Name: identifying the binding proteins of small ligands with the differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (dracala)
Uploaded: 2021-03-19T14:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identifying the Binding Proteins of Small Ligands with the Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay DRaCALA at JoVE.com

The work is supported by an NNF Project Grant (NNF19OC0058331) to YEZ, and the European Union&#8217;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sk&#322;odowska-Curie grant agreement (N&#186; 801199) to MLS.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62331/62331img1.jpg" />

1. Preparation of whole cell lysates
<ol>
	<li>Inoculate the E. coli K-12 ASKA ORFeome collection strains15 into 1.5 mL Lysogeny broth (LB) containing 25 &#181;g/mL chloramphenicol in 96-well deep well plates. Grow overnight (O/N) for 18 h at 30 &#176;C with shaking at 160 rpm. On the next day, add isopropyl &#946;-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) (final 0.5 mM) to the O/N cultures to induce protein expression at 30 &#176;C for 6 h.</li>
	<li>Pellet cells at 500 x g for 10 min....

<ol>
	<li>Kalia, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nucleotide,+c-di-GMP,+c-di-AMP,+cGMP,+cAMP,+(p)ppGpp+signaling+in+bacteria+and+implications+in+pathogenesis.">Nucleotide, c-di-GMP, c-di-AMP, cGMP, cAMP, (p)ppGpp signaling in bacteria and implications in pathogenesis.</a> Chemical Society Reviews. 42 (1), 305-341 (2013).</li><li>Camilli, A., Bassler, B. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+small-molecule+signaling+pathways.">Bacterial small-molecule signaling pathways.</a> Science. 311 (5764), 1113-1116 (2006).</li><li>Luo, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cAMP+capture+compound+mass+spectrometry+as+a+novel+tool+for+targeting+cAMP-binding+proteins:+from+protein+kinase+A+to+potassium/sodium+hyperpolarization-activated+cyclic+nucleotide-gated+channels.">The cAMP capture compound mass spectrometry as a novel tool for targeting cAMP-binding proteins: from protein kinase A to potassium/sodium hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels.</a> Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics. 8 (12), 2843-2856 (2009).</li><li>Nesper, J., Reinders, A., Glatter, T., Schmidt, A., Jenal, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+capture+compound+for+the+identification+and+analysis+of+cyclic+di-GMP+binding+proteins.">A novel capture compound for the identification and analysis of cyclic di-GMP binding proteins.</a> Journal of Proteomics. 75 (15), 4874-4878 (2012).</li><li>Laventie, B. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Capture+compound+mass+spectrometry--a+powerful+tool+to+identify+novel+c-di-GMP+effector+proteins.">Capture compound mass spectrometry--a powerful tool to identify novel c-di-GMP effector proteins.</a> Journal of Visual Experiments. (97), e51404 (2015).</li><li>Roelofs, K. G., Wang, J., Sintim, H. O., Lee, V. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+radial+capillary+action+of+ligand+assay+for+high-throughput+detection+of+protein-metabolite+interactions.">Differential radial capillary action of ligand assay for high-throughput detection of protein-metabolite interactions.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (37), 15528-15533 (2011).</li><li>Zhang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolutionary+adaptation+of+the+essential+tRNA+methyltransferase+TrmD+to+the+signaling+molecule+3+',5+'-cAMP+in+bacteria.">Evolutionary adaptation of the essential tRNA methyltransferase TrmD to the signaling molecule 3 ',5 '-cAMP in bacteria.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 292 (1), 313-327 (2017).</li><li>Corrigan, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+identification+of+conserved+bacterial+c-di-AMP+receptor+proteins.">Systematic identification of conserved bacterial c-di-AMP receptor proteins.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (22), 9084-9089 (2013).</li><li>Roelofs, K. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+identification+of+cyclic-di-GMP+binding+proteins+in+Vibrio+cholerae+reveals+a+novel+class+of+cyclic-di-GMP-binding+ATPases+associated+with+type+II+secretion+systems.">Systematic identification of cyclic-di-GMP binding proteins in Vibrio cholerae reveals a novel class of cyclic-di-GMP-binding ATPases associated with type II secretion systems.</a> PLoS Pathogen. 11 (10), 1005232 (2015).</li><li>Fang, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GIL,+a+new+c-di-GMP-binding+protein+domain+involved+in+regulation+of+cellulose+synthesis+in+enterobacteria.">GIL, a new c-di-GMP-binding protein domain involved in regulation of cellulose synthesis in enterobacteria.</a> Molecular Microbiology. 93 (3), 439-452 (2014).</li><li>Corrigan, R. M., Bellows, L. E., Wood, A., Grundling, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ppGpp+negatively+impacts+ribosome+assembly+affecting+growth+and+antimicrobial+tolerance+in+Gram-positive+bacteria.">ppGpp negatively impacts ribosome assembly affecting growth and antimicrobial tolerance in Gram-positive bacteria.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (12), 1710-1719 (2016).</li><li>Zhang, Y., Zbornikova, E., Rejman, D., Gerdes, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+(p)ppGpp+binding+and+metabolizing+proteins+of+Escherichia+coli.">Novel (p)ppGpp binding and metabolizing proteins of Escherichia coli.</a> Mbio. 9 (2), 02188 (2018).</li><li>Yang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+nucleotide+pGpp+acts+as+a+third+alarmone+in+Bacillus,+with+functions+distinct+from+those+of+(p)+ppGpp.">The nucleotide pGpp acts as a third alarmone in Bacillus, with functions distinct from those of (p) ppGpp.</a> Nature Communications. 11 (1), 5388 (2020).</li><li>Orr, M. W., Lee, V. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+radial+capillary+action+of+ligand+assay+(DRaCALA)+for+high-throughput+detection+of+protein-metabolite+interactions+in+bacteria.">Differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (DRaCALA) for high-throughput detection of protein-metabolite interactions in bacteria.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1535, 25-41 (2017).</li><li>Kitagawa, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complete+set+of+ORF+clones+of+Escherichia+coli+ASKA+library+(A+complete+Set+of+E.+coli+K-12+ORF+archive):+Unique+resources+for+biological+research.">Complete set of ORF clones of Escherichia coli ASKA library (A complete Set of E. coli K-12 ORF archive): Unique resources for biological research.</a> DNA Research. 12 (5), 291-299 (2005).</li><li>Hochstadt-Ozer, J., Cashel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+regulation+of+purine+utilization+in+bacteria.+V.+Inhibition+of+purine+phosphoribosyltransferase+activities+and+purine+uptake+in+isolated+membrane+vesicles+by+guanosine+tetraphosphate.">The regulation of purine utilization in bacteria. V. Inhibition of purine phosphoribosyltransferase activities and purine uptake in isolated membrane vesicles by guanosine tetraphosphate.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 247 (21), 7067-7072 (1972).</li><li>Zhang, Y. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=p)ppGpp+regulates+a+bacterial+nucleosidase+by+an+allosteric+two-domain+switch.">p)ppGpp regulates a bacterial nucleosidase by an allosteric two-domain switch.</a> Molecular Cell. 74 (6), 1239-1249 (2019).</li><li>Wang, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Affinity-based+capture+and+identification+of+protein+effectors+of+the+growth+regulator+ppGpp.">Affinity-based capture and identification of protein effectors of the growth regulator ppGpp.</a> Nature Chemical Biology. 15 (2), 141-150 (2019).</li></ol>

One of the critical steps in performing DRaCALA screening is to obtain good whole cell lysates. First, the tested proteins should be produced in large amounts and in soluble forms. Second, the lysis of cells should be complete, and the viscosity of the lysate must be minimal. The inclusion of lysozyme and the use of three cycles of freeze-thaw are often enough to lyse cells completely. However, the released chromosomal DNA makes the lysate viscous and generates high background binding signal, resulting in false positives...

Bacteria use several small signaling molecules to adapt to constantly changing environments1,2. For example, the autoinducers, N-acylhomoserine lactones and their modified oligopeptides, mediate the intercellular communication among bacteria to coordinate population behavior, a phenomenon known as quorum sensing2. Another group of small signaling molecules is the NSMs, including the widely studied cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), cyclic di-AMP, cyclic di-guanosine monophosphate (cyclic di-GMP), and guanosine penta- and tetra phosphates (p)ppGpp1. Bacteria produce these NSMs as a response to a variety of different stress conditions. Once produced, these molecules bind to their target proteins and regulate several different physiological and metabolic pathways to cope with the encountered stresses and enhance bacterial survival. Therefore, identification of the target proteins is an unavoidable prerequisite for deciphering the molecular functions of these small molecules.
The past decade has witnessed a boom of knowledge of these small signaling molecules, mainly due to several technical innovations that unveiled the target proteins of these small molecules. These include the capture compound technique3,4,5, and the differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (DRaCALA)6 to be discussed in this paper.
Invented by Vincent Lee and co-workers in 20116, DRaCALA deploys the ability of a nitrocellulose membrane to differentially sequester free and protein-bound ligands. Molecules such as proteins cannot diffuse on a nitrocellulose membrane, while small ligands, such as the NSMs, are able to. By mixing the NSM (e.g., ppGpp) with the protein to be tested and spotting them on the membrane, two scenarios can be expected (Figure 1): If (p)ppGpp binds to the protein, the radiolabeled (p)ppGpp will be retained in the center of the spot by the protein and will not diffuse outward, giving an intense small dot (i.e., strong radioactive signal) under a phosphorimager. However, if (p)ppGpp does not bind to the protein, it will diffuse freely outward to produce a large spot with uniform background radioactive signal.
Furthermore, DRaCALA can detect the interaction between a small molecule and an unpurified protein in a whole cell lysate if the protein is present in a sufficient amount. This simplicity allows the use of DRaCALA in rapidly identifying protein targets by using an ORFeome expression library. Indeed, target proteins of cAMP7, cyclic di-AMP8, cyclic di-GMP9,10, and (p)ppGpp11,12,13 have been systematically identified by using DRaCALA. This video article uses (p)ppGpp as an example to demonstrate and describe the critical steps and considerations in performing a successful DRaCALA screening. Of note, a more thorough description of DRaCALA14 is highly recommended to read in combination with this article before performing DRaCALA.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62331/62331fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1:&#160;The principle of DRaCALA. (A) Schematic of the DRaCALA assay. See the text for details. (B) Quantification and calculation of the binding fraction. See the text for details. Briefly, the DRaCALA spots will be analyzed by drawing two circles that circumscribe the whole spot and the inner dark dot (i.e., the retained (p)ppGpp due to the binding of the tested protein). The specific binding signal is the radioactive signal of the inner circle (S1) after subtracting the non-specific background signal (calculated by A1 &#215; ((S2-S1)/(A2-A1))). The binding fraction is the specific binding signal divided by the total radioactive signal (S2). Abbreviations: DRaCALA = Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay; (p)ppGpp = guanosine penta- and tetraphosphates; RT = room temperature. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62331/62331fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>32P-&#945;-GTP</td>
			<td>Perkinelmer</td>
			<td>BLU006X250UC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96 x pin tool</td>
			<td>V&#38;P Scientific</td>
			<td>VP 404</td>
			<td>96 Bolt Replicator, on 9 mm centers, 4.2 mm Bolt Diameter, 24 mm long</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well V-bottom microtiter plate</td>
			<td>Sterilin</td>
			<td>MIC9004</td>
			<td>Sterilin Microplate V Well 611V96</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>OXOID - Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>LP0011</td>
			<td>Agar no. 1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ASKA collection strain</td>
			<td>NBRP, SHIGEN, JAPAN</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ref: DNA Research, Volume 12, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 291&#8211;299. https://doi.org/10.1093/dnares/dsi012</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzonase</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>E1014-25KU</td>
			<td>genetically engineered endonuclease from Serratia marcescens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bradford Protein Assay Dye</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>5000006</td>
			<td>Reagent Concentrate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>D8418</td>
			<td>&#8805;99.9%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNase 1</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>DN25-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>gel filtration10x300 column</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>28990944</td>
			<td>contains 20% ethanol as preservative</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>PanReac AppliChem</td>
			<td>122329.1214</td>
			<td>Glycerol 87% for analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hypercassette</td>
			<td>Amersham</td>
			<td>RPN 11647</td>
			<td>20 x 40 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imidazole</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>56750</td>
			<td>puriss. p.a., &#8805; 99.5% (GC)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IP Storage Phosphor Screen</td>
			<td>FUJIFILM</td>
			<td>28956474</td>
			<td>BAS-MS 2040 20x 40 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl &#946;-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>I6758</td>
			<td>Isopropyl &#946;-D-thiogalactoside</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysogeny Broth (LB)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen - Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>12795027</td>
			<td>Miller&#39;s LB Broth Base</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>L4949</td>
			<td>from chicken egg white; BioUltra, lyophilized powder, &#8805;98%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2 (Magnesium chloride)</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>208337</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MilliQ water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>ultrapure water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>multichannel pipette</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>4661110</td>
			<td>F1 - Clip Tip; 1-10 ul, 8 x channels</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals</td>
			<td>27810</td>
			<td>AnalaR NORMAPUR, ACS, Reag. Ph. Eur.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ni-NTA Agarose</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>30230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrocellulose Blotting Membrane</td>
			<td>Amersham Protran</td>
			<td>10600003</td>
			<td>Premium 0.45 um 300 mm x 4 m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td>OXOID - Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>BR0014G</td>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline (Dulbecco A), Tablets</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEG3350 (Polyethylene glycol 3350)</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>202444</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF)</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>93482</td>
			<td>Phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride solution - 0.1 M in ethanol (T)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphor-imager</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>28955809</td>
			<td>Typhoon FLA-7000 Phosphor-imager</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette Tips, filtered</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>94410040</td>
			<td>ClipTip 12.5 &#956;l nonsterile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-Prep Chromatography column</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>7311550</td>
			<td>polypropylene chromatography column</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease inhibitor Mini</td>
			<td>Pierce</td>
			<td>A32955</td>
			<td>Tablets, EDTA-free</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>screw cap tube</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>3488</td>
			<td>Microcentifuge Tubes, 2.0 ml with screw cap, nonsterile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SLS 96-deep Well plates</td>
			<td>Greiner</td>
			<td>780285</td>
			<td>MASTERBLOCK, 2 ML, PP, V-Bottom, Natural</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spin column</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC500396</td>
			<td>Amicon Ultra -0.5 ml Centrifugal Filters</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5382000015</td>
			<td>Thermomixer C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TLC plate (PEI-cellulose F TLC plates)</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>105579</td>
			<td>DC PEI-cellulose F (20 x 20 cm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>BP152</td>
			<td>Tris Base for Molecular Biology</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween 20</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>P1379</td>
			<td>viscous non-ionic detergent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>M3148</td>
			<td>99% (GC/titration)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

identifying the binding proteins of small ligands with the differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (dracala)

The past decade has seen tremendous progress in the understanding of small signaling molecules in bacterial physiology. In particular, the target proteins of several nucleotide-derived secondary messengers (NSMs) have been systematically identified and studied in model organisms. These achievements are mainly due to the development of several new techniques including the capture compound technique and the differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (DRaCALA), which were used to systematically identify target proteins of these small molecules. This paper describes the use of the NSMs, guanosine penta- and tetraphosphates (p)ppGpp, as an example and video demonstration of the DRaCALA technique. Using DRaCALA, 9 out of 20 known and 12 new target proteins of (p)ppGpp were identified in the model organism, Escherichia coli K-12, demonstrating the power of this assay. In principle, DRaCALA could be used for studying small ligands that can be labeled by radioactive isotopes or fluorescent dyes. The critical steps, pros, and cons of DRaCALA are discussed here for further application of this technique.

Following the above-described protocol will typically yield two types of results (Figure 3).
Figure 3A shows a plate with relatively low background binding signals (binding fractions &#60; 0.025) from the majority of wells. The positive binding signal from the well H3 gives a binding fraction of ~0.35 that is much higher than that observed for the other wells. Even without quantification, well H3 is remarkable, suggesting that a targe...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identifying the Binding Proteins of Small Ligands with the Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay DRaCALA at JoVE.com

Identifying the Binding Proteins of Small Ligands with the Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay DRaCALA

The Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay (DRaCALA) can be used to identify small ligand binding proteins of an organism by using an ORFeome library.

Identifying the Binding Proteins of Small Ligands with the Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay (DRaCALA)

The past decade has seen tremendous progress in the understanding of small signaling molecules in bacterial physiology. In particular, the target proteins ...

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The Rho GTPase family belongs to the Ras superfamily and includes approximately 20 members in humans. Rho GTPases are important in the regulation of ...

Analysis of AtHIRD11 Intrinsic Disorder and Binding Towards Metal Ions by Capillary Gel Electrophoresis and Affinity Capillary Electrophoresis

Plants are strongly dependent on their environment. In order to adjust to stressful changes (e.g., drought and high salinity), higher plants evolve ...

A Semi-High-Throughput Adaptation of the NADH-Coupled ATPase Assay for Screening Small Molecule Inhibitors

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would ...