J. Chua, D. Chabot and A. Friedlander designed the procedures described in the manuscript. J. Chua and T. Putmon-Taylor performed the experiments. D. Chabot performed data analysis. J. Chua wrote the manuscript.
The authors thank Kyle J. Fitts for excellent technical assistance.
The work was supported by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency grant CBM.VAXBT.03.10.RD.015, plan number 921175.
Opinions, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by the U. S. Army. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Defense, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U. S. Government.

In compliance with the Animal Welfare Act, Public Health Service policy, and other federal statutes and regulations pertaining to animals and experiments involving animals, the research described here was conducted under an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee&#8211;approved protocol. The facility where this research was conducted is accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, International and adheres to principles stated in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, National Research Council, 201124.
1. Culture and maintenance of the cell line, RAW 264.7
NOTE: The following procedures must be performed with aseptic techniques.
<ol>
	<li>Heat fetal bovine serum (FBS) in a 56 &#176;C water bath for 30 min to inactivate complement. 
	NOTE: The inactivation time of 30 min begins when FBS reaches 56 &#176;C. To monitor the temperature, heat a similar volume of water in a beaker in the same water bath. Once the water reaches 56 &#176;C, begin the 30 min countdown for FBS. Alternatively, FBS that has&#160;been heat-inactivated is&#160;also commercially available.</li>
	<li>Prepare medium for RAW 264.7 cells by combining 90% DMEM with high glucose and 10% heat inactivated FBS (v/v). Add L-glutamine to a final concentration of 6 mM. 
	NOTE: DMEM with high glucose is formulated with 4 mM L-glutamine. Supplementing L-glutamine to 6 mM promotes consistent cell growth. 100 U/mL penicillin and 100 &#181;g/mL streptomycin may be added to prevent contamination. Another common murine cell line, J774A.1, may also be used and is grown under similar conditions.</li>
	<li>Thaw a frozen vial of cells in a 37 &#176;C water bath and remove from bath as soon as it melts. Add contents aseptically to 5 mL complete medium in a conical tube. Invert conical tube twice and spin at 300 x g for 5 min to pellet cells.</li>
	<li>Aspirate medium using a sterile Pasteur pipet attached to a vacuum to remove freezing agent. Resuspend cell pellet in 5 mL of fresh medium.</li>
	<li>Transfer suspension to a tissue culture treated flask or dish. Add enough medium to completely cover the bottom of the flask and swirl to evenly distribute cells. Indicate passage number starting with &#8220;1&#8221;.</li>
	<li>Incubate cells at 37 &#176;C in the presence of 5% CO2 and humidity until 95% to 100% confluency is reached. Check cells daily under the microscope beginning with the second day of incubation. Do not allow the cells to reach &#62;100% confluency as this will cause the cells to lift off and die. 
	NOTE: The time needed to reach confluency depends on how many live cells were plated and the growth area of the flask. Thus, it is prudent to check the cells daily.</li>
	<li>Subculture cells by scraping and diluting the cell stock in fresh medium allowing at least two days of growth between scrapings. Increase the passage number by 1 with each subculture. 
	NOTE: Passing and immediate scraping the following day will result in faster loss of general cell adherence over time. RAW 264.7 cells should only be used up to approximately passage 15.</li>
	<li>To plate RAW 264.7 cells for the OAA assay, replace with fresh medium and use a cell scraper to gently scrape cells off the flask. Pipette up and down to break up the cell clumps for easier cell counting. 
	NOTE: The traditional method for subculturing RAW 264.7 is by scraping. In our experience, the use of trypsin causes RAW 264.7 cells to lose adherence over time faster than with scraping.</li>
	<li>To count cells, dilute equal volumes of cells and trypan blue solution. Load 10 &#181;L onto a hemocytometer. Observe and count the number of live cells that exclude the dye using an inverted compound microscope with a 10x objective lens.</li>
	<li>Plate 1.4 x 104&#160;viable cells per well in a 96 well 0.15 &#181;m-thick glass flat bottom plate (Plate #1). Allow cells to grow for 3 days. Replace spent medium one day before performing OAA. 
	NOTE: After 3 days of incubation, the number of cells should be approximately 5 x 104/well. &#160;</li>
</ol>
2. Bacterial Culture and Preparations
NOTE: The bacterial species used in this protocol is an encapsulated virulent strain, B. anthracis Ames. All manipulations with this species require appropriate biosafety and security clearances and must be performed in a Class II or Class III biological safety cabinet located in a BSL-3 laboratory. Follow institutional operating procedures for BSL-3 work and for use of personal protective equipment when handling bacteria.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) broth by dissolving 37 g BHI powder in 1 L water and autoclaving at 121 &#176;C for 15 min. Store broth at ambient temperature.</li>
	<li>Prepare 8% sodium bicarbonate solution in water and sterilize using a 0.20 &#181;m filter syringe. Store solution at 4 &#176;C and use within 1 day.</li>
	<li>Mix 8 g Nutrient Broth, 3 g yeast extract and 15 g agar in 1 L water to prepare NBY agar plates. Autoclave at 121 &#176;C for 15 min. Pour into petri dishes and allow to solidify. Store plates at 4 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: NBY agar plates may be made with or without sodium bicarbonate. The addition of sodium bicarbonate to broth and agar plates induces the growth of mucoid colonies consisting of encapsulated bacilli. Final concentration of sodium bicarbonate in both liquid and solid media is 0.8%.</li>
	<li>Prepare culture broth for B. anthracis by mixing 50% autoclaved BHI broth, 40% FBS and 10% sodium bicarbonate solution (v/v). 
	NOTE: This broth is formulated to produce short chains of encapsulated bacilli.</li>
	<li>Prepare a master plate of B. anthracis by streaking it for isolation on an NBY agar plate from a spore stock one day before culturing in broth. Incubate at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Inoculate 30 mL of culture broth in a vented 250 mL flask with several colonies of B. anthracis. 
	NOTE: A specific volume to surface ratio of broth, as specified here, is needed to produce maximally encapsulated bacilli.</li>
	<li>Shake the broth culture at 125 rpm, 37 &#176;C with 20% CO2 and humidity for 18&#8211;24 h. 
	NOTE: Growing B. anthracis at temperatures greater than 37 &#176;C may inhibit capsule production.</li>
	<li>Use negative staining with India ink to ensure sufficient encapsulation and that bacilli are in short chains (1&#8211;5 bacilli/chain) prior to fixation (see section 3).</li>
	<li>To determine colony forming units (CFU), serially dilute 100 &#181;L of culture 1:10 in Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) solution and plate culture dilutions on sheep blood agar plates. Incubate for 12&#8211;18 h at 37 &#176;C. Count CFUs and determine number of bacteria per mL of culture. 
	NOTE: Counting can also be performed using a hemocytometer under the microscope once the bacteria have been fixed. However, this is not recommended because the bacilli are difficult to see under low magnification.</li>
	<li>Add 16% paraformaldehyde (PF) to the entire volume of bacterial culture at a final concentration of 4% PF to fix the bacilli. Slowly agitate on a shaker at ambient temperature for 7 days. 
	NOTE: Seven days of incubation in 4% PF is based on the USAMRIID institutional standard operating procedure for fixing vegetative bacilli.</li>
	<li>To remove the fixative and test for sterility, thrice wash 4 mL (10% volume) of fixed bacterial suspension in a 50 mL conical tube by centrifugation at &#8805;3000 x g for 45 min and using a 30 mL/wash with PBS. Store the remaining sample in 4% PF at 4 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: After pelleting, the bacterial pellet is fluffy due to the presence of capsule. Take care not to disturb the pellet during washing. It is necessary to remove all fixative so that it does not interfere with the viability testing. If necessary, increase the number of washes.</li>
	<li>For viability testing, inoculate 40 mL of a bacterial growth medium (e.g. BHI broth) with 4 mL of washed suspension (&#8804; 10% of broth volume) and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 7 days. Check optical density at 600 nm before and after 7 days to measure turbidity.</li>
	<li>After 7 days of incubation in broth culture, plate &#8805;100 &#181;L of broth onto an agar plate and incubate for another 7 days. If no increase in turbidity and no growth on plates are seen, the original culture is considered sterile and may be transferred to a BSL-2 laboratory. 
	NOTE: The Federal Select Agent Program22 mandates that inactivated B. anthracis can only be transferred from BSL-3 laboratories after demonstrating complete sterility of sample. Viability testing for inactivated B. anthracis consists of culturing 10% of the sample in broth for 7 days followed by culturing on solid medium for another 7 days22,23. Follow institutional guidelines to receive transfer approval once sterility is established.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; &#160;</li>
</ol>
3. Negative staining and light microscopy to observe encapsulation and bacilli chains
<ol>
	<li>Mix 5 &#181;L bacterial suspension with 2 &#181;L of India ink on a microscope slide. Place a 1 or 1.5 &#181;m thick cover glass on top of the suspension without creating bubbles. 
	NOTE: Nail polish may be used to seal the cover glass onto the slide.</li>
	<li>Observe the bacterial suspension using a 40x to 100x oil objective lens on a light microscope. Ensure that the bacilli are encapsulated by observing a zone of clearance (capsule excludes India ink) surrounding each bacterium and that the bacilli chains are short.</li>
</ol>
4. FITC-labeling of bacteria
<ol>
	<li>Dissolve fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) in dimethyl sulfoxide at a concentration of 2 mg/mL.</li>
	<li>Measure the volume of inactivated bacterial stock.</li>
	<li>Wash the stock 3x in PBS to remove fixative.</li>
	<li>Add FITC solution at a final concentration of 75 &#181;g/mL. Slowly agitate mixture for 18&#8211;24 h at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Thrice wash the bacteria by pelleting at &#8805;3000 x g, 45 min and using&#160;30 mL PBS/wash to remove excess FITC. Ensure that the fluffy pellet is not disturbed during washing. Resuspend the bacilli in PBS in the same start volume.</li>
	<li>Aliquot and store the bacilli in microtubes at -20 &#176;C until use. Do not freeze/thaw bacilli multiple times as the bacilli may lose capsule.</li>
</ol>
5. Bacterial Opsonization
<ol>
	<li>Heat inactivate a small volume of test sera (from NHPs) at 56 &#176;C for 30 min in a heat block.</li>
	<li>Thaw and wash FITC-labelled bacteria with PBS 2x by pelleting at 15000 x g for 3&#8211;5 min. Resuspend in PBS in the same start volume.</li>
	<li>In a 96 well round bottom plate (plate #2), serially dilute test sera in cell medium. In another 96 well round bottom plate (plate #3), add 10 &#181;L of diluted test sera into each well. 
	NOTE: In every plate, PBS and normal monkey sera were included in place of diluted test sera as negative controls. We also chose one test serum as a positive control to generate a standard curve to normalize all assays done on different days. The positive control test serum was arbitrarily chosen because it was plentiful.</li>
	<li>To plate #3, add 10 &#181;L freshly reconstituted baby rabbit complement. 
	NOTE: Once reconstituted, discard remaining baby rabbit complement; do not refreeze and thaw.</li>
	<li>To plate #3, add the appropriate volume of FITC-labeled bacilli for a multiplicity of infection of 1:20. For example, add the volume that contains 5 x 104 x 20 bacilli for 5 x 104 cells. Top off each well in plate #3 with the appropriate volume of cell medium to total 105 &#181;L. 
	NOTE: Plate #1, which contains cells, receives 100 &#181;L of opsonized bacteria with the remaining 5 &#181;L as the void volume. We tested each dilution of the test sera in duplicate.</li>
	<li>Incubate plate #3 at 37 &#176;C for 30 min in the presence of 5% CO2 with humidity to opsonize bacilli.</li>
</ol>
6. Adherence Assay and Fluorescent Labeling of Mammalian cells
<ol>
	<li>Maintain all reagents at 37 &#176;C prior to use.</li>
	<li>Place plate #1, which contains adherent cells, on a 37 &#176;C heat block.</li>
	<li>Use a multichannel pipettor to remove spent medium from wells and quickly replace with 100 &#181;L of opsonized bacteria from plate #3. Ensure no bubbles have been generated in the wells during pipetting. Incubate plate #1 at 37 &#176;C with 5% CO2 and humidity for 30 min for adherence.</li>
	<li>Wash each well 5x with 150 &#181;L PBS on top of a 37 &#176;C heat block to remove unattached bacilli. 
	NOTE: Care must be taken to ensure that the cells are not accidentally dispersed during washing.</li>
	<li>Dilute 16% PF with PBS 1:4 to make 4% PF. Fix cells with 4% PF for 1 h by adding 150 &#181;L to each well. Wash cells 2x with PBS.</li>
	<li>Mix 2 &#181;L HCS (high-content screening) Orange Cell Stain in 10 mL PBS. Add 150 &#181;L of this staining solution to fixed cells and incubate for 30 min at ambient temperature.</li>
	<li>Wash wells 2x with PBS.</li>
	<li>Store at 4 &#176;C until microscopy.</li>
</ol>
7. Microscopy
NOTE: In general, a high-throughput automated fluorescence microscope will facilitate imaging for the OAA. If an automated system is not available, fluorescent images of adherent bacilli can be taken manually21. In this study20, adherent bacilli and cell monolayers were imaged using the Zeiss 700 laser scanning microscopy system with specialized equipment; our system was composed of the Zeiss Axio Observer Z1 inverted microscope equipped with an automated stage, the Definite Focus module, 40 x NA 0.6 objective, Axio Cam HRc camera and Zen 2012 (Blue Edition) software. The images acquired are widefield images, not confocal images. The following protocol is intended as a basic microscope setup that is applicable to a variety of automated microscopy systems.
<ol>
	<li>Incubate plate #1 at ambient temperature for 30 min. Turn on the microscope and related equipment. 
	NOTE: Acclimation at ambient temperature prevents condensation from forming on the glass plate during imaging. In addition, it prevents defocusing due to temperature shift.</li>
	<li>Place plate on the stage and focus on the cells using bright field or phase contrast.</li>
	<li>Select 96 well format as the plate setting. Select channel settings. 
	NOTE: FITC&#8217;s peak excitation and emission wavelength are 495/519 nm; the HCS orange cell stain are 556 and 572 nm. Other fluorophores may be used depending on the filters that are available on the microscope.</li>
	<li>Select setting to Tile mode. Indicate the number of images to be acquired. 
	NOTE: The tiling function allows the capture of multiple locations in a sample well and can be set to acquire image in a tiling or a random format. We imaged 10 random areas per well.</li>
	<li>Change acquisition mode to &#8220;black &#38; white&#8221; or &#8220;monochrome&#8221; and binning &#8805; 2x2. 
	NOTE: Setting the binning from 1x1 to 2x2 or 4x4 would increase microscopy speed but would also result in lower resolution of the image. For OAA, it is sufficient to use these settings as the assay enumerates both the macrophages and the adherent bacteria.</li>
	<li>Turn on autofocus or focusing module. Indicate how often autofocusing function is to be performed. Turn on Z stack function, if available. Indicate the number of Z stacks that will capture the thickness of the cell monolayer and adherent bacilli. 
	NOTE: The number of Z stacks chosen will increase microscopy time but will ensure an image with the correct focus is taken at each Z stack.</li>
	<li>Designate a file folder to save images to. Run the automated imaging program.</li>
</ol>
8. Data Collection and Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Count the number of adherent bacilli and mammalian cells per image. Count each chain of bacilli as one bacterium.</li>
	<li>Plot the bacilli/cells of the positive control test serum and titer (e. g., 1:10 dilution is 10 titer units) to generate a standard curve in an appropriate statistics program.</li>
	<li>Analyze the positive control test serum using non-linear regression curve fitting. Then analyze the remaining samples using the standard curve of the positive control test serum to determine corresponding titers. 
	NOTE: It is usually most accurate to choose the sample dilutions near the middle of the standard curve when determining titers.</li>
	<li>Calculate the geometric mean of the samples from each vaccine group. Calculate the P- values of log transformed titers by least significant difference ANOVA analysis.</li>
</ol>

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G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decline+of+childhood+Haemophilus+influenzae+type+b+(Hib)+disease+in+the+Hib+vaccine+era.">Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era.</a> JAMA. 269 (2), 221-226 (1993).</li><li>Balmer, P., Borrow, R., Miller, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+meningococcal+C+conjugate+vaccine+in+the+UK.">Impact of meningococcal C conjugate vaccine in the UK.</a> Journal of Medical Microbiology. 51 (9), 717-722 (2002).</li><li>Chen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+opsonophagocytic+killing+activity+with+pneumococcal+conjugate+vaccine+in+human+immunodeficiency+virus-infected+Ugandan+adults.">Induction of opsonophagocytic killing activity with pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected Ugandan adults.</a> Vaccine. 26 (38), 4962-4968 (2008).</li><li>Paschall, A. V., Middleton, D. R., Avci, F. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Opsonophagocytic+Killing+Assay+to+Assess+Immunological+Responses+Against+Bacterial+Pathogens.">Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (146), e59400 (2019).</li><li>Ezzell, J. W., Welkos, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+capsule+of+Bacillus+anthracis,+a+review.">The capsule of Bacillus anthracis, a review.</a> Journal of Applied Microbiology. 87 (2), 250 (1999).</li><li>Hanna, P. C., Acosta, D., Collier, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+role+of+macrophages+in+anthrax.">On the role of macrophages in anthrax.</a> Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (21), 10198-10201 (1993).</li><li>Fleck, R. A., Romero-Steiner, S., Nahm, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+HL-60+cell+line+to+measure+opsonic+capacity+of+pneumococcal+antibodies.">Use of HL-60 cell line to measure opsonic capacity of pneumococcal antibodies.</a> Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 12 (1), 19-27 (2005).</li><li>Chua, J., Deretic, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mycobacterium+tuberculosis+reprograms+waves+of+phosphatidylinositol+3-phosphate+on+phagosomal+organelles.">Mycobacterium tuberculosis reprograms waves of phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate on phagosomal organelles.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (35), 36982-36992 (2004).</li><li>Chua, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=pH+Alkalinization+by+Chloroquine+Suppresses+Pathogenic+Burkholderia+Type+6+Secretion+System+1+and+Multinucleated+Giant+Cells.">pH Alkalinization by Chloroquine Suppresses Pathogenic Burkholderia Type 6 Secretion System 1 and Multinucleated Giant Cells.</a> Infection &amp; Immunity. 85 (1), (2017).</li><li>Ober, R. J., Radu, C. G., Ghetie, V., Ward, E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+promiscuity+for+antibody-FcRn+interactions+across+species:+implications+for+therapeutic+antibodies.">Differences in promiscuity for antibody-FcRn interactions across species: implications for therapeutic antibodies.</a> International Immunology. 13 (12), 1551-1559 (2001).</li><li>Sorman, A., Zhang, L., Ding, Z., Heyman, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+antibodies+use+complement+to+regulate+antibody+responses.">How antibodies use complement to regulate antibody responses.</a> Molecular Immunology. 61 (2), 79-88 (2014).</li><li>Henckaerts, I., Durant, N., De Grave, D., Schuerman, L., Poolman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Validation+of+a+routine+opsonophagocytosis+assay+to+predict+invasive+pneumococcal+disease+efficacy+of+conjugate+vaccine+in+children.">Validation of a routine opsonophagocytosis assay to predict invasive pneumococcal disease efficacy of conjugate vaccine in children.</a> Vaccine. 25 (13), 2518-2527 (2007).</li><li>Wolf, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Special Considerations for the Nonclinical Safety Assessment of Vaccines. , 243-255 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors do not have a commercial or other association that might pose a conflict of interest.

Capsule based vaccines have been shown to be efficacious against numerous bacterial pathogens, and many are licensed for use in humans25,26,27. These vaccines work by generating antibodies targeting the capsule and many of these studies use the OPKA to show the opsono-phagocytic functions of the antibodies13,14,16,<sup class=...

Recognition, adherence, internalization, and degradation of a pathogen are integral to phagocytosis1, a salient pathway in the host innate immune response first described by Ilya Metchnikoff in 18832,3. Phagocytic leukocytes, as well as other cells of the immune system, are highly discriminatory in their selection of targets; they are able to distinguish between &#8220;infectious non-self&#8221; and &#8220;non-infectious self&#8221; through pathogen associated molecular patterns by their repertoire of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)4,5. Host recognition of a pathogen may also occur with the binding of host&#160;opsonins, such as complement and antibodies6. This process, called opsonization, coats the pathogen with these molecules, enhancing internalization upon binding to opsonic receptors (e.g., complement and Fc receptors) on phagocytic cells6. For a pathogen to adhere to a phagocyte, collective binding of multiple receptors with their cognate ligands is necessary. Only then can adherence trigger and sustain signaling cascades inside the host cell to initiate internalization6.
Due to the importance of phagocytosis in the clearance of pathogens and prevention of infection, extracellular pathogens have developed numerous ways to subvert this process to prolong their survival. One strategy of importance is the production of an anionic polymeric (e.g., polysaccharide or polyamino acid) capsule which is anti-phagocytic by virtue of its charge, is poorly immunogenic, and shields molecules on the bacterial envelope from PRRs6,7. Pathogens such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Streptococcus pneumoniae have capsules composed of saccharide polymers, whereas Staphylococcus epidermidis and some Bacillus species produce poly-&#611;-glutamic acid (PGGA)7,8. Yet other pathogens produce capsules that resemble the non-infectious self. For example, Streptococcus pyogenes and a pathogenic strain of B. cereus have a hyaluronic acid capsule that is not only anti-phagocytic but which also may not be recognized as foreign by the immune system9,10.
Conjugation of capsule to carrier proteins converts them from poor, T-independent antigens into highly immunogenic T-dependent antigens that can induce high serum anti-capsule antibody titers11,12. This strategy is employed for licensed vaccines against S. pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitides11. The opsonic activities of anti-capsule antibodies have commonly been evaluated by&#160;opsono-phagocytic killing assays (OPKA)13,14,15,16. These&#160;assays test&#160;whether functional antibodies can trigger phagocytosis and killing14. However, the use of OPKA with infectious pathogens, such as Tier 1 Biological Select Agents and Toxins (BSAT), including B. anthracis17, is hazardous and presents security risks; these assays necessitate extensive handling of a select agent. Select agent handling can only be done in restricted biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories; work in these areas demands protracted operating procedures due to the numerous safety and security precautions that must be followed. BSL-3 laboratories are also typically not equipped with the specialized equipment used for OPKA work, such as microscopes and cytometers. Thus, we developed an alternative assay based on the use of inactivated bacteria18,19. We refer to this as an opsono-adherence assay (OAA) that is not dependent on internalization and killing as assay outputs; instead, adherence of opsonized inactivated pathogens is used as an index of phagocytosis. Mechanistically, OAA is a suitable substitute because adherence occurs a priori and is intimately intertwined with internalization and intracellular killing. From a biosafety perspective, OAA is preferred because it requires minimal handling of an infectious agent, is experimentally of shorter duration than OPKA, and can be performed in BSL-2 laboratories after a stock of the inactivated pathogen has been produced and transferred.
We demonstrate the utilization of OAA to examine the opsonic function of anti-capsule antibodies found in sera of non-human primates (NHPs) vaccinated with a capsule conjugate [i.e. PGGA from B. anthracis conjugated to the outer membrane protein complex (OMPC) of Neisseria meningitides]20. Serum opsonized bacilli were incubated with an adherent mouse macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. After fixation, the cell monolayer and adherent bacilli were imaged by fluorescence microscopy. Bacterial adherence increased when the bacilli were incubated with serum from NHPs vaccinated with the capsule conjugate compared to control serum20. Adherence correlated with survival of the anthrax challenge20,21. Thus, the use of OAA characterized the function of anti-capsule antibodies and greatly facilitated testing of our vaccine candidate.&#160;&#160; &#160;

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1520px;" width="1520">
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		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:380px;">0.20 &#181;m syringe filter (25mm, regenerated cellulose)</td>
			<td style="width:483px;">Corning, Corning, NY</td>
			<td style="width:267px;">431222</td>
			<td style="width:391px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">10 mL syringe (Luer-Lok tip)</td>
			<td>BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ</td>
			<td>302995</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">15&#181; 96 well black plates (plate #1 for imaging)</td>
			<td>In Vitro Scientific, Sunnyvale, CA</td>
			<td>P96-1-N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">16% paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Science, Hatfield, PA</td>
			<td>15710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">75 cm sq. tissue culture treated flask</td>
			<td>Corning, Corning, NY</td>
			<td>430641</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Agar (powder)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>A1296</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Baby Rabbit Complement</td>
			<td>Cedarlane Labs, Burlington, NC</td>
			<td>CL3441</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Bacto Yeast Extract</td>
			<td>BD, Sparks, MD</td>
			<td>288620</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">BBL Brain Heart Infusion (BHI)</td>
			<td>BD, Sparks, MD</td>
			<td>211059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Blood Agar (TSA with Sheep Blood) plates</td>
			<td>Remel, Lenexa, KS</td>
			<td>R01198</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cell scraper</td>
			<td>Sarstedt, Newton, NC</td>
			<td>83.183</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Costar 96 well cell culture plates (plates #2 &#38; 3 for dilutions)</td>
			<td>Corning, Corning, NY</td>
			<td>3596</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cover glass</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Science, Hatfield, PA</td>
			<td>72200-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Difco Nutrient Broth</td>
			<td>BD, Sparks, MD</td>
			<td>234000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), high glucose</td>
			<td>Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td>11965-092</td>
			<td>contains 4500 mg/L glucose, 4 mM L-glutamine, Phenol Red</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">EVOS FL Auto Cell Imaging System (fluorescence microscope)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td>AMAFD1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Hyclone, GE Healthcare Life Sciences, South Logan, UT</td>
			<td>SH30071.03</td>
			<td>not gamma irradiated, not heat inactivated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fluorescein isothiocyanate</td>
			<td>Invitrogen, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td>F143</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HCS Cell Mask Orange Cell Stain</td>
			<td>Invitrogen, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td>H32713</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">hemocytometer (Improved Neubauer)</td>
			<td>Hausser Scientific, Horsham, PA</td>
			<td>3900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">India Ink solution</td>
			<td>BD, Sparks, MD</td>
			<td>261194</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">L- glutamine (200 mM)</td>
			<td>Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham MA</td>
			<td>25030081</td>
			<td>supplement medium with additional 2mM L-glutamine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U (inverted compound microscope)</td>
			<td>Nikon Instruments, Melville, NY</td>
			<td>TE2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PBS without Calcium or Magnesium</td>
			<td>Lonza, Walkersville, MD</td>
			<td>17-516F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin Solution, 100x</td>
			<td>Hyclone, GE Healthcare Life Sciences, South Logan, UT</td>
			<td>SV30010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">petri dishes (100 x 15 mm)</td>
			<td>Falcon, Corning, Durham, NC</td>
			<td>351029</td>
			<td>for agar plates</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line (Tib47)</td>
			<td>ATCC, Manassas, VA</td>
			<td>ATCC TIB-71</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Slides</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA</td>
			<td>16004-422</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sodium Bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Trypan Blue Solution (0.4%)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>T8154</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Zeiss 700 Laser Scanning Microscopy (confocal microscope)</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss Microimaging, Thornwood, NY</td>
			<td>4109001865956000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

opsono-adherence assay to evaluate functional antibodies in vaccine development against bacillus anthracis and other encapsulated pathogens

The opsono-adherence assay is a functional assay that enumerates the attachment of bacterial pathogens to professional phagocytes. Because adherence is requisite to phagocytosis and killing, the assay is an alternative method to&#160;opsono-phagocytic killing assays. An advantage of the opsono-adherence&#160;assay is the option of using inactivated pathogens and mammalian cell lines, which allows standardization across multiple experiments. The use of an inactivated pathogen in the assay also facilitates work with biosafety level 3 infectious agents and other virulent pathogens. In our work, the opsono-adherence assay was used to assess the functional ability of antibodies, from sera of animals immunized with an anthrax capsule-based vaccine, to induce adherence of fixed Bacillus anthracis to a mouse macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Automated fluorescence microscopy was used to capture images of bacilli adhering to macrophages. Increased adherence was correlated with the presence of anti-capsule antibodies in the serum. Non-human primates that exhibited high serum anti-capsule antibody concentrations were protected from anthrax challenge. Thus, the opsono-adherence assay can be used to elucidate the biological functions of antigen specific antibodies in sera, to evaluate the efficacy of vaccine candidates and other therapeutics, and to serve as a possible correlate of immunity.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;

This section shows representative micrographs collected during an OAA experiment along with results&#160;showing that the OAA can be used to examine the biological function of antibodies. Here, the assay was successfully used to evaluate the efficacy of an anthrax vaccine candidate. It is critical to verify the state of encapsulation on the bacilli as little to no encapsulation causes them to adhere to host cells, producing a high background. Figure 1 is an image of B. anthracis Ame...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens at JoVE.com

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

The opsono-adherence assay is an alternative method to the opsono-phagocytic killing assay to evaluate the opsonic functions of antibodies in vaccine development.

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

The opsono-adherence assay is a functional assay that enumerates the attachment of bacterial pathogens to professional phagocytes. Because adherence is ...

opsono-adherence-assay-to-evaluate-functional-antibodies-vaccine

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

3.3K Views.  United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases. The opsono-adherence assay is an alternative method to the opsono-phagocytic killing assay to evaluate the opsonic functions of antibodies in vaccine development.

Video: Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

Passive Administration of Monoclonal Antibodies Against H. capsulatum and Others Fungal Pathogens

The purpose of the use of this methodology is 1) to advance our capacity to protect individuals with antibody or vaccine for preventing or treating histoplasmosis caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum and 2) to examine the role of virulence factors as target for therapy. To generate mAbs, mice are immunized, the immune responses are assessed using a solid phase ELISA system developed in our laboratory, and the best responder mice are selected for isolation of splenocytes for fusion with hybridoma cells. C57BL/6 mice have been extensively used to study H. capsulatum pathogenesis and provide the best model for obtaining the data required. In order to assess the role of the mAbs in infection, mice are intraperitoneally administered with either mAb to H. capsulatum or isotype matched control mAb and then infected by either intravenous (i.v.), intraperitoneal (i.p.), or intranasal (i.n.) routes. In the scientific literature, efficacy of mAbs for fungal infections in mice relies on mortality as an end point, in conjunction with colony formin units (CFU) assessments at earlier time points. Survival (time to death) studies are necessary as they best represent human disease. Thus, efficacy of our intervention would not adequately be established without survival curves. This is also true for establishing efficacy of vaccine or testing of mutants for virulence. With histoplasmosis, the mice often go from being energetic to dead over several hours. The capacity of an intervention such as the administration of a mAb may initially protect an animal from disease, but the disease can relapse which would not be realized in short CFU experiments. In addition to survival and fungal burden assays, we examine the inflammatory responses to infection (histology, cellular recruitment, cytokine responses). For survival/time to death experiments, the mice are infected and monitored at least twice daily for signs of morbidity. To assess fungal burden, histopathology, and cytokine responses, the mice are euthanized at various times after infection. Animal experiments are performed according to the guidelines of the Institute for Animal Studies of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

Passive Administration of Monoclonal Antibodies Against H. capsulatum and Others Fungal Pathogens

C57BL/6 mice have been used to study Hc pathogenesis and provide the best model. We are exploring the potential benefits of humoral immunity against this fungus and generated several mAbs [to histone H2B and a heat shock protein 60kDa] that we tested for their protective efficacy after intraperitoneal administration.

The purpose of the use of this methodology is 1) to advance our capacity to protect individuals with antibody or vaccine for preventing or treating ...

Cell-based Flow Cytometry Assay to Measure Cytotoxic Activity

Cytolytic activity of CD8+ T cells is rarely evaluated. We describe here a new cell-based assay to measure the capacity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells to kill CD4+ T cells loaded with their cognate peptide. Target CD4+ T cells are divided into two populations, labeled with two different concentrations of CFSE. One population is pulsed with the peptide of interest (CFSE-low) while the other remains un-pulsed (CFSE-high). Pulsed and un-pulsed CD4+ T cells are mixed at an equal ratio and incubated with an increasing number of purified CD8+ T cells. The specific killing of autologous target CD4+ T cells is analyzed by flow cytometry after coculture with CD8+ T cells containing the antigen-specific effector CD8+ T cells detected by peptide/MHCI tetramer staining. The specific lysis of target CD4+ T cells measured at different effector versus target ratios, allows for the calculation of lytic units, LU30/106 cells. This simple and straightforward assay allows for the accurate measurement of the intrinsic capacity of CD8+ T cells to kill target CD4+ T cells.

This protocol describes a sensitive, cell-based cytotoxicity assay. By enumerating the decrease in frequency of live target CD4+ T cells in the presence of an increasing number of effector CD8+ T cells, this assay allows for the direct assessment of cytolytic activity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.

Cytolytic activity of CD8+ T cells is rarely evaluated. We describe here a new cell-based assay to measure the capacity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells ...

A High-throughput Compatible Assay to Evaluate Drug Efficacy against Macrophage Passaged Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The early drug development process for anti-tuberculosis drugs is hindered by the inefficient translation of compounds with in vitro activity to effectiveness in the clinical setting. This is likely due to a lack of consideration for the physiologically relevant cellular penetration barriers that exist in the infected host. We recently established an alternative infection model that generates large macrophage aggregate structures containing densely packed M. tuberculosis (Mtb) at its core, which was suitable for drug susceptibility testing. This infection model is inexpensive, rapid, and most importantly BSL-2 compatible. Here, we describe the experimental procedures to generate Mtb/macrophage aggregate structures that would produce macrophage-passaged Mtb for drug susceptibility testing. In particular, we demonstrate how this infection system could be directly adapted to the 96-well plate format showing throughput capability for the screening of compound libraries against Mtb. Overall, this assay is a valuable addition to the currently available Mtb drug discovery toolbox due to its simplicity, cost effectiveness, and scalability.

A High-throughput Compatible Assay to Evaluate Drug Efficacy against Macrophage Passaged Mycobacterium tuberculosis

New models and assays that would improve the early drug development process for next-generation anti-tuberculosis drugs are highly desirable. Here, we describe a quick, inexpensive, and BSL-2 compatible assay to evaluate drug efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis that can be easily adapted for high-throughput screening.

The early drug development process for anti-tuberculosis drugs is hindered by the inefficient translation of compounds with in vitro activity to ...

Generation of Monoclonal Antibodies Against Natural Products

The analysis of the bioactive components present in foods and natural products has become a popular area of study in many fields, including traditional Chinese medicine and food safety/toxicology. Many of the classical analysis techniques require expensive equipment and/or expertise. Notably, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have become an emerging method for the analysis of foods and natural products. This method is based on antibody-mediated detection of the target components. However, as many of the bioactive components in natural products are small (&lt;1,000 Da) and do not induce an immune response, creating monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against them is often difficult. In this protocol, we provide a detailed explanation of the steps required to generate mAbs against target molecules as well as those needed to create the associated indirect competitive (ic)ELISA for the rapid analysis of the compound in multiple samples. The procedure describes the synthesis of the artificial antigen (i.e., the hapten-carrier conjugate), immunization, cell fusion, monoclonal hybridoma preparation, characterization of the mAb, and the ELISA-based application of the mAb. The hapten-carrier conjugate was synthesized by the sodium periodate method and evaluated by MALDI-TOF-MS. After immunization, splenocytes were isolated from the immunized mouse with the highest antibody titer and fused with the hypoxanthine-aminopterin-thymidine (HAT)-sensitive mouse myeloma cell line Sp2/0 -Ag14 using a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based method. The hybridomas secreting mAbs reactive to the target antigen were screened by icELISA for specificity and cross-reactivity. Furthermore, the limiting dilution method was applied to prepare monoclonal hybridomas. The final mAbs were further characterized by icELISA and then utilized in an ELISA-based application for the rapid and convenient detection of the example hapten (naringin (NAR)) in natural products.

This article provides a detailed protocol for the preparation and evaluation of monoclonal antibodies against natural products for use in various immunoassays. This procedure includes immunization, cell fusion, indirect competitive ELISA for positive clone screening, and monoclonal hybridoma preparation. The specifications for antibody characterization using MALDI-TOF-MS and ELISA analyses are also provided.

The analysis of the bioactive components present in foods and natural products has become a popular area of study in many fields, including traditional ...

Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental procedure in which phagocytic cells are co-cultured with bacterial units. The immune cells will phagocytose and kill the bacterial cultures in a complement-dependent manner. The efficiency of the immune-mediated cell killing is dependent on a number of factors and can be used to determine how different bacterial cultures compare with regard to resistance to cell death. In this way, the efficacy of potential immune-based therapeutics can be assessed against specific bacterial strains and/or serotypes. In this protocol, we describe a simplified OPKA that utilizes basic culture conditions and cell counting to determine bacterial cell viability after co-culture with treatment conditions and HL-60 immune cells. This method has been successfully utilized with a number of different pneumococcal serotypes, capsular and acapsular strains, and other bacterial species. The advantages of this OPKA protocol are its simplicity, versatility (as this assay is not limited to antibody treatments as opsonins), and minimization of time and reagents to assess basic experimental groups.

This opsonophagocytic killing assay is used to compare the ability of phagocytic immune cells to respond to and kill bacteria based on different treatments and/or conditions. Classically, this assay serves as the gold&#160;standard for assessing effector functions of antibodies raised against a bacterium as opsonin.

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental ...

Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Intestinal Organoids to Study and Modify Epithelial Cell Protection Against Salmonella and Other Pathogens

The intestinal &#8216;organoid&#8217; (iHO) system, wherein 3-D structures representative of the epithelial lining of the human gut can be produced from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and maintained in culture, provides an exciting opportunity to facilitate the modeling of the epithelial response to enteric infections. In vivo, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) play a key role in regulating intestinal homeostasis and may directly inhibit pathogens, although the mechanisms by which this occurs are not fully elucidated. The cytokine interleukin-22 (IL-22) has been shown to play a role in the maintenance and defense of the gut epithelial barrier, including inducing a release of antimicrobial peptides and chemokines in response to infection.
We describe the differentiation of healthy control hiPSCs into iHOs via the addition of specific cytokine combinations to their culture medium before embedding them into a basement membrane matrix-based prointestinal culture system. Once embedded, the iHOs are grown in media supplemented with Noggin, R-spondin-1, epidermal growth factor (EGF), CHIR99021, prostaglandin E2, and Y-27632 dihydrochloride monohydrate. Weekly passages by manual disruption of the iHO ultrastructure lead to the formation of budded iHOs, with some exhibiting a crypt/villus structure. All iHOs demonstrate a differentiated epithelium consisting of goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, Paneth cells, and polarized enterocytes, which can be confirmed via immunostaining for specific markers of each cell subset, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and quantitative PCR (qPCR). To model infection, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium SL1344 are microinjected into the lumen of the iHOs and incubated for 90 min at 37 &#176;C, and a modified gentamicin protection assay is performed to identify the levels of intracellular bacterial invasion. Some iHOs are also pretreated with recombinant human IL-22 (rhIL-22) prior to infection to establish whether this cytokine is protective against Salmonella infection.

Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Intestinal Organoids to Study and Modify Epithelial Cell Protection Against Salmonella and Other Pathogens

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived intestinal organoids offer exciting opportunities to model enteric diseases in vitro. We demonstrate the differentiation of hiPSCs into intestinal organoids (iHOs), the stimulation of these iHOs with cytokines, and the microinjection of Salmonella Typhimurium into the iHO lumen, enabling the study of an epithelial invasion by this pathogen.

The intestinal &#8216;organoid&#8217; (iHO) system, wherein 3-D structures representative of the epithelial lining of the human gut can be produced from ...

In Vitro ELISA Test to Evaluate Rabies Vaccine Potency

The growing global concern for the animal welfare is encouraging manufacturers and the National Control Laboratories (OMCLs) to follow the 3Rs strategy for the Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement of the laboratory animal testing. The development of in vitro approaches is recommended at the WHO and European levels as alternatives to the NIH test for evaluating the rabies vaccine potency. At the surface of the rabies virus (RABV) particle, trimers of glycoprotein constitute the major immunogen to induce Viral Neutralizing Antibodies (VNAbs). An ELISA test, where Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies (mAb-D1) recognize the trimeric form of the glycoprotein, has been developed to determine the contents of the native folded trimeric glycoprotein along with the production of the vaccine batches. This in vitro potency test demonstrated a good concordance with the NIH test and has been found suitable in collaborative trials by RABV vaccine manufacturers and OMCLs. Avoidance of animal use is an achievable objective in the near future.
The method presented is based on an indirect ELISA sandwich immunocapture using the mAb-D1 which recognizes the antigenic sites III (aa 330 to 338) of the trimeric RABV glycoprotein, i.e., the immunogenic RABV antigen. mAb-D1 is used for both coating and detection of glycoprotein trimers present in the vaccine batch. Since the epitope is recognized because of its conformational properties, the potentially denatured glycoprotein (less immunogenic) cannot be captured and detected by the mAb-D1. The vaccine to be tested is incubated in a plate sensitized with the mAb-D1. Bound trimeric RABV glycoproteins are identified by adding the mAb-D1 again, labeled with peroxidase and then revealed in the presence of substrate and chromogen. Comparison of the absorbance measured for the tested vaccine and the reference vaccine allows for the determination of the immunogenic glycoprotein content.

Here we describe an indirect ELISA sandwich immunocapture to determine the immunogenic glycoprotein contents in rabies vaccines. This test uses a neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody (mAb-D1) recognizing glycoprotein trimers. It is an alternative to the in vivo NIH test to follow the consistency of vaccine potency during production.

The growing global concern for the animal welfare is encouraging manufacturers and the National Control Laboratories (OMCLs) to follow the 3Rs strategy ...

Use of an Influenza Antigen Microarray to Measure the Breadth of Serum Antibodies Across Virus Subtypes

The influenza virus remains a significant cause of mortality worldwide due to the limited effectiveness of currently available vaccines. A key challenge to the development of universal influenza vaccines is high antigenic diversity resulting from antigenic drift. Overcoming this challenge requires novel research tools to measure the breadth of serum antibodies directed against many virus strains across different antigenic subtypes. Here, we present a protocol for analyzing the breadth of serum antibodies against diverse influenza virus strains using a protein microarray of influenza antigens.
This influenza antigen microarray is constructed by printing purified hemagglutinin and neuraminidase antigens onto a nitrocellulose-coated membrane using a microarray printer. Human sera are incubated on the microarray to bind antibodies against the influenza antigens. Quantum-dot-conjugated secondary antibodies are used to simultaneously detect IgG and IgA antibodies binding to each antigen on the microarray. Quantitative antibody binding is measured as fluorescence intensity using a portable imager. Representative results are shown to demonstrate assay reproducibility in measuring subtype-specific and cross-reactive influenza antibodies in human sera.
Compared to traditional methods such as ELISA, the influenza antigen microarray provides a high throughput multiplexed approach capable of testing hundreds of sera for multiple antibody isotypes against hundreds of antigens in a short time frame, and thus has applications in sero-surveillance and vaccine development. A limitation is the inability to distinguish binding antibodies from neutralizing antibodies.

We present a protocol for using a protein microarray constructed by printing influenza antigens onto nitrocellulose-coated slides to simultaneously probe serum for multiple antibody isotypes against over 250 antigens from different virus strains, thus allowing measurement of the breadth of serum antibodies across virus subtypes.

The influenza virus remains a significant cause of mortality worldwide due to the limited effectiveness of currently available vaccines. A key challenge ...

Determination of Chemical Inhibitor Efficiency against Intracellular Toxoplasma Gondii Growth Using a Luciferase-Based Growth Assay

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan pathogen that widely affects the human population. The current antibiotics used for treating clinical toxoplasmosis are limited. In addition, they exhibit adverse side effects in certain groups of people. Therefore, discovery of novel therapeutics for clinical toxoplasmosis is imperative. The first step of novel antibiotic development is to identify chemical compounds showing high efficacy in inhibition of parasite growth using a high throughput screening strategy. As an obligate intracellular pathogen, Toxoplasma can only replicate within host cells, which prohibits the use of optical absorbance measurements as a quick indicator of growth. Presented here is a detailed protocol for a luciferase-based growth assay. As an example, this method is used to calculate the doubling time of wild-type Toxoplasma parasites and measure the efficacy of morpholinurea-leucyl-homophenyl-vinyl sulfone phenyl (LHVS, a cysteine protease-targeting compound) regarding inhibition of parasite intracellular growth. Also described, is a CRISPR-Cas9-based gene deletion protocol in Toxoplasma using 50 bp homologous regions for homology-dependent recombination (HDR). By quantifying the inhibition efficacies of LHVS in wild-type and TgCPL (Toxoplasma cathepsin L-like protease)-deficient parasites, it is shown that LHVS inhibits wild-type parasite growth more efficiently than &#916;cpl growth, suggesting that TgCPL is a target that LHVS binds to in Toxoplasma. The high sensitivity and easy operation of this luciferase-based growth assay make it suitable for monitoring Toxoplasma proliferation and evaluating drug efficacy in a high throughput manner.

Determination of Chemical Inhibitor Efficiency against Intracellular Toxoplasma Gondii Growth Using a Luciferase-Based Growth Assay

Presented here is a protocol to evaluate the inhibition efficacy of chemical compounds against in vitro intracellular growth of Toxoplasma gondii using a luciferase-based growth assay. The technique is used to confirm inhibition specificity by genetic deletion of the corresponding target gene. The inhibition of LHVS against TgCPL protease is evaluated as an example.

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan pathogen that widely affects the human population. The current antibiotics used for treating clinical toxoplasmosis are ...

Measuring Naturally Acquired Phagocytosis-Inducing Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum Parasites by a Flow Cytometry-Based Assay

The protocol describes how to set up and run a flow cytometry-based phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) opsonized by naturally acquired IgG antibodies specific for VAR2CSA. VAR2CSA is the parasite antigen that mediates the selective sequestration of IEs in the placenta that can cause a severe form of malaria in pregnant women, called placental malaria (PM). Protection from PM is mediated by VAR2CSA-specific antibodies that are believed to function by inhibiting placental sequestration and/or by opsonizing IEs for phagocytosis. The assay employs late-stage-synchronized IEs that have been selected in vitro to express VAR2CSA, plasma/serum-antibodies from women with naturally acquired PM-specific immunity, and the phagocytic cell line THP-1. However, the protocol can easily be modified to assay the functionality of antibodies to any parasite antigen present on the IE surface, whether induced by natural exposure or by vaccination. The assay offers simple and high-throughput evaluation, with good reproducibility, of an important functional aspect of antibody-mediated immunity in malaria. It is, therefore, useful when evaluating clinical immunity to P. falciparum malaria, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the tropics, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Measuring Naturally Acquired Phagocytosis-Inducing Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum Parasites by a Flow Cytometry-Based Assay

The overall goal of this protocol is to provide instruction on how to measure the capacity of antibodies present in sera or plasma of individuals, naturally exposed to Plasmodium falciparum infection, to opsonize and induce phagocytosis of the parasite-infected erythrocytes (IEs).

The protocol describes how to set up and run a flow cytometry-based phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) opsonized by ...