The authors would like to acknowledge that this research has received funding from the European Union&#8217;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme for the PATROLS project, under grant agreement No.760813

<ol>
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I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aflatoxin+B1:+A+review+on+metabolism,+toxicity,+occurrence+in+food,+occupational+exposure,+and+detoxification+methods.">Aflatoxin B1: A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food, occupational exposure, and detoxification methods.</a> Food and Chemical Toxicology. 124, 81-100 (2019).</li><li>Kermanizadeh, A., Brown, D. M., Moritz, W., Stone, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+importance+of+inter-individual+Kupffer+cell+variability+in+the+governance+of+hepatic+toxicity+in+a+3D+primary+human+liver+microtissue+model.">The importance of inter-individual Kupffer cell variability in the governance of hepatic toxicity in a 3D primary human liver microtissue model.</a> Scientific Reports. 9, 7295 (2019).</li><li>Berger, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+Liver+Cell+Models+Using+the+Basel+Phenotyping+Cocktail.">Comparison of Liver Cell Models Using the Basel Phenotyping Cocktail.</a> Frontiers in Pharmacology. 7, 443 (2016).</li><li>Ramaiahgari, S. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+3D+in+vitro+model+of+differentiated+HepG2+cell+spheroids+with+improved+liver-like+properties+for+repeated+dose+high-throughput+toxicity+studies.">A 3D in vitro model of differentiated HepG2 cell spheroids with improved liver-like properties for repeated dose high-throughput toxicity studies.</a> Archives of Toxicology. , (2014).</li><li>Li, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+affecting+the+in+vitro+micronucleus+assay+for+evaluation+of+nanomaterials.">Factors affecting the in vitro micronucleus assay for evaluation of nanomaterials.</a> Mutagenesis. 32 (1), 151-159 (2016).</li><li>Kirkland, D., Reeve, L., Gatehouse, D., Vanparys, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+core+in+vitro+genotoxicity+battery+comprising+the+Ames+test+plus+the+in+vitro+micronucleus+test+is+sufficient+to+detect+rodent+carcinogens+and+in+vivo+genotoxins.">A core in vitro genotoxicity battery comprising the Ames test plus the in vitro micronucleus test is sufficient to detect rodent carcinogens and in vivo genotoxins.</a> Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis. 721 (1), 27-73 (2011).</li><li>Curcio, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mass+transfer+and+metabolic+reactions+in+hepatocyte+spheroids+cultured+in+rotating+wall+gas-permeable+membrane+system.">Mass transfer and metabolic reactions in hepatocyte spheroids cultured in rotating wall gas-permeable membrane system.</a> Biomaterials. 28, 5487-5497 (2007).</li><li>Glicklis, R., Merchuk, J. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Applications for 3D hepatic models vary considerably depending on the particular biochemical endpoint or adverse outcome pathway being targeted. Each model has its benefits and limitations, from interdonor variation in primary human hepatocyte (PHH) models to reduced cytochrome p450 activity in cell-line based models, but all are valuable in their own right6,12,18,19. When assessing genotoxicity there are limitations in the models compatibility with regulatory approved endpoints such as the in vitro micronucleus assay, as active proliferation is required. This is necessary, as genotoxicity assessment requires the quantification of fixed DNA damage to be assessed post cell division when there is opportunity for DNA repair to correct transient lesions. Unfortunately, highly differentiated hepatocyte (i.e., HepaRG) based spheroids or PHH microtissues, which are deemed to exhibit the most physiologically relevant liver-like characteristics form static (non-proliferative) models12,19,20. As a result, the 3D HepG2 spheroid model presented here provides a suitable, alternative model able to support genotoxicity testing. HepG2 cell-line based spheroids have sufficient actively dividing cells on the outer surface of the spheroids whilst maintaining basic liver-like characteristics, such as albumin and urea production and some CYP450 activity5,12,19. Principally this in vitro liver model has been developed to complement the micronucleus assay, as this is one of the two in vitro assays recommended in the battery for genotoxicity testing8,10,11,21. However, the model can be readily applied to DNA sequencing analysis and gene expression (RNA) technologies, while it has the potential to be further adapted and utilized for other DNA damage endpoints, such as the comet assay. Nonetheless, it is important to consider the role that ENM interference plays in some endpoint analyses. For example, flow cytometry-based analyses may not be suitable for ENM genotoxicity assessment specifically due to particle interference22.
One limiting factor of spheroid models that actively undergo cell division is their size. Optimization of seeding density is critical as there needs to be enough cells that allow the model to continue to proliferate; but not too high a cell number, which results in the spheroid becoming overly compact, leading to an increased necrotic core. The cause of this necrosis is believed to be restricted oxygen and nutrient diffusion, as the limit of this diffusion is thought to be approximately 100 &#8211; 150 &#181;m of tissue23,24. However, this does depend of the cell type, cell number, scaffold interactions and culture conditions25. Since, it has been shown that approximately 700 &#181;m diameter is the limit for avoiding premature onset of necrosis in the center of C3A spheroids, seeding 4000 HepG2 cells per spheroid ensures the diameter of the model at the time of exposure is &#8804;500 &#181;m26. Furthermore, Shah et al. established that HepG2 cells seeded above 5000 cells per spheroid exhibited a 25% reduction in viability following 7 days in culture, which could pertain to the average diameter of 680 &#181;m and limited availability of nutrients in a 20 &#181;L hanging drop5. To overcome this, the model devised in the present protocol undergoes a critical step where the hanging drop is transferred to agarose coated wells following initial formation of the spheroid. This ensures a greater volume of culture medium is present to sustain the ever-growing number of cells within the spheroids. As a result, the HepG2 spheroid model remains over 70% viable following 10 days in culture and can be utilized for long-term hazard assessment in vitro. 
Whilst the HepG2 spheroid model can support both acute and long-term exposure regimes, refreshing cell culture medium during extended culture periods is restricted for this model as complete replacement of the medium is not advised due to the potential loss of the spheroids. It is presumed that with ENM exposures, the tendency for homogenous ENM dispersions to agglomerate and sediment is high. However, it is notable that the rate at which an ENM sediments can vary depending on the particle parameters (e.g., size, shape and density) and can be determined theoretically using the in vitro sedimentation, diffusion and dosimetry (ISDD) model, or its recent derivatives, often referred to when regarding ENM (suspension) exposure approaches27,28. With this is mind, it is assumed that if only 50% of the cell culture medium is carefully removed from the surface of the cell culture, the disruption and subsequent removal of the ENM dose should in theory be minimal. However, with Brownian motion at play, this may not strictly be the case and further work into the deposition and sedimentation of each particular ENM to be tested should be undertaken to ensure the correct dosimetry is retained throughout the long-term exposure regimes27. Principally this is a potential limitation to consider when performing repeated dosing regimes as this could be critical to the final, accumulated concentration. Chemical based exposures on the other hand, whilst not without their own limitations to consider, offer a more simplistic approach in that chemical substances tend to remain in solution and thus a direct replacement of the original chemical concentration in addition to the newly added concentration ensures that any chemical lost during media refreshment is replaced accordingly29. Future applications would include evaluating the suitability of the model for repeated exposure regimes over long-term culture periods as repeated dosing strategies are crucially important for assessing the ability of a particular organ system to ameliorate or overcome the adverse effects, if any, induced by bioaccumulation of a xenobiotic substance.
In conclusion, this 3D in vitro hepatic model has the capacity to be utilized for evaluating a range of realistic exposure scenarios, thereby providing a future in vitro approach to better support both ENM and chemical hazard assessment in a routine and easily accessible manner.

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/61141/advanced-3d-liver-models-for-vitro-genotoxicity-testing-following">Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure</a>. The Representative Results section&#160;was updated.
Figure 6 in the Representative Results section was updated from:
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig6.jpg" />
to:
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig6v5.jpg" />
The fourth paragraph in the Representative Results section was updated from:
With the inevitable development of a necrotic core, a known limitation of 3D liver spheroid cultures, the viability of this HepG2 based model had to be established to demonstrate it was able to sustain long-term (5-10 day) exposure regimes whilst maintaining the proliferative capability required to support the micronucleus assay5. Indeed, this 3D liver spheroid model has been shown to retain &#62;70% viability over 10 days in culture. Based on this and in conjunction with the sustained liver-like functionality observed over the &#8805;14 day culture period, this 3D liver spheroid model can thus support long-term, repeated ENM exposure regimes up to 10 days long (i.e., before viability of the spheroids drop below 70%). For reference, it is advised that albumin levels for HepG2 spheroids seeded at 4000 cells/spheroid should be &#8805;0.06 mg/mL whilst urea production should be &#8805;0.4 ng/&#181;L before conducting an in vitro toxicological assessment with this model.
to:
With the inevitable development of a necrotic core, a known limitation of 3D liver spheroid cultures, the viability of this HepG2 based model had to be established to demonstrate it was able to sustain long-term (5-10 day) exposure regimes whilst maintaining the proliferative capability required to support the micronucleus assay5. Indeed, this 3D liver spheroid model has been shown to retain &#62;70% viability over 10 days in culture. Based on this and in conjunction with the sustained liver-like functionality observed over the &#8805;14 day culture period, this 3D liver spheroid model can thus support long-term, repeated ENM exposure regimes up to 10 days long (i.e., before viability of the spheroids drop below 70%). For reference, it is advised that albumin levels for HepG2 spheroids seeded at 4000 cells/spheroid should be &#8805;50.0&#160;ng/&#956;L whilst urea production should be &#8805;0.25&#160;ng/&#181;L before conducting an in vitro toxicological assessment with this model.

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/61141/advanced-3d-liver-models-for-vitro-genotoxicity-testing-following">Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure</a>. The Representative Results section&#160;was updated.

Erratum: Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure

Due to the rapid development and implementation of a diverse array of engineered nanomaterials (ENM) across a plethora of human-based applications (e.g., food, cosmetics, clothing, sporting equipment, electronics, transport and medicine), it is inevitable that humans will be exposed to ENM on a regular basis. With this, there are heightened concerns that the novel, size specific physio-chemical characteristics that deem these materials advantageous in numerous applications could cause adverse effects upon human health and the environment concomitantly. Currently many&#160;international activities are in place&#160;to actively reflect more physiologically relevant exposures to these ENM and assess the potential toxicity&#160;of these materials over acute, long-term, and repeated low-dose exposure scenarios.
Hepatic toxicology is key when considering ENM exposure, as it is widely known that the liver is a major site of ENM accumulation post exposure1,2. Moreover, the liver is the primary organ system for metabolism and detoxification of substances that enter systemic circulation3. Based upon the accepted understanding that 2D hepatocyte models do not accurately mimic the complexities of intricate multicellular interactions or appropriately represent metabolic activity observed in vivo, a greater focus into developing robust and physiologically relevant in vitro 3D liver models for in vivo substitute technologies has been established4,5. Utilizing advanced 3D culture technologies improves the longevity of in vitro hepatic models allowing for long term, repeated exposure regimes to be investigated. Additionally, this advanced culture format promotes the formation of enhanced physiological, organotypic features such as bile canaliculi, active transporter processes and improved CYP450 drug metabolizing capabilities, thus improving the predictivity of the models6. Current 3D in vitro hepatic models consisting of mono-cultures (hepatocytes only) or co-cultures (hepatocytes with nonparenchymal cells) exist in several formats, ranging from microtissues or spheroids in ultralow adhesion plates, hanging drop spheroids, cells embedded in matrices and/or scaffolds and microfluidic cell culture platforms, all of which are deemed effective advanced in vitro models for hepatic toxicity assessment6,7. However, the majority of these model systems are high maintenance, require specialized equipment and are expensive. Furthermore, these models are often static (i.e., nondividing cell models) that prevents their use in the assessment of hazard endpoints, such as genotoxicity testing utilizing methods that quantify fixed DNA damage. Genotoxicity is a core prerequisite in regulatory toxicology, and it is a vital component of the risk assessment of any toxicant8. There is no single assay that can be applied to quantify all forms of DNA damage that may arise following exposure to an exogenous agent. However, a core component of the in vitro genotoxicity testing battery is the micronucleus assay, which is a reliable and multifacetted technique that measures gross chromosomal damage9. It is a gold standard technique described by the OECD Test Guideline 487, for assessing in vitro DNA damage and genotoxicity and is part of the test battery requirement for regulatory hazard assessment10,11.
The human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line, HepG2, is used widely for initial hazard assessment screening as the cells are readily available, relatively inexpensive to source, simple to culture and amenable to high throughput screening12,13. When cultured into 3D spherical structures, they have been shown to recapitulate the liver microenvironment well and offer a hepatic model with sufficient proliferative capabilities to support the micronucleus assay3. Further development of the HepG2 spheroid models was established to improve the longevity and liver-like functionality of the model in order to support genotoxicity hazard assessment over long-term, repeated exposure regimes (&#8804;14 days). Thus, in line with the principles of the 3Rs to replace, reduce and refine animal experimentation, the present protocol has been established to provide an advanced 3D in vitro hepatic model capable of reliably evaluating multiple toxicological endpoints (e.g., liver functionality, (pro-)inflammatory markers, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity) following acute, long-term and repeated chemical and ENM exposures in a routine and easily accessible manner.
Here, we present a method to establish a physiologically relevant 3D hepatocyte cell line based in vitro model system for genotoxicity hazard assessment following acute or long-term, repeated ENM exposures. The protocol can be broken down into 6 key stages: culturing cryopreserved HepG2 cells; HepG2 spheroid preparation; HepG2 spheroid transfer from hanging drop to agarose suspension; HepG2 spheroid harvest; micronucleus assay and scoring; and data analysis.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1088px;" width="1088">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Aflotoxin B1</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">A6636-5MG</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>A9539-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Autoclave Tape</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">BCG Albumin Assay</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>MAK124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Bovine Serum Albumin Powder</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>A9418</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Cell Freezing Aid</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, UK</td>
			<td>5100-0001 - Mr Frosty</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810 R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Cytochalasin B</td>
			<td>Merck, UK</td>
			<td>250233</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Cytology Metal Clips</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Cytospin 4 Centrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">ThermoFisher Scientific, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">CM00730202</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">DMEM with 4.5g/L D-Glucose, L-Glutamine</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>41965-039</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">DMEM, phenol-red free with 4.5g/L D-Glucose, L-Glutamine with Hepes</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>21063-029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">DPX Mounting Medium</td>
			<td>FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td>D/5330/05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Ethanol</td>
			<td>FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td>10048291</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">FBS</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>10270-106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Filter Cards for Shandon Cytospin</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">15995742</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Frosted Glass Slides</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">ThermoFisher Scientific, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Giemsa&#39;s Stain Improved R66 Solution, Gurr</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals, UK</td>
			<td>MFCD00081642</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Glass Coverslips (24 x 60)</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Deckglaser, VWR</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">ECN631-1575</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Haemocytometer and Coverslip</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Immersion Oil for Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss, UK</td>
			<td>518F, ISO8034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Laminar Class II Tissue Culture Hood</td>
			<td>Scanlaf Mars</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Light Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Zeiss, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">Axiovert 40C</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Liquid Nitrogen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Methanol</td>
			<td>FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td>10284580</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Microwave</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Non-Filtered, Sterile 200&#181;l and 1000&#181;l Pipette tips</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">NuncMicroWell 96-Well Microplates</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">ThermoFisher Scientific, Denmark</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">167008</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">P1000 and P200 micropipettes</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">P300 and P50 multi-channel pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">PBS pH 7.4 1X, MgCl2 and CaCl2 Free</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>14190-094</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Pen/Strep</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>15140-122, Penicillin/Strepmyocin 100X or 10,000U/ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Phosphatase Buffer Tablets</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>10582-013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Pipette Boy</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Simport Scientific CytoSep Funnels for Shandon Cytospin 4 Centrifuges</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">11690581</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Sonifier SFX 550 240V CE 1/2&#34; - Probe</td>
			<td>Branson, USA</td>
			<td>101-063-971R</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">T-25 and T-75 Tissue Culture Flask</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">T-25 (690175) and T-75 (660175)</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Trypan Blue Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>T8154-100mL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Urea Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>MAK006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Virkon Disinfectant</td>
			<td>DuPont, UK</td>
			<td>Rely+On Virkon</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Water Bath (37&#730;C)</td>
			<td>Grant JBNova 18</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">Weighing Balance</td>
			<td style="width:168px;"></td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Xylene</td>
			<td>FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td>10588070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">0.05% Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>GIBCO, Paisley, UK</td>
			<td>5300-054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">0.2mL and 1.0mL Eppendorf Tubes</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">0.45&#181;m Filter Unit</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Millex HA, MF-Millipore, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">SLHA033SS</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">1.0mL Syringe</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">BD Plastipak, FisherScientific, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">300185</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">20mL LS Scintillation Glass Vials, 22-400 Foil Lined PP Caps</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">DWK Life Sciences GmbH, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">WHEA986581</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">37&#730;C and 5% CO2 ISO Class 5 Hepa Filter Incubator</td>
			<td>NUAIRE DHD Autoflow</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:409px;">3mL Pasteur Pipette</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">50mL Conical Falcon Tubes</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">50mL or 100mL Glass Bottles</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">50mL Skirted Falcon Tubes</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">5mL, 10mL and 25mL Pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">9.4cm Square, Petri Dish</td>
			<td style="width:168px;">Greiner-Bio-One, UK</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">688161</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

advanced 3d liver models for in vitro genotoxicity testing following long-term nanomaterial exposure

Due to the rapid development and implementation of a diverse array of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), exposure to ENM is inevitable and the development of robust, predictive in vitro test systems is essential. Hepatic toxicology is key when considering ENM exposure, as the liver serves a vital role in metabolic homeostasis and detoxification as well as being a major site of ENM accumulation post exposure. Based upon this and the accepted understanding that 2D hepatocyte models do not accurately mimic the complexities of intricate multi-cellular interactions and metabolic activity observed in vivo, there is a greater focus on the development of physiologically relevant 3D liver models tailored for ENM hazard assessment purposes in vitro. In line with the principles of the 3Rs to replace, reduce and refine animal experimentation, a 3D HepG2 cell-line based liver model has been developed, which is a user friendly, cost effective system that can support both extended and repeated ENM exposure regimes (&#8804;14 days). These spheroid models (&#8805;500 &#181;m in diameter) retain their proliferative capacity (i.e., dividing cell models) allowing them to be coupled with the &#8216;gold standard&#8217; micronucleus assay to effectively assess genotoxicity in vitro. Their ability to report on a range of toxicological endpoints (e.g., liver function, (pro-)inflammatory response, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity) has been characterized using several ENMs across both acute (24 h) and long-term (120 h) exposure regimes. This 3D in vitro hepatic model has the capacity to be utilized for evaluating more realistic ENM exposures, thereby providing a future in vitro approach to better support ENM hazard assessment in a routine and easily accessible manner.

Suitability of this cell-line based 3D liver spheroid model for long-term culture and genotoxic hazard assessment was evaluated by conducting baseline characterization to determine the viability and liver-like functionality of the model over the duration of 14 days in culture as well as its applicability for the micronucleus assay.
Baseline Characterization of the 3D HepG2 Liver Spheroid Model 
Prior to any in vitro toxicological assessment, it is important to check that the 3D HepG2 spheroids have formed properly before performing the agarose transfer or chemical/ENM treatment. HepG2 spheroids produced using the hanging drop method usually take 2 - 3 days post seeding (4000 cells/spheroid) to form compact, spherical shaped spheroids with an average diameter of 495.52 &#181;m W x 482.69 &#181;m H as shown in Figure 5A-5C. HepG2 spheroids that have formed correctly and are acceptable to be used for in vitro toxicological assessment must have a compact, spherical shaped structure with a smooth surface and no visual projections. Figure 5 provides examples of good quality (Figure 5D-F) and a poor quality (Figure 5G-I) spheroids. The latter of which should be discarded. Typically, 90-95% of spheroids formed per plate will form correctly and be viable for further experimentation.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Light microscopy images displaying the natural morphology of the HepG2 spheroids formed via the hanging drop method. (A-C) show Day 2 and (D-I) Day 4 HepG2 liver spheroids post seeding. (D-F) are examples of good quality HepG2 spheroids whilst (G-I) shows poorly formed spheroids. All images were taken on a X20 objective using a microscope. The scale bar represents 20 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
To further confirm HepG2 spheroid viability, a basic colorimetric Bromocresol Green Albumin (BCG) Assay or Urea Assay can be performed to assess their liver-like functionality. Liver-like functionality was assessed in line with viability using the Trypan Blue Exclusion Assay over a 14 day culture period to determine the longevity of the liver spheroid model and establish if it could support long-term or repeated ENM/chemical based hazard assessment (Figure 6). Albumin concentration remained consistent over the duration of the culture period. Urea production displays an increase in the concentration of urea produced per spheroid over a week in culture before reaching a plateau by day 7. It is important to note that the levels of albumin and urea produced in the 3D HepG2 spheroids are substantially higher than that observed in the same cell line cultured in a 2D format. Indeed, 2D cultures of HepG2 cells, peak albumin and urea levels were 0.001 mg/mL and 0.010 ng/&#181;L respectively. Furthermore, in previous work published by Shah et al. using an almost identical HepG2 spheroid system, the authors highlight a notable improvement in metabolic activity (CYP1A1 and CYP1A2) in the 3D HepG2 in vitro model systems when compared to the 2D cultured HepG2 cells5.
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig6v5.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: 14-Day baseline characterisation data for HepG2 liver spheroids. Following transfer from hanging drop, (A) highlights the viability of the HepG2 spheroid model over a 14 day period whilst (B) and (C) highlight the liver-like albumin and urea functionality respectively. Mean data &#177; SEM presented, n = 4. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig6v5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
With the inevitable development of a necrotic core, a known limitation of 3D liver spheroid cultures, the viability of this HepG2 based model had to be established to demonstrate it was able to sustain long-term (5-10 day) exposure regimes whilst maintaining the proliferative capability required to support the micronucleus assay5. Indeed, this 3D liver spheroid model has been shown to retain &#62;70% viability over 10 days in culture. Based on this and in conjunction with the sustained liver-like functionality observed over the &#8805;14 day culture period, this 3D liver spheroid model can thus support long-term, repeated ENM exposure regimes up to 10 days long (i.e., before viability of the spheroids drop below 70%). For reference, it is advised that albumin levels for HepG2 spheroids seeded at 4000 cells/spheroid should be &#8805;20.0&#160;ng/&#181;L whilst urea production should be &#8805;0.25 ng/&#181;L before conducting an in vitro toxicological assessment with this model.
Genotoxicity Assessment of Engineered Nanomaterials 
For genotoxicity assessment, the micronucleus assay was used to determine the presence of micronuclei following both acute (24 h) and long-term (120 h) ENM exposures. Aflatoxin B1 is a known liver carcinogen16,17 and is a recommended positive control for the micronucleus assay. Optimization experiments have shown that 0.1 &#181;M of Alfatoxin B1 induces a significant positive (&#8805;2.0 fold increase) genotoxic response in 3D HepG2 liver spheroids and thus is used in every micronucleus assay conducted with this model. To ensure the validity of the micronucleus assay results using the HepG2 spheroid model, the background micronucleus frequency for HepG2 cells used in this 3D in vitro model should lie within a range of 0.6% &#8211; 1.2%. As a result, Alfatoxin B1 should induce a genotoxic response of at least two-fold higher than that seen with the negative control; thus, 0.1 &#181;M of Alfatoxin B1 should induce a micronuclei frequency between 1.5% &#8211; 3.0%. Using these control parameters, ENM associated genotoxicity in vitro can then be reliably assessed. Based on OECD Test Guideline 487, it is important to note that when testing an ENM or chemical, the concentrations selected should not induce more than 55% &#177; 5% cytotoxicity (indicated by a reduction in CPBI or RVCC values in relation to the negative control)11. Figure 7 illustrates the data generated when Aflatoxin B1 and two ENMs (titanium dioxide (TiO2) and sliver (Ag)) were evaluated following both acute and long-term exposures in the HepG2 spheroids, and subsequent genotoxic potential was analyzed using the micronucleus assay. Both ENMs assessed were tested at a noncytotoxic, low dose of 5.00 &#181;g/mL over an acute (24 h) exposure and long-term (120 h) exposure regime. A similar trend for genotoxicity across both TiO2 and Ag ENMs can be observed, whereby the elevated genotoxicity response that resulted following 24 h exposure was not evident after a long-term 5 day exposure. This was despite sustained genotoxicity induced by the Aflatoxin B1 positive control at both time-points.
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: Genotoxicity assessment following TiO2 and Ag ENM exposure on HepG2 liver spheroids. Genotoxicity (micronucleus frequency) assessment using the micronucleus assay post (A) acute (24 hour) and (B) long-term (120 hour) exposure to 5.00 &#181;g/mL of TiO2 and Ag ENM. Negative control is a media only, whilst the positive control is 0.1 &#181;M of Aflatoxin B1. Mean data (n=2) presented &#177; SD. Significance indicated in relation to the negative control: * = p&#8804; 0.05. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61141/61141fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure at JoVE.com

Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure

This procedure was established to be used for developing advanced 3D hepatic cultures in vitro, which can provide a more physiologically relevant assessment of the genotoxic hazards associated with nanomaterial exposures over both an acute or long-term, repeated dose regimes.

Due to the rapid development and implementation of a diverse array of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), exposure to ENM is inevitable and the development of ...

advanced-3d-liver-models-for-vitro-genotoxicity-testing-following

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

6.5K Views.  Swansea University Medical School. This procedure was established to be used for developing advanced 3D hepatic cultures in vitro, which can provide a more physiologically relevant assessment of the genotoxic hazards associated with nanomaterial exposures over both an acute or long-term, repeated dose regimes.

Video: Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure

In vitro Cell Culture Model for Toxic Inhaled Chemical Testing

Cell cultures are indispensable to develop and study efficacy of therapeutic agents, prior to their use in animal models. We have the unique ability to model well differentiated human airway epithelium and heart muscle cells. This could be an invaluable tool to study the deleterious effects of toxic inhaled chemicals, such as chlorine, that can normally interact with the cell surfaces, and form various byproducts upon reacting with water, and limiting their effects in submerged cultures. Our model using well differentiated human airway epithelial cell cultures at air-liqiuid interface circumvents this limitation as well as provides an opportunity to evaluate critical mechanisms of toxicity of potential poisonous inhaled chemicals. We describe enhanced loss of membrane integrity, caspase release and death upon toxic inhaled chemical such as chlorine exposure. In this article, we propose methods to model chlorine exposure in mammalian heart and airway epithelial cells in culture and simple tests to evaluate its effect on these cell types.

In vitro Cell Culture Model for Toxic Inhaled Chemical Testing

This protocol is designed to demonstrate exposure method of cell cultures to inhaled toxic chemicals. Exposure of differentiated air-liquid&#160;interface (ALI) cultures of airway epithelial cells provides a unique model of airway exposure to toxic gases such as chlorine. In this manuscript we describe effect of chlorine exposure on air-liquid&#160;interface cultures of epithelial cells and submerged culture of cardiomyocytes. In vitro exposure systems allow important mechanistic studies to evaluate pathways that could then be utilized to develop novel therapeutic agents.

Cell cultures are indispensable to develop and study efficacy of therapeutic agents, prior to their use in animal models. We have the unique ability to ...

Impact Assessment of Repeated Exposure of Organotypic 3D Bronchial and Nasal Tissue Culture Models to Whole Cigarette Smoke

Cigarette smoke (CS) has a major impact on lung biology and may result in the development of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or lung cancer. To understand the underlying mechanisms of disease development, it would be important to examine the impact of CS exposure directly on lung tissues. However, this approach is difficult to implement in epidemiological studies because lung tissue sampling is complex and invasive. Alternatively, tissue culture models can facilitate the assessment of exposure impacts on the lung tissue. Submerged 2D cell cultures, such as normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cell cultures, have traditionally been used for this purpose. However, they cannot be exposed directly to smoke in a similar manner to the in vivo exposure situation. Recently developed 3D tissue culture models better reflect the in vivo situation because they can be cultured at the air-liquid interface (ALI). Their basal sides are immersed in the culture medium; whereas, their apical sides are exposed to air. Moreover, organotypic tissue cultures that contain different type of cells, better represent the physiology of the tissue in vivo. In this work, the utilization of an in vitro exposure system to expose human organotypic bronchial and nasal tissue models to mainstream CS is demonstrated. Ciliary beating frequency and the activity of cytochrome P450s (CYP) 1A1/1B1 were measured to assess functional impacts of CS on the tissues. Furthermore, to examine CS-induced alterations at the molecular level, gene expression profiles were generated from the tissues following exposure. A slight increase in CYP1A1/1B1 activity was observed in CS-exposed tissues compared with air-exposed tissues. A network-and transcriptomics-based systems biology approach was sufficiently robust to demonstrate CS-induced alterations of xenobiotic metabolism that were similar to those observed in the bronchial and nasal epithelial cells obtained from smokers.

The aim of this protocol is to expose human organotypic 3D bronchial and nasal tissue models to mainstream cigarette smoke (CS) at the air-liquid interface. The impact of CS on the tissues is then investigated using a cytochrome P450 activity assay, a cilia beating measurement, and a systems biology approach.

Cigarette smoke (CS) has a major impact on lung biology and may result in the development of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ...

The Multi-organ Chip - A Microfluidic Platform for Long-term Multi-tissue Coculture

The ever growing amount of new substances released onto the market and the limited predictability of current in vitro test systems has led to a high need for new solutions for substance testing. Many drugs that have been removed from the market due to drug-induced liver injury released their toxic potential only after several doses of chronic testing in humans. However, a controlled microenvironment is pivotal for long-term multiple dosing experiments,&#160;as even minor alterations in extracellular conditions may greatly influence the cell physiology. We focused within our research program on the generation of a microengineered bioreactor, which can be dynamically perfused by an on-chip pump and combines at least two culture spaces for multi-organ applications. This circulatory system mimics the in vivo conditions of primary cell cultures better and assures a steadier,&#160;more quantifiable extracellular relay of signals to the cells. 
For demonstration purposes, human liver equivalents, generated by aggregating differentiated HepaRG cells with human hepatic stellate cells in hanging drop plates, were cocultured with human skin punch biopsies for up to 28 days inside the microbioreactor. The use of cell culture inserts enables the skin to be cultured at an air-liquid interface, allowing topical substance exposure. The microbioreactor system is capable of supporting these cocultures at near physiologic fluid flow and volume-to-liquid ratios, ensuring stable and organotypic culture conditions. The possibility of long-term cultures enables the repeated exposure to substances. Furthermore, a vascularization of the microfluidic channel circuit using human dermal microvascular endothelial cells yields a physiologically more relevant vascular model.

Here, we present a protocol to coculture primary cells, tissue models and punch biopsies in a microfluidic multi-organ chip for up to 28 days. Human dermal microvascular endothelial cells, liver aggregates and skin biopsies were successfully combined in a common media circulation.

The ever growing amount of new substances released onto the market and the limited predictability of current in vitro test systems has led to a high need ...

Eye Irritation Test (EIT) for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial (RhCE) Tissue Model

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and accurate assessment of ocular toxicity in man are needed. To address this need, we have developed an eye irritation test (EIT) which utilizes a three dimensional reconstructed human cornea-like epithelial (RhCE) tissue model that is based on normal human cells. The EIT is able to separate ocular&#160;irritants and corrosives (GHS Categories 1 and 2 combined) and those that do not require labeling (GHS No Category). The test utilizes two separate protocols, one designed for liquid chemicals and a second, similar protocol for solid test articles. The EIT prediction model uses a single exposure period (30 min for liquids, 6 hr for solids) and a single tissue viability cut-off (60.0% as determined by the MTT assay). Based on the results for 83 chemicals (44 liquids and 39 solids) EIT achieved 95.5/68.2/ and 81.8% sensitivity/specificity and accuracy (SS&#38;A) for liquids, 100.0/68.4/ and 84.6% SS&#38;A for solids, and 97.6/68.3/ and 83.1% for overall SS&#38;A. The EIT will contribute significantly to classifying the ocular irritation potential of a wide range of liquid and solid chemicals without the use of animals to meet regulatory testing requirements. The EpiOcular EIT method was implemented in 2015 into the OECD Test Guidelines as TG 492.

Eye Irritation Test EIT for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial RhCE Tissue Model

We have developed an eye irritation test which utilizes a three dimensional reconstructed human cornea-like epithelial (RhCE) tissue model. The test is able to discriminate between ocular irritant and corrosive materials (GHS Categories 1 and 2 combined) and those that do not require labeling (GHS No Category).

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and ...

Improving 2D and 3D Skin In Vitro Models Using Macromolecular Crowding

The glycoprotein family of collagens represents the main structural proteins in the human body, and are key components of biomaterials used in modern tissue engineering. A technical bottleneck is the deposition of collagen in vitro, as it is notoriously slow, resulting in sub-optimal formation of connective tissue and subsequent tissue cohesion, particularly in skin models. Here, we describe a method which involves the addition of differentially-sized sucrose co-polymers to skin cultures to generate macromolecular crowding (MMC), which results in a dramatic enhancement of collagen deposition. Particularly, dermal fibroblasts deposited a significant amount of collagen I/IV/VII and fibronectin under MMC in comparison to controls.
The protocol also describes a method to decellularize crowded cell layers, exposing significant amounts of extracellular matrix (ECM) which were retained on the culture surface as evidenced by immunocytochemistry. Total matrix mass and distribution pattern was studied using interference reflection microscopy. Interestingly, fibroblasts, keratinocytes and co-cultures produced cell-derived matrices (CDM) of varying composition and morphology. CDM could be used as &#34;bio-scaffolds&#34; for secondary cell seeding, where the current use of coatings or scaffolds, typically from xenogenic animal sources, can be avoided, thus moving towards more clinically relevant applications.
In addition, this protocol describes the application of MMC during the submerged phase of a 3D-organotypic skin co-culture model which was sufficient to enhance ECM deposition in the dermo-epidermal junction (DEJ), in particular, collagen VII, the major component of anchoring fibrils. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence of anchoring fibrils in cultures developed with MMC, as compared to controls. This is significant as anchoring fibrils tether the dermis to the epidermis, hence, having a pre-formed mature DEJ may benefit skin graft recipients in terms of graft stability and overall wound healing. Furthermore, culture time was condensed from 5 weeks to 3 weeks to obtain a mature construct, when using MMC, reducing costs.

Improving 2D and 3D Skin In Vitro Models Using Macromolecular Crowding

We present a protocol to obtain cell-derived matrices rich in extracellular matrix proteins, using macromolecular crowders (MMC). In addition, we present a protocol which incorporates MMC in 3D organotypic skin co-culture generation, which reduces culture time while maintaining maturity of construct.

The glycoprotein family of collagens represents the main structural proteins in the human body, and are key components of biomaterials used in modern ...

Visualizing Angiogenesis by Multiphoton Microscopy In Vivo in Genetically Modified 3D-PLGA/nHAp Scaffold for Calvarial Critical Bone Defect Repair

The reconstruction of critically sized bone defects remains a serious clinical problem because of poor angiogenesis within tissue-engineered scaffolds during repair, which gives rise to a lack of sufficient blood supply and causes necrosis of the new tissues. Rapid vascularization is a vital prerequisite for new tissue survival and integration with existing host tissue. The de novo generation of vasculature in scaffolds is one of the most important steps in making bone regeneration more efficient, allowing repairing tissue to grow into a scaffold. To tackle this problem, the genetic modification of a biomaterial scaffold is used to accelerate angiogenesis and osteogenesis. However, visualizing and tracking in vivo blood vessel formation in real-time and in three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds or new bone tissue is still an obstacle for bone tissue engineering. Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) is a novel bio-imaging modality that can acquire volumetric data from biological structures in a high-resolution and minimally-invasive manner. The objective of this study was to visualize angiogenesis with multiphoton microscopy in vivo in a genetically modified 3D-PLGA/nHAp scaffold for calvarial critical bone defect repair. PLGA/nHAp scaffolds were functionalized for the sustained delivery of a growth factor pdgf-b gene carrying lentiviral vectors (LV-pdgfb) in order to facilitate angiogenesis and to enhance bone regeneration. In a scaffold-implanted calvarial critical bone defect mouse model, the blood vessel areas (BVAs) in PHp scaffolds were significantly higher than in PH scaffolds. Additionally, the expression of pdgf-b and angiogenesis-related genes, vWF and VEGFR2, increased correspondingly. MicroCT analysis indicated that the new bone formation in the PHp group dramatically improved compared to the other groups. To our knowledge, this is the first time multiphoton microscopy was used in bone tissue-engineering to investigate angiogenesis in a 3D bio-degradable scaffold in vivo and in real-time.

Visualizing Angiogenesis by Multiphoton Microscopy In Vivo in Genetically Modified 3D-PLGA/nHAp Scaffold for Calvarial Critical Bone Defect Repair

Here, we present a protocol to visualize blood vessel formation in vivo and in real-time in 3D scaffolds by multiphoton microscopy. Angiogenesis in genetically modified scaffolds was studied in a murine calvarial critical bone defect model. More new blood vessels were detected in the treatment group than in controls.

The reconstruction of critically sized bone defects remains a serious clinical problem because of poor angiogenesis within tissue-engineered scaffolds ...

Long-term Live Imaging Device for Improved Experimental Manipulation of Zebrafish Larvae

The zebrafish larva is an important model organism for both developmental biology and wound healing. Further, the zebrafish larva is a valuable system for live high-resolution microscopic imaging of dynamic biological phenomena in space and time with cellular resolution. However, the traditional method of agarose encapsulation for live imaging can impede larval development and tissue regrowth. Therefore, this manuscript describes the zWEDGI (zebrafish Wounding and Entrapment Device for Growth and Imaging), which was designed and fabricated as a functionally compartmentalized device to orient larvae for high-resolution microscopy while permitting caudal fin transection within the device and subsequent unrestrained tail development and re-growth. This device allows for wounding and long-term imaging while maintaining viability. Given that the zWEDGI mold is 3D printed, the customizability of its geometries make it easily modified for diverse zebrafish imaging applications. Furthermore, the zWEDGI offers numerous benefits, such as access to the larva during experimentation for wounding or for the application of reagents, paralleled orientation of multiple larvae for streamlined imaging, and reusability of the device.

This manuscript describes the zWEDGI (zebrafish Wounding and Entrapment Device for Growth and Imaging), which is a compartmentalized device designed to orient and restrain zebrafish larvae. The design permits tail transection and long-term collection of high-resolution fluorescent microscopy images of wound healing and regeneration.

The zebrafish larva is an important model organism for both developmental biology and wound healing. Further, the zebrafish larva is a valuable system for ...

Improved 3D Hydrogel Cultures of Primary Glial Cells for In Vitro Modelling of Neuroinflammation

In the central nervous system, numerous acute injuries and neurodegenerative disorders, as well as implanted devices or biomaterials engineered to enhance function result in the same outcome: excess inflammation leads to gliosis, cytotoxicity, and/or formation of a glial scar that collectively exacerbate injury or prevent healthy recovery. With the intent of creating a system to model glial scar formation and study inflammatory processes, we have generated a 3D cell scaffold capable of housing primary cultured glial cells: microglia that regulate the foreign body response and initiate the inflammatory event, astrocytes that respond to form a fibrous scar, and oligodendrocytes that are typically vulnerable to inflammatory injury. The present work provides a detailed step-by-step method for the fabrication, culture, and microscopic characterization of a hyaluronic acid-based 3D hydrogel scaffold with encapsulated rat brain-derived glial cells. Further, protocols for characterization of cell encapsulation and the hydrogel scaffold by confocal immunofluorescence and scanning electron microscopy are demonstrated, as well as the capacity to modify the scaffold with bioactive substrates, with incorporation of a commercial basal lamina mixture to improved cell integration.

Improved 3D Hydrogel Cultures of Primary Glial Cells for In Vitro Modelling of Neuroinflammation

Herein, we present a protocol for the 3D culture of rat brain-derived glia cells, including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. We demonstrate primary cell culture, methacrylated hyaluronic acid (HAMA) hydrogel synthesis, HAMAphoto-polymerization and cell encapsulation, and sample processing for confocal and scanning electron microscopic imaging.

In the central nervous system, numerous acute injuries and neurodegenerative disorders, as well as implanted devices or biomaterials engineered to enhance ...

Applying Advanced In Vitro Culturing Technology to Study the Human Gut Microbiota

The human gut microbiota plays a vital role in both human health and disease. Studying the gut microbiota using an in vivo model, is difficult due to its complex nature, and its diverse association with mammalian components. The goal of this protocol is to culture the gut microbiota in vitro, which allows for the study of the gut microbiota dynamics, without having to consider the contribution of the mammalian milieu. Using in vitro culturing technology, the physiological conditions of the gastro intestinal tract are simulated, including parameters such as pH, temperature, anaerobiosis, and transit time. The intestinal surface of the colon is simulated by adding mucin-coated carriers, creating a mucosal phase, and adding further dimension. The gut microbiota is introduced by inoculating with the human fecal material. Upon inoculation with this complex mixture of bacteria, specific microbes are enriched in the different longitudinal (ascending, transverse and descending colons) and transversal (luminal and mucosal) environments of the in vitro model. It is crucial to allow the system to reach a steady state, in which the community and the metabolites produced remain stable. The experimental results in this manuscript demonstrate how the inoculated gut microbiota community develops into a stable community over time. Once steady state is achieved, the system can be used to analyze bacterial interactions and community functions or to test the effects of any additives on the gut microbiota, such as food, food components, or pharmaceuticals.

Here, we present a protocol for culturing the gut microbiota of the colon in vitro, using a series of bioreactors that simulate the physiological conditions of the gastro intestinal tract.

The human gut microbiota plays a vital role in both human health and disease. Studying the gut microbiota using an in vivo model, is difficult due to its ...

In Vitro 3D Cell-Cultured Arterial Models for Studying Vascular Drug Targeting Under Flow

The use of three-dimensional (3D) models of human arteries, which are designed with the correct dimensions and anatomy, enables the proper modeling of various important processes in the cardiovascular system. Recently, although several biological studies have been performed using such 3D models of human arteries, they have not been applied to study vascular targeting. This paper presents a new method to fabricate real-sized, reconstructed human arterial models using a 3D printing technique, line them with human endothelial cells (ECs), and study particle targeting under physiological flow. These models have the advantage of replicating the physiological size and conditions of blood vessels in the human body using low-cost components. This technique may serve as a new platform for studying and understanding drug targeting in the cardiovascular system and may improve the design of new injectable nanomedicines. Moreover, the presented approach may provide significant tools for the study of targeted delivery of different agents for cardiovascular diseases under patient-specific flow and physiological conditions.

In Vitro 3D Cell-Cultured Arterial Models for Studying Vascular Drug Targeting Under Flow

Here, we present a new protocol to study and map the targeted deposition of drug carriers to endothelial cells in fabricated, real-sized, three-dimensional human artery models under physiological flow. The presented method may serve as a new platform for targeting drug carriers within the vascular system.

The use of three-dimensional (3D) models of human arteries, which are designed with the correct dimensions and anatomy, enables the proper modeling of ...