The authors acknowledge funding from University of Ottawa and NSERC Discovery grant RGPIN-2016-06717 and NSERC SPG QC2DM.

1. Instrumentation for the transfer procedure
<ol>
	<li>In order to visualize the transfer process, utilize an optical microscope that can operate under bright-field illumination. Since the typical sizes of the 2D crystals are 1&#8211;500 &#181;m2, equip the microscope with 5x, 50x, and 100x long working distance objectives. The microscope must also be equipped with a camera that connects to a computer (Figure 1a).</li>
	<li>Use separate manipulators to individually control the position of the two crystals that are about to be stacked. Employ manipulators that are programmable and controllable by a computer to minimize vibrations during the transfer procedure. 
	NOTE: The manipulators responsible for the movement of the top substrate holder (Figure 1b-c) need only move in the X, Y, and Z direction. Importantly, the manipulators responsible for controlling the bottom substrate holder (Figure 1e-f) are also able to rotate by any angle &#1012; (translational and rotational motion).</li>
	<li>In order to attach the samples onto the top stage manipulators, fabricate custom sample holders that can support a glass slide; the top crystal will be placed on the glass slide (Figure 1d).</li>
	<li>For the bottom manipulators, place a flat heating element in a machined glass-ceramic holder (Figure 1g) and affix it to the rotating stage. Connect the heating element to a power supply and a temperature controller.</li>
	<li>Program the controllers with an instrumentation software (e.g., LabVIEW) to control the relative position of the manipulators (Figure 2).
	<ol>
		<li>To perform the necessary motions, program the software with the following capabilities: individually or simultaneously move the manipulators; read, save and retrieve the position of each manipulator; easily adjust the speed of the manipulators, and autofocus the bottom stage. Build-in safety features to prevent any possible collisions between the sample and the lens.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Mechanical exfoliation of a 2D crystal.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a substrate for the mechanical exfoliation procedure.
	<ol>
		<li>Submerge 1 cm x 1 cm squares of silicon/silicon oxide (Si/SiO2) wafers into a beaker filled with acetone and place the beaker into an ultrasonic cleaner for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Individually remove the wafers from the beaker with tweezers and rinse them with isopropanol (IPA) then dry them with a nitrogen (N2) gun. 
		NOTE: When working with acetone and IPA, it is suggested to do so under a fume hood while wearing the proper PPE.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Mechanically exfoliate the crystal onto the substrate.
	<ol>
		<li>Using tweezers, carefully remove a portion of the crystal and place it on a piece of semiconductor-grade adhesive tape.</li>
		<li>Take a second piece of adhesive tape and firmly press it against the initial tape with crystal then peel away the two pieces of tape. After repeating several times, many thinner pieces of crystal will be found on the tape.</li>
		<li>Press the adhesive tape with the thin 2D crystals onto a freshly cleaned substrate such that the crystal is in direct contact with the substrate and peel away the tape to leave exfoliated flakes on the substrate.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To remove any residual adhesive, place the resulting samples (substrates with 2D crystals exfoliated onto their surface) in a beaker filled with acetone for 10 min. Remove the samples using tweezers, rinse them with IPA, and dry with a N2 gun.</li>
	<li>Use an optical microscope to examine the exfoliated flakes. Estimate their thickness by assessing the flake&#8217;s optical contrast with the substrate22. Image the flakes using atomic force microscopy (AFM) in tapping mode (see the Table of Materials) to better quantify the surface morphology and to measure the flake thickness.</li>
</ol>
3. PMMA-PVA method for fabricating van der Waals heterostructures (top substrate preparation).
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the top substrate for the transfer procedure by exfoliating the crystal on a poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) film attached to a glass slide (Figure 3a-d).
	<ol>
		<li>Follow the procedure described in step 2.1. to obtain a clean substrate. Spin coat a layer of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) on the substrate at 3,000 rpm for 1 min by following the protocol described in the instrument&#39;s user manual. 
		NOTE: When using the spin coater, it is suggested to do so under a fume hood while wearing proper PPE.</li>
		<li>Directly place the substrate on a hot plate and bake it uncovered in air at 75 &#176;C for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Spin coat a layer of PMMA on the substrate from step 3.1.2 by following a procedure similar to the one in step 3.1.1, but this time set the spinning parameters to an angular velocity of 1,500 rpm for 1 min (Figure 3a).</li>
		<li>Directly place the substrate on a hot plate and bake it uncovered in air at 75 &#176;C for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Remove the substrate from the hot plate and place pieces of adhesive tape along its edges to create a tape frame. Then, mechanically exfoliate a 2D crystal on the PMMA surface by following step 2.2 (Figure 3b).</li>
		<li>Use sharp tweezers to separate the PMMA from the PVA by slowly peeling back the tape frame. The PMMA layer and exfoliated crystal along with the tape frame will detach from the PVA and Si/SiO2 substrate (Figure 3c).</li>
		<li>Invert the tape frame and place it on a machined support such that the crystal is facing downwards (Figure 3d). 
		NOTE: This support enables the user to place the tape frame under an optical microscope to inspect the exfoliation onto PMMA and identify a flake with the desired thickness and geometry.</li>
		<li>Use sharp tweezers and the optical microscope to place a small washer (0.5 mm inner radius) precisely on the PMMA film such that it surrounds the desired flake (Figure 3d).</li>
		<li>Lower a glass slide and adhere it to the polymer by pressing it against the exposed tape.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamping method for fabricating van der Waals heterostructures (top substrate preparation).
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a polypropylene carbonate (PPC) solution for spin coating by mixing three parts PPC crystal with seventeen parts anisole. This is done by letting the solution mix in a stirrer for approximately 8 h or until the solution is homogeneous.</li>
	<li>Prepare the top substrate for the transfer procedure by exfoliating crystal on a PPC film and by then placing it on a PDMS stamp attached to a glass slide (Figure 4a-d).
	<ol>
		<li>Follow the procedure in step 2.1. to obtain a clean substrate. Spin coat a layer of PPC on the substrate at 3,000 rpm for 1 min (Figure 4a).</li>
		<li>Directly place the substrate on a hot plate and bake it uncovered in air at 75 &#176;C for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Remove the substrate from the hot plate and place pieces of adhesive tape along its edges to create a tape frame.</li>
		<li>Mechanically exfoliate the 2D layered crystal on the PPC coated substrate by following step 2.2 and use the optical microscope to identify a flake with the desired thickness and geometry. (Figure 4b).</li>
		<li>Use scissors or a surgical blade to cut a piece of PDMS into a 2 mm x 2 mm square and place it in an oxygen plasma etcher for 2 min at 50 W and 53.3 Pa.</li>
		<li>At the end of the cycle, press a glass slide on the PDMS stamp to bond the two together. Place the glass slide and PDMS stamp back into the oxygen plasma etcher to undergo the same cycle. Remove the glass slide when the cycle has ended.</li>
		<li>Using tweezers, carefully peel back the tape frame and pick-up the PPC film with the exfoliated crystal (Figure 4c) and place it on the PDMS stamp such that the desired flake is located on the stamp.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Transferring flakes from the top substrate to the bottom substrate using the PMMA-PVA method (Figure 3e-h).
<ol>
	<li>Place a substrate on the bottom stage of the transfer setup. On this substrate, identify the position of the desired flake. This flake will be the &#8220;bottom&#8221; crystal. Also, place the top substrate (the glass slide from step 3.1.9) into the top substrate holder of the transfer setup (Figure 3e).</li>
	<li>Using a low-magnification objective (5x), bring the bottom substrate into focus and center the desired flake. Slowly lower the top substrate until it enters the depth of field of the objective. Adjust the lateral position and the rotational alignment of the two flakes.</li>
	<li>Employ a higher-magnification objective (50x) and continue to lower the top substrate while adjusting the flake alignment. Lower the top substrate until the top flake entirely contacts the bottom flake. Contact is noticeable by a sudden change of color.</li>
	<li>Heat the bottom substrate to 75 &#176;C for better adhesion of PMMA to the bottom substrate. The PMMA will detach from the glass slide (Figure 3f).</li>
	<li>Clean the bottom substrate following step 2.3 to remove the PMMA film (Figure 3g-h).</li>
</ol>
6. Transferring flakes from the top substrate to the bottom substrate using the stamping method (Figure 4d-f).
<ol>
	<li>Place a substrate on the bottom stage of the transfer setup. On this substrate, identify the position of the desired flake. This flake will be the &#8220;bottom&#8221; crystal. Also, place the top substrate (the glass slide with PDMS from step 4.2.5&#8211;4.2.6) into the top substrate holder of the transfer setup (Figure 4d).</li>
	<li>Heat the bottom substrate to 100 &#176;C then follow steps 5.2&#8211;5.4 to align and bring into contact the top crystal with the bottom flake (Figure 4e).</li>
	<li>Once complete contact is made between the two flakes (Figure 4e), slowly raise the top substrate. This results in the drop-off of the top flake from the stamp to the bottom substrate (Figure 4f).</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose. The authors have no competing financial interests.

The home-built transfer setup presented here offers a method for building novel layered materials with both lateral and rotational control. Compared to other solutions described in the literature10,25, our system does not require complex infrastructure, yet it achieves the goal of controlled alignment of 2D crystals.
The most critical step in the procedure is that of aligning and placing the top crystal in contact with the bottom one. ...

Research in the burgeoning field of two-dimensional (2D) materials began after researchers developed a technique which enabled the isolation of graphene1,2,3 (an atomically flat sheet of carbon atoms) from graphite. Graphene is a member of a larger class of layered 2D materials, also referred to as van der Waals materials or crystals. They have strong covalent intralayer bonding and weak van der Waals interlayer coupling. Therefore, the technique for isolating graphene from graphite can also be applied to other 2D materials where one can break the weak interlayer bonds and isolate single layers. One key development in the field was the demonstration that just as the van der Waals bonds holding adjacent layers of two-dimensional materials together can be broken, they can also be put back together2,4. Therefore, crystals of 2D materials can be created by controllably stacking together layers of 2D materials with distinct properties. This spurred a great deal of interest, as materials previously inexistent in nature can be created with the goal of either uncovering formerly inaccessible physical phenomena4,5,6,7,8,9 or developing superior devices for technology applications. Therefore, having precise control over stacking 2D materials has become one of the main goals in the research field10,11,12.
In particular, the twist angle between adjacent layers in van der Waals heterostructures was shown to be an important parameter for controlling material properties13. For example, at some angles, the introduction of a relative twist between adjacent layers can effectively electronically decouple the two layers. This was studied both in graphene14,15 as well as in transition metal dichalcogenides16,17,18,19. More recently, it was surprisingly found that it can also alter the state of matter of these materials. The discovery that bilayer graphene oriented at a &#8220;magic angle&#8221; behaves as a Mott insulator at low temperatures and even a superconductor when the electron density is properly tuned has sparked great interest and a realization of the importance of the angular control when fabricating layered van der Waals heterostructures13,20,21.
Motivated by the scientific opportunities opened up by the idea of tuning the properties of novel van der Waals materials by adjusting the relative orientation between the layers, we present a home-built instrument along with the procedure to create such structures with angular control.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>5X objective lens</td>
			<td>Nikon Metrology</td>
			<td>MUE12050</td>
			<td>23.5 mm working distance and 0.15 numerical aperture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50X objective lens</td>
			<td>Nikon Metrology</td>
			<td>MUE21500</td>
			<td>19 mm working distance and 0.4 numerical aperture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100X objective lens</td>
			<td>Nikon Metrology</td>
			<td>MUE21900</td>
			<td>4.5 mm working distance and 0.8 numerical aperture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>270725</td>
			<td>Purity &#8805;99.90%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive tape</td>
			<td>Ultron Systems, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anisole</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Atomic force microscope</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>Dimension Icon</td>
			<td>We typicall use the ScanAsyst mode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottom stage rotation manipulator</td>
			<td>Zaber Technologies</td>
			<td>X-RSW60A-PTB2</td>
			<td>360&#176; travel with step size of 4.091 &#956;rad</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottom stage X manipulator</td>
			<td>Zaber Technologies</td>
			<td>X-LSM025A-PTB2</td>
			<td>25 mm travel with step size of 47.625 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottom stage Y manipulator</td>
			<td>Zaber Technologies</td>
			<td>X-LSM025A-PTB2</td>
			<td>25 mm travel with step size of 47.625 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottom stage Z manipulator</td>
			<td>Zaber Technologies</td>
			<td>X-VSR40A-KX14A</td>
			<td>40 mm travel with step size of 95.25 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>563935</td>
			<td>Purity 99.999%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LabVIEW software</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Macor</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>8489K238</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope camera</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>426555-0000-000</td>
			<td>5 megapixel, 47 fps live frame rate, exposure time of 100 &#956;s - 2 s, color camera</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)</td>
			<td>HQ Graphene</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical breadboard</td>
			<td>Thorlabs, Inc.</td>
			<td>MB4545/M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon Metrology</td>
			<td>LV150N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen plasma etcher</td>
			<td>Plasma Etch, Inc.</td>
			<td>PE-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PDMS stamp</td>
			<td>Gel-Pak</td>
			<td>PF-20-X4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PMMA 950 A6</td>
			<td>MichroChem Corp.</td>
			<td>M230006 0500L1GL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polypropylene carbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>389021-100g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVA Partall #10</td>
			<td>Composites Canada</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rhenium disulfide (ReS2)</td>
			<td>HQ Graphene</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Si/SiO2 substrate</td>
			<td>Nova Electronics Materials</td>
			<td>HS39626-OX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spin coater</td>
			<td>Laurell Technologies</td>
			<td>WS-650-23</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature controller</td>
			<td>Auber Instruments</td>
			<td>SYL-23X2-24</td>
			<td>Controls the temperature of the bottom stage via a J type thermocouple</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Top stage controller unit</td>
			<td>Mechonics</td>
			<td>CF.030.0003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Top stage X manipulator</td>
			<td>Mechonics</td>
			<td>MS.030.1800</td>
			<td>18 mm travel with step size of 11 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Top stage Y manipulator</td>
			<td>Mechonics</td>
			<td>MS.030.1800</td>
			<td>18 mm travel with step size of 11 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Top stage Z manipulator</td>
			<td>Mechonics</td>
			<td>MS.030.3000</td>
			<td>30 mm travel with step size of 11 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasonic bath</td>
			<td>Elma Schmidbauer GmbH</td>
			<td>Elmasonic P 30 H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabricating van der waals heterostructures with precise rotational alignment

In this work we describe a technique for creating new crystals (van der Waals heterostructures) by stacking distinct ultrathin layered 2D materials. We demonstrate not only lateral control but, importantly, also control over the angular alignment of adjacent layers. The core of the technique is represented by a home-built transfer setup which allows the user to control the position of the individual crystals involved in the transfer. This is achieved with sub-micrometer (translational) and sub-degree (angular) precision. Prior to stacking them together, the isolated crystals are individually manipulated by custom-designed moving stages that are controlled by a programmed software interface. Moreover, since the entire transfer setup is computer controlled, the user can remotely create precise heterostructures without coming into direct contact with the transfer setup, labeling this technique as &#8220;hands-free&#8221;. In addition to presenting the transfer set-up, we also describe two techniques for preparing the crystals that are subsequently stacked.

To illustrate the outcomes and effectiveness of our procedure we present a sequence of angle-controlled stacks of rhenium disulfide (ReS2) thin crystals. To emphasize that the described method can also be applied to atomically thin layers, we also exemplify the construction of two relatively twisted monolayers of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2).
To demonstrate the angular alignment capabilities of the transfer ...

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Fabricating van der Waals Heterostructures with Precise Rotational Alignment

In this work we describe a technique that is used to create new crystals (van der Waals heterostructures) by stacking ultrathin layered 2D materials with precise control over position and relative orientation.

In this work we describe a technique for creating new crystals (van der Waals heterostructures) by stacking distinct ultrathin layered 2D materials. We ...

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9.3K Views.  University of Ottawa. In this work we describe a technique that is used to create new crystals (van der Waals heterostructures) by stacking ultrathin layered 2D materials with precise control over position and relative orientation.

Video: Fabricating van der Waals Heterostructures with Precise Rotational Alignment

Fabricating Metamaterials Using the Fiber Drawing Method

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe their electromagnetic properties to the structure of their constituents, instead of the atoms that compose them. For example, sub-wavelength metal wires can be arranged to possess an effective electric permittivity that is either positive or negative at a given frequency, in contrast to the metals themselves 2. This unprecedented control over the behaviour of light can potentially lead to a number of novel devices, such as invisibility cloaks 3, negative refractive index materials 4, and lenses that resolve objects below the diffraction limit 5. However, metamaterials operating at optical, mid-infrared and terahertz frequencies are conventionally made using nano- and micro-fabrication techniques that are expensive and produce samples that are at most a few centimetres in size 6-7. Here we present a fabrication method to produce hundreds of meters of metal wire metamaterials in fiber form, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response 8. We combine the stack-and-draw technique used to produce microstructured polymer optical fiber 9 with the Taylor-wire process 10, using indium wires inside polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) tubes. PMMA is chosen because it is an easy to handle, drawable dielectric with suitable optical properties in the terahertz region; indium because it has a melting temperature of 156.6 &deg;C which is appropriate for codrawing with PMMA. We include an indium wire of 1 mm diameter and 99.99% purity in a PMMA tube with 1 mm inner diameter (ID) and 12 mm outside diameter (OD) which is sealed at one end. The tube is evacuated and drawn down to an outer diameter of 1.2 mm. The resulting fiber is then cut into smaller pieces, and stacked into a larger PMMA tube. This stack is sealed at one end and fed into a furnace while being rapidly drawn, reducing the diameter of the structure by a factor of 10, and increasing the length by a factor of 100. Such fibers possess features on the micro- and nano- scale, are inherently flexible, mass-producible, and can be woven to exhibit electromagnetic properties that are not found in nature. They represent a promising platform for a number of novel devices from terahertz to optical frequencies, such as invisible fibers, woven negative refractive index cloths, and super-resolving lenses.

Metamaterials at terahertz frequencies offer unique opportunities, but are challenging to fabricate in bulk. We adapt the fabrication procedure for microstructured polymer optical fibers to inexpensively fabricate metamaterials potentially on an industrial scale. We produce polymethylmethacrylate fibers containing ~10 &mu;m diameter indium wires separated by ~100 &mu;m, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response.

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe ...

Characterization of Nanocrystal Size Distribution using Raman Spectroscopy with a Multi-particle Phonon Confinement Model

Analysis of the size distribution of nanocrystals is a critical requirement for the processing and optimization of their size-dependent properties. The common techniques used for the size analysis are transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL). These techniques, however, are not suitable for analyzing the nanocrystal size distribution in a fast, non-destructive and a reliable manner at the same time. Our aim in this work is to demonstrate that size distribution of semiconductor nanocrystals that are subject to size-dependent phonon confinement effects, can be quantitatively estimated in a non-destructive, fast and reliable manner using Raman spectroscopy. Moreover, mixed size distributions can be separately probed, and their respective volumetric ratios can be estimated using this technique. In order to analyze the size distribution, we have formulized an analytical expression of one-particle PCM and projected it onto a generic distribution function that will represent the size distribution of analyzed nanocrystal. As a model experiment, we have analyzed the size distribution of free-standing silicon nanocrystals (Si-NCs) with multi-modal size distributions. The estimated size distributions are in excellent agreement with TEM and PL results, revealing the reliability of our model.

We demonstrate how to determine the size distribution of semiconductor nanocrystals in a quantitative manner using Raman spectroscopy employing an analytically defined multi-particle phonon confinement model. Results obtained are in excellent agreement with the other size analysis techniques like transmission electron microscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy.

Analysis of the size distribution of nanocrystals is a critical requirement for the processing and optimization of their size-dependent properties. The ...

Simulation of Human-induced Vibrations Based on the Characterized In-field Pedestrian Behavior

For slender and lightweight structures, vibration serviceability is a matter of growing concern, often constituting the critical design requirement. With designs governed by the dynamic performance under human-induced loads, a strong demand exists for the verification and refinement of currently available load models. The present contribution uses a 3D inertial motion tracking technique for the characterization of the in-field pedestrian behavior. The technique is first tested in laboratory experiments with simultaneous registration of the corresponding ground reaction forces. The experiments include walking persons as well as rhythmical human activities such as jumping and bobbing. It is shown that the registered motion allows for the identification of the time variant pacing rate of the activity. Together with the weight of the person and the application of generalized force models available in literature, the identified time-variant pacing rate allows to characterize the human-induced loads. In addition, time synchronization among the wireless motion trackers allows identifying the synchronization rate among the participants. Subsequently, the technique is used on a real footbridge where both the motion of the persons and the induced structural vibrations are registered. It is shown how the characterized in-field pedestrian behavior can be applied to simulate the induced structural response. It is demonstrated that the in situ identified pacing rate and synchronization rate constitute an essential input for the simulation and verification of the human-induced loads. The main potential applications of the proposed methodology are the estimation of human-structure interaction phenomena and the development of suitable models for the correlation among pedestrians in real traffic conditions.

A protocol is presented for the characterization of the in-field pedestrian behavior and the simulation of the resulting structural response. Field-tests demonstrate that the in situ identified pacing rate and synchronization rate among the participants constitute an essential input for the simulation and verification of the human-induced loads.

For slender and lightweight structures, vibration serviceability is a matter of growing concern, often constituting the critical design requirement. With ...

Growth and Electrostatic/chemical Properties of Metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 Heterostructures

The quasi 2D electron system (q2DES) that forms at the interface between LaAlO3 (LAO) and SrTiO3 (STO) has attracted much attention from the oxide electronics community. One of its hallmark features is the existence of a critical LAO thickness of 4 unit-cells (uc) for interfacial conductivity to emerge. Although electrostatic mechanisms have been proposed in the past to describe the existence of this critical thickness, the importance of chemical defects has been recently accentuated. Here, we describe the growth of metal/LAO/STO heterostructures in an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) cluster system combining pulsed laser deposition (to grow the LAO), magnetron sputtering (to grow the metal) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). We study step by step the formation and evolution of the q2DES and the chemical interactions that occur between the metal and the LAO/STO. Additionally, magnetotransport experiments elucidate on the transport and electronic properties of the q2DES. This systematic work not only demonstrates a way to study the electrostatic and chemical interplay between the q2DES and its environment, but also unlocks the possibility to couple multifunctional capping layers with the rich physics observed in two-dimensional electron systems, allowing the fabrication of new types of devices.

Growth and Electrostatic/chemical Properties of Metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 Heterostructures

We fabricate metal/LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures using a combination of pulsed laser deposition and in situ magnetron sputtering. Through magnetotransport and in situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy experiments, we investigate the interplay between electrostatic and chemical phenomena of the quasi two-dimensional electron gas formed in this system.

The quasi 2D electron system (q2DES) that forms at the interface between LaAlO3 (LAO) and SrTiO3 (STO) has attracted much attention from the oxide ...

A Fabrication and Measurement Method for a Flexible Ferroelectric Element Based on Van Der Waals Heteroepitaxy

Flexible non-volatile memories have received much attention as they are applicable for portable smart electronic device in the future, relying on high-density data storage and low-power consumption capabilities. However, the high-quality oxide based nonvolatile memory on flexible substrates is often constrained by the material characteristics and the inevitable high-temperature fabrication process. In this paper, a protocol is proposed to directly grow an epitaxial yet flexible lead zirconium titanate memory element on muscovite mica. The versatile deposition technique and measurement method enable the fabrication of flexible yet single-crystalline non-volatile memory elements necessary for the next generation of smart devices.

In this paper, we present a protocol to directly grow an epitaxial yet flexible lead zirconium titanate memory element on muscovite mica.

Flexible non-volatile memories have received much attention as they are applicable for portable smart electronic device in the future, relying on ...

Enhanced Electron Injection and Exciton Confinement for Pure Blue Quantum-Dot Light-Emitting Diodes by Introducing Partially Oxidized Aluminum Cathode

Stable and efficient red (R), green (G), and blue (B) light sources based on solution-processed quantum dots (QDs) play important roles in next-generation displays and solid-state lighting technologies. The brightness and efficiency of blue QDs-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) remain inferior to their red and green counterparts, due to the inherently unfavorable energy levels of different colors of light. To solve these problems, a device structure should be designed to balance the injection holes and electrons into the emissive QD layer. Herein, through a simple autoxidation strategy, pure blue QD-LEDs which are highly bright and efficient are demonstrated, with a structure of ITO/PEDOT:PSS/Poly-TPD/QDs/Al:Al2O3. The autoxidized Al:Al2O3 cathode can effectively balance the injected charges and enhance radiative recombination without introducing an additional electron transport layer (ETL). As a result, high color-saturated blue QD-LEDs are achieved with a maximum luminance over 13,000 cd m-2, and a maximum current efficiency of 1.15 cd A-1. The easily controlled autoxidation procedure paves the way for achieving high-performance blue QD-LEDs.

A protocol is presented for fabricating high-performance, pure blue ZnCdS/ZnS-based quantum dots light-emitting diodes by employing an autoxidized aluminum cathode.

Stable and efficient red (R), green (G), and blue (B) light sources based on solution-processed quantum dots (QDs) play important roles in next-generation ...

Fabricating Reactive Surfaces with Brush-like and Crosslinked Films of Azlactone-Functionalized Block Co-Polymers

In this paper, fabrication methods that generate novel surfaces using the azlactone-based block co-polymer, poly (glycidyl methacrylate)-block-poly (vinyl dimethyl azlactone) (PGMA-b-PVDMA), are presented. Due to the high reactivity of azlactone groups towards amine, thiol, and hydroxyl groups, PGMA-b-PVDMA surfaces can be modified with secondary molecules to create chemically or biologically functionalized interfaces for a variety of applications. Previous reports of patterned PGMA-b-PVDMA interfaces have used traditional top-down patterning techniques that generate non-uniform films and poorly controlled background chemistries. Here, we describe customized patterning techniques that enable precise deposition of highly uniform PGMA-b-PVDMA films in backgrounds that are chemically inert or that have biomolecule-repellent properties. Importantly, these methods are designed to deposit PGMA-b-PVDMA films in a manner that completely preserves azlactone functionality through each processing step. Patterned films show well-controlled thicknesses that correspond to polymer brushes (~90 nm) or to highly crosslinked structures (~1-10 &#956;m). Brush patterns are generated using either the parylene lift-off or interface directed assembly methods described and are useful for precise modulation of overall chemical surface reactivity by adjusting either the PGMA-b-PVDMA pattern density or the length of the VDMA block. In contrast, the thick, crosslinked PGMA-b-PVDMA patterns are obtained using a customized micro-contact printing technique and offer the benefit of higher loading or capture of secondary material due to higher surface area to volume ratios. Detailed experimental steps, critical film characterizations, and trouble-shooting guides for each fabrication method are discussed.

Surface fabrication methods for patterned deposition of nanometer thick brushes or micron thick, crosslinked films of an azlactone block co-polymer are reported. Critical experimental steps, representative results, and limitations of each method are discussed. These methods are useful for creating functional interfaces with tailored physical features and tunable surface reactivity.

In this paper, fabrication methods that generate novel surfaces using the azlactone-based block co-polymer, poly (glycidyl methacrylate)-block-poly (vinyl ...

One-Step Approach to Fabricating Polydimethylsiloxane Microfluidic Channels of Different Geometric Sections by Sequential Wet Etching Processes

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) materials are substantially exploited to fabricate microfluidic devices by using soft lithography replica molding techniques. Customized channel layout designs are necessary for specific functions and integrated performance of microfluidic devices in numerous biomedical and chemical applications (e.g., cell culture, biosensing, chemical synthesis, and liquid handling). Owing to the nature of molding approaches using silicon wafers with photoresist layers patterned by photolithography as master molds, the microfluidic channels commonly have regular cross sections of rectangular shapes with identical heights. Typically, channels with multiple heights or different geometric sections are designed to possess particular functions and to perform in various microfluidic applications (e.g., hydrophoresis is used for sorting particles and in continuous flows for separating blood cells6,7,8,9). Therefore, a great deal of effort has been made in constructing channels with various sections through multiple-step approaches like photolithography using several photoresist layers and assembly of different PDMS thin sheets. Nevertheless, such multiple-step approaches usually involve tedious procedures and extensive instrumentation. Furthermore, the fabricated devices may not perform consistently and the resulted experimental data may be unpredictable. Here, a one-step approach is developed for the straightforward fabrication of microfluidic channels with different geometric cross sections through PDMS sequential wet etching processes, that introduces etchant into channels of planned single-layer layouts embedded in PDMS materials. Compared to the existing methods for manufacturing PDMS microfluidic channels with different geometries, the developed one-step approach can significantly simplify the process to fabricate channels with non-rectangular sections or various heights. Consequently, the technique is a way of constructing complex microfluidic channels, which provides a fabrication solution for the advancement of innovative microfluidic systems.

Several methods are available for the fabrication of channels of non-rectangular sections embedded in polydimethylsiloxane microfluidic devices. Most of them involve multistep manufacturing and extensive alignment. In this paper, a one-step approach is reported for fabricating microfluidic channels of different geometric cross sections by polydimethylsiloxane sequential wet etching.

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) materials are substantially exploited to fabricate microfluidic devices by using soft lithography replica molding techniques. ...

Preparing an Isotopically Pure 229Th Ion Beam for Studies of 229mTh

A methodology is described to generate an isotopically pure 229Th ion beam in the 2+ and 3+ charge states. This ion beam enables one to investigate the low-lying isomeric first excited state of 229Th at an excitation energy of about 7.8(5) eV and a radiative lifetime of up to 104 seconds. The presented method allowed for a first direct identification of the decay of the thorium isomer, laying the foundations to study its decay properties as prerequisite for an optical control of this nuclear transition. High energy 229Th ions are produced in the &#945;&#160;decay of a radioactive 233U source. The ions are thermalized in a buffer-gas stopping cell, extracted and subsequently an ion beam is formed. This ion beam is mass purified by a quadrupole-mass separator to generate a pure ion beam. In order to detect the isomeric decay, the ions are collected on the surface of a micro-channel plate detector, where electrons, as emitted in the internal conversion decay of the isomeric state, are observed.

Preparing an Isotopically Pure 229Th Ion Beam for Studies of 229mTh

We present a protocol for the generation of an isotopically purified low-energy 229Th ion beam from a 233U source. This ion beam is used for the direct detection of the 229mTh ground-state decay via the internal-conversion decay channel. We also measure the internal conversion lifetime of 229mTh as well.

A methodology is described to generate an isotopically pure 229Th ion beam in the 2+ and 3+ charge states. This ion beam enables one to investigate the ...

Graphene-Assisted Quasi-van der Waals Epitaxy of AlN Film on Nano-Patterned Sapphire Substrate for Ultraviolet Light Emitting Diodes

This protocol demonstrates a method for graphene-assisted quick growth and coalescence of AlN on nano-pattened sapphire substrate (NPSS). Graphene layers are directly grown on NPSS using catalyst-free atmospheric-pressure chemical vapor deposition (APCVD). By applying nitrogen reactive ion etching (RIE) plasma treatment, defects are introduced into the graphene film to enhance chemical reactivity. During metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) growth of AlN, this N-plasma treated graphene buffer enables AlN quick growth, and coalescence on NPSS is confirmed by cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The high quality of AlN on graphene-NPSS is then evaluated by X-ray rocking curves (XRCs) with narrow (0002) and (10-12) full width at half-maximum (FWHM) as 267.2 arcsec and 503.4 arcsec, respectively. Compared to bare NPSS, AlN growth on graphene-NPSS shows significant reduction of residual stress from 0.87 GPa to 0.25 Gpa, based on Raman measurements. Followed by AlGaN multiple quantum wells (MQWS) growth on graphene-NPSS, AlGaN-based deep ultraviolet light-emitting-diodes (DUV LEDs) are fabricated. The fabricated DUV-LEDs also demonstrate obvious, enhanced luminescence performance. This work provides a new solution for the growth of high quality AlN and fabrication of high performance DUV-LEDs using a shorter process and less costs.

A protocol for graphene-assisted growth of high-quality AlN films on nano-patterned sapphire substrate is presented.

This protocol demonstrates a method for graphene-assisted quick growth and coalescence of AlN on nano-pattened sapphire substrate (NPSS). Graphene layers ...

Fabricating van der Waals Heterostructures with Precise Rotational Alignment

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