reading frames (ORFs), targeting mutagenesis specifically to one of two genes encoding a particular histone protein can be problematic. The strategy we describe here bypasses this problem by utilizing sequences outside, rather than within, the ORF of the target genes for the homologous recombination step. Another feature of this system is that the regions of DNA driving the homologous recombination steps can be made to be very extensive, thus increasing the likelihood of successful integration events. These features make this strategy particularly well-suited for histone gene mutagenesis, but can also be adapted for mutagenesis of other genes in the yeast genome.

Targeted in Situ Mutagenesis of Histone Genes in Budding Yeast

A strategy for generating mutations in histone genes at their endogenous location in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is presented.

We describe a PCR- and homologous recombination-based system for generating targeted mutations in histone genes in budding yeast cells. The resulting ...

Single Molecule Analysis of Laser Localized Psoralen Adducts

The DNA Damage Response (DDR) has been extensively characterized in studies of double strand breaks (DSBs) induced by laser micro beam irradiation in live cells. The DDR to helix distorting covalent DNA modifications, including interstrand DNA crosslinks (ICLs), is not as well defined. We have studied the DDR stimulated by ICLs, localized by laser photoactivation of immunotagged psoralens, in the nuclei of live cells. In order to address fundamental questions about adduct distribution and replication fork encounters, we combined laser localization with two other technologies. DNA fibers are often used to display the progress of replication forks by immunofluorescence of nucleoside analogues incorporated during short pulses. Immunoquantum dots have been widely employed for single molecule imaging. In the new approach, DNA fibers from cells carrying laser localized ICLs are spread onto microscope slides. The tagged ICLs are displayed with immunoquantum dots and the inter-lesion distances determined. Replication fork collisions with ICLs can be visualized and different encounter patterns identified and quantitated.

Lasers are frequently used in studies of the cellular response to DNA damage. However, they generate lesions whose spacing, frequency, and collisions with replication forks are rarely characterized. Here, we describe an approach that enables the determination of these parameters with laser localized interstrand crosslinks.

The DNA Damage Response (DDR) has been extensively characterized in studies of double strand breaks (DSBs) induced by laser micro beam irradiation in live ...

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

In our efforts to determine the patterns of expression and subcellular localization of Drosophila RNAs on a genome-wide basis, and in a variety of tissues, we have developed numerous modifications and improvements to our original fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) protocol. To facilitate throughput and cost effectiveness, all steps, from probe generation to signal detection, are performed using exon 96-well microtiter plates. Digoxygenin (DIG)-labelled antisense RNA probes are produced using either cDNA clones or genomic DNA as templates. After tissue fixation and permeabilization, probes are hybridized to transcripts of interest and then detected using a succession of anti-DIG antibody conjugated to biotin, streptavidin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and fluorescently conjugated tyramide, which in the presence of HRP, produces a highly reactive intermediate that binds to electron dense regions of immediately adjacent proteins. These amplification and localization steps produce a robust and highly localized signal that facilitates both cellular and subcellular transcript localization. The protocols provided have been optimized to produce highly specific signals in a variety of tissues and developmental stages. References are also provided for additional variations that allow the simultaneous detection of multiple transcripts, or transcripts and proteins, at the same time.

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

The described RNA in situ hybridization protocol allows the detection of RNA in whole Drosophila embryos or dissected tissues. Using 96-well microtiter plates and tyramide signal amplification, transcripts can be detected at high resolution, sensitivity, and throughput, and at a relatively low cost.

In our efforts to determine the patterns of expression and subcellular localization of Drosophila RNAs on a genome-wide basis, and in a variety of ...

Real-time Analysis of Transcription Factor Binding, Transcription, Translation, and Turnover to Display Global Events During Cellular Activation

Upon activation, cells rapidly change their functional programs and, thereby, their gene expression profile. Massive changes in gene expression occur, for example, during cellular differentiation, morphogenesis, and functional stimulation (such as activation of immune cells), or after exposure to drugs and other factors from the local environment. Depending on the stimulus and cell type, these changes occur rapidly and at any possible level of gene regulation. Displaying all molecular processes of a responding cell to a certain type of stimulus/drug is one of the hardest tasks in molecular biology. Here, we describe a protocol that enables the simultaneous analysis of multiple layers of gene regulation. We compare, in particular, transcription factor binding (Chromatin-immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIP-seq)), de novo transcription (4-thiouridine-sequencing (4sU-seq)), mRNA processing, and turnover as well as translation (ribosome profiling). By combining these methods, it is possible to display a detailed and genome-wide course of action.
Sequencing newly transcribed RNA is especially recommended when analyzing rapidly adapting or changing systems, since this depicts the transcriptional activity of all genes during the time of 4sU exposure (irrespective of whether they are up- or downregulated). The combinatorial use of total RNA-seq and ribosome profiling additionally allows the calculation of RNA turnover and translation rates. Bioinformatic analysis of high-throughput sequencing results allows for many means for analysis and interpretation of the data. The generated data also enables tracking co-transcriptional and alternative splicing, just to mention a few possible outcomes.
The combined approach described here can be applied for different model organisms or cell types, including primary cells. Furthermore, we provide detailed protocols for each method used, including quality controls, and discuss potential problems and pitfalls.

This protocol describes the combinatorial use of ChIP-seq, 4sU-seq, total RNA-seq, and ribosome profiling for cell lines and primary cells. It enables tracking changes in transcription-factor binding, de novo transcription, RNA processing, turnover and translation over time, and displaying the overall course of events in activated and/or rapidly changing cells.

Upon activation, cells rapidly change their functional programs and, thereby, their gene expression profile. Massive changes in gene expression occur, for ...

Visualization of Microbiota in Tick Guts by Whole-mount In Situ Hybridization

Infectious diseases transmitted by arthropod vectors continue to pose a significant threat to human health worldwide. The pathogens causing these diseases, do not exist in isolation when they colonize the vector; rather, they likely engage in interactions with resident microorganisms in the gut lumen. The vector microbiota has been demonstrated to play an important role in pathogen transmission for several vector-borne diseases. Whether resident bacteria in the gut of the Ixodes scapularis tick, the vector of several human pathogens including Borrelia burgdorferi, influence tick transmission of pathogens is not determined. We require methods for characterizing the composition of the bacteria associated with the tick gut to facilitate a better understanding of potential interspecies interactions in the tick gut. Using whole-mount in situ hybridization to visualize RNA transcripts associated with particular bacterial species allows for the collection of qualitative data regarding the abundance and distribution of the microbiota in intact tissue. This technique can be used to examine changes in the gut microbiota milieu over the course of tick feeding and can also be applied to analyze expression of tick genes. Staining of whole tick guts yield information about the gross spatial distribution of target RNA in the tissue without the need for three-dimensional reconstruction and is less affected by environmental contamination, which often confounds the sequencing-based methods frequently used to study complex microbial communities. Overall, this technique is a valuable tool that can be used to better understand vector-pathogen-microbiota interactions and their role in disease transmission.

Visualization of Microbiota in Tick Guts by Whole-mount In Situ Hybridization

Here, we present a protocol to spatially and temporally assess the presence of viable microbiota in tick guts using a modified whole-mount in situ hybridization approach.

Infectious diseases transmitted by arthropod vectors continue to pose a significant threat to human health worldwide. The pathogens causing these ...

Quantitative Analysis of Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing in Mouse Brain Sections Using RNA In Situ Hybridization Assay

Alternative splicing (AS) occurs in more than 90% of human genes. The expression pattern of an alternatively spliced exon is often regulated in a cell type-specific fashion. AS expression patterns are typically analyzed by RT-PCR and RNA-seq using RNA samples isolated from a population of cells. In situ examination of AS expression patterns for a particular biological structure can be carried out by RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) using exon-specific probes. However, this particular use of ISH has been limited because alternative exons are generally too short to design exon-specific probes. In this report, the use of BaseScope, a recently developed technology that employs short antisense oligonucleotides in RNA ISH, is described to analyze AS expression patterns in mouse brain sections. Exon 23a of neurofibromatosis type 1 (Nf1) is used as an example to illustrate that short exon-exon junction probes exhibit robust hybridization signals with high specificity in RNA ISH analysis on mouse brain sections. More importantly, signals detected with exon inclusion- and skipping-specific probes can be used to reliably calculate the percent spliced in values of Nf1 exon 23a expression in different anatomical areas of a mouse brain. The experimental protocol and calculation method for AS analysis are presented. The results indicate that BaseScope provides a powerful new tool to assess AS expression patterns in situ.

Quantitative Analysis of Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing in Mouse Brain Sections Using RNA In Situ Hybridization Assay

An in situ hybridization (ISH) protocol that uses short antisense oligonucleotides to detect alternative pre-mRNA splicing patterns in mouse brain sections is described.

Alternative splicing (AS) occurs in more than 90% of human genes. The expression pattern of an alternatively spliced exon is often regulated in a cell ...

Tissue-specific miRNA Expression Profiling in Mouse Heart Sections Using In Situ Hybridization

micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are single-stranded RNA transcripts that bind to messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and inhibit their translation or promote their degradation. To date, miRNAs have been implicated in a large number of biological and disease processes, which has signified the need for the reliable detection methods of miRNA transcripts. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for digoxigenin-labeled (DIG) Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA) probe-based miRNA detection, combined with protein immunostaining on mouse heart sections. First, we performed an in situ hybridization technique using the probe to identify miRNA-182 expression in heart sections from control and cardiac hypertrophy mice. Next, we performed immunostaining for cardiac Troponin T (cTnT) protein, on the same sections, to co-localize miRNA-182 with the cardiomyocyte cells. Using this protocol, we were able to detect miRNA-182 through an alkaline phosphatase based colorimetric assay, and cTnT through fluorescent staining. This protocol can be used to detect the expression of any miRNA of interest through DIG-labeled LNA probes, and relevant protein expression on mouse heart tissue sections.

Tissue-specific miRNA Expression Profiling in Mouse Heart Sections Using In Situ Hybridization

micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are short and highly homologous RNA sequences, serving as post-transcriptional regulators of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Current miRNA detection methods vary in sensitivity and specificity. We describe a protocol that combines in situ hybridization and immunostaining for concurrent detection of miRNA and protein molecules on mouse heart tissue sections.

micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are single-stranded RNA transcripts that bind to messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and inhibit their translation or promote their degradation. To ...

Characterizing Histone Post-translational Modification Alterations in Yeast Neurodegenerative Proteinopathy Models

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), cause the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives each year. Effective treatment options able to halt disease progression are lacking. Despite the extensive sequencing efforts in large patient populations, the majority of ALS and PD cases remain unexplained by genetic mutations alone. Epigenetics mechanisms, such as the post-translational modification of histone proteins, may be involved in neurodegenerative disease etiology and progression and lead to new targets for pharmaceutical intervention. Mammalian in vivo and in vitro models of ALS and PD are costly and often require prolonged and laborious experimental protocols. Here, we outline a practical, fast, and cost-effective approach to determining genome-wide alterations in histone modification levels using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model system. This protocol allows for comprehensive investigations into epigenetic changes connected to neurodegenerative proteinopathies that corroborate previous findings in different model systems while significantly expanding our knowledge of the neurodegenerative disease epigenome.

This protocol outlines experimental procedures to characterize genome-wide changes in the levels of histone post-translational modifications (PTM) occurring in connection with the overexpression of proteins associated with ALS and Parkinson&#39;s disease in Saccharomyces cerevisiae models. After SDS-PAGE separation, individual histone PTM levels are detected with modification-specific antibodies via Western blotting.

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), cause the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives ...

Use of Single Molecule Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (SM-FISH) to Quantify and Localize mRNAs in Murine Oocytes

Current methods routinely used to quantify mRNA in oocytes and embryos include digital reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (dPCR), quantitative, real-time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) and RNA sequencing. When these techniques are performed using a single oocyte or embryo, low-copy mRNAs are not reliably detected. To overcome this problem, oocytes or embryos can be pooled together for analysis; however, this often leads to high variability amongst samples. In this protocol, we describe the use of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using branched DNA chemistry. This technique identifies the spatial pattern of mRNAs in individual cells. When the technique is coupled with Spot Finding and Tracking&#160;computer software, the abundance of mRNAs in the cell can also be quantified. Using this technique, there is reduced variability within an experimental group and fewer oocytes and embryos are required to detect significant differences between experimental groups. Commercially available branched-DNA SM-FISH kits have been optimized to detect mRNAs in sectioned tissues or adherent cells on slides. However, oocytes do not effectively adhere to slides and some reagents in the kit were too harsh resulting in oocyte lysis. To prevent this lysis, several modifications were made to the FISH kit. Specifically, oocyte permeabilization and wash&#160;buffers designed for the immunofluorescence of oocytes and embryos replaced the proprietary buffers. The permeabilization, washes, and incubations with probes and amplifier were performed in 6-well plates and oocytes were placed on slides at the end of the protocol using mounting media. These modifications were able to overcome the limitations of the commercially available kit, in particular, the oocyte lysis. To accurately and reproducibly count the number of mRNAs in individual oocytes, computer software was used. Together, this protocol represents an alternative to PCR and sequencing to compare the expression of specific transcripts in single cells.

Use of Single Molecule Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization SM-FISH to Quantify and Localize mRNAs in Murine Oocytes

To reproducibly count the numbers of mRNAs in individual oocytes, single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (RNA-FISH) was optimized for non-adherent cells. Oocytes were collected, hybridized with the transcript specific probes, and quantified using an image quantification software.